O&M MANUAL FOR

SEWERAGE SYSTEMS
ENERGY MANAGEMENT AND OPERATION & MAINTENANCE OF 16
SELECTED MCS SERVICES INFRASTRUCTURE ASSETS PROJECT

APRIL 15, 2023

PITCO (PRIVATE) LIMITED

Contents
1. SEWERAGE SYSTEM ............................................................................................................................................ 4
1.1. Introduction ................................................................................................................................................ 4
1.2. Source of wastewater ................................................................................................................................. 4
1.3. Classification of Sewers ............................................................................................................................. 4
1.4. The sewage collection system ................................................................................................................... 5
1.5. Pipe Materials ............................................................................................................................................. 5
1.6. Self-cleansing Velocity ............................................................................................................................... 5
1.7. Manholes ..................................................................................................................................................... 5
1.7.1. Purpose of Manholes ............................................................................................................... 5
1.7.2. Spacing of manholes ................................................................................................................ 6
1.7.3. Manhole covers ........................................................................................................................ 6
1.8. Sewer Joints ................................................................................................................................................. 8
1.9. Bedding Under RCC Pipe ......................................................................................................................... 9
1.9.1. Sand Bedding ........................................................................................................................... 9
1.9.2. Crushed Stone- Class B Bedding ........................................................................................... 9
1.9.3. Concrete Cradle- Class A Bedding ........................................................................................ 9
1.10. House Connections .................................................................................................................................. 9
1.10.1. Proposed SOP for installation of sewer house connection ............................................. 10
1.10.2. Septic Tanks .......................................................................................................................... 10
1.11. Types of gratings .................................................................................................................................... 11
1.11.1. Road Drainage Gullies ........................................................................................................ 11
1.11.2. Trench drain grates .............................................................................................................. 12
1.11.3. Sewer grates (inlet frame) ................................................................................................... 12
1.11.4. Pipe Grates ............................................................................................................................ 13
1.11.5. Maintaining Drainage Gratings ......................................................................................... 13
1.11.6. Fixing the gratings .............................................................................................................. 14
1.12. Types of maintenance of sewerage system ......................................................................................... 14
1.12.1. Necessity of Maintenance ................................................................................................... 14
1.12.2. Objectives of Maintenance .................................................................................................. 15
1.12.3. Preventive Maintenance...................................................................................................... 15
1.13. Major issues in sewerage system .......................................................................................................... 15
1.13.1. Leaking joints: ...................................................................................................................... 16
1.13.2. Corrosion of Sewer Pipes (Crown Failure) ....................................................................... 17
2. SEWER SYSTEM INSPECTION AND EXAMINATION ............................................................................. 22
2.1. Significance of Inspection and Examination ......................................................................................... 22
2.2. Essentials for inspection and examination ............................................................................................ 23
2.2.1. Preliminary inspection .......................................................................................................... 24
2.2.2. Inspection and Examination Types ..................................................................................... 24
2.2.3. Manhole and sewer inspection and examination .............................................................. 26
2.2.4. Judgment of inspection and examination results .............................................................. 37
2.2.5. Record Keeping ....................................................................................................................... 38
3. CLEANING OF SEWER....................................................................................................................................... 43
3.1. Protection of Sewer Systems ................................................................................................................... 43
3.2. Safety Practices ......................................................................................................................................... 43
3.2.1. Safety measures on sewer facilities ..................................................................................... 43
3.2.2. Safety measures before sewer cleaning............................................................................... 45
3.3. Sewer Cleaning ......................................................................................................................................... 48
 3.3.1. Sewer & manhole cleaning procedures suitable for MCs ................................................ 48
3.3.2. Cleaning Equipment and Procedures ................................................................................. 49
3.3.3. Manual cleaning ..................................................................................................................... 49
3.3.4. Mechanical cleaning .............................................................................................................. 50
3.3.5. Maintaining record of cleaning ............................................................................................ 53
3.4. Protection Against Infiltration and Exfiltration ................................................................................... 55
3.4.1. Measures Against Infiltration of Rainwater ....................................................................... 55
3.4.2. Measures Against Exfiltration of Untreated Sewage ........................................................ 55
3.5. Manholes And Appurtenances ............................................................................................................... 56
3.5.1. Checking the current situation ............................................................................................. 57
3.5.2. Damage or wear ..................................................................................................................... 57
3.5.3. Conditions Inside Manhole .................................................................................................. 57
3.6. House Service Connection ...................................................................................................................... 58
3.6.1. Examination of house connection ........................................................................................ 58
3.7. Accidents related to Sewer Facilities ..................................................................................................... 59
3.7.1. Need for Traffic Control........................................................................................................ 59
4. O&M OF DISPOSAL PUMPING STATIONS/LIFT STATIONS................................................................ 60
4.1. Introduction .............................................................................................................................................. 60
4.2. Typical design of a disposal pump station ........................................................................................... 60
4.2.1. Influent Chamber & Channels ............................................................................................. 60
4.2.2. Pump Station Overflow ........................................................................................................ 60
4.2.3. Influent Channels and Bar Screens ...................................................................................... 61
4.2.4. Wet Wells ................................................................................................................................ 61
4.2.5. Pumping station capacities ................................................................................................... 61
4.2.6. Wet Well Design .................................................................................................................... 62
4.2.7. Suction and Discharge Piping .............................................................................................. 65
4.3. Understandings Centrifugal Pumps ...................................................................................................... 66
4.3.1. Understanding Suction Lift of the pump ........................................................................... 66
4.3.2. Understanding Pump Performance .................................................................................... 68
4.4. Affinity Laws - Centrifugal Pumps ........................................................................................................ 76
4.4.1. Wastewater Pumps used in current project of PMDFC.................................................... 76
4.4.2. Supervision of operation ....................................................................................................... 77
4.4.3. Increased wear due to dry running Damage to the pump set! ........................................ 78
4.4.4. While the pump is in operation, observe and check the following points: .................... 78
4.4.5. Visual inspection through the inspection hole .................................................................. 78
4.4.6. Risk of injuries, damage to the pump! ................................................................................ 78
4.4.7. Undesirable Operations ........................................................................................................ 78
4.5. Maintenance of Pumping Station ........................................................................................................... 80
4.5.1. O&M of Bar Screen ................................................................................................................ 80
4.5.2. Cleaning of wet well .............................................................................................................. 82
4.5.3. Penstock / Sluice Gate ........................................................................................................... 83
4.5.4. Sump/Intake well Maintenance ........................................................................................... 84
4.5.5. Pump House Maintenance ................................................................................................... 85
4.5.6. Tools And Testing Instruments ........................................................................................... 85
4.5.7. Pumps Maintenance: ............................................................................................................. 86
4.5.8. Trouble shooting .................................................................................................................... 98
1. SEWERAGE SYSTEM
1.1. Introduction
In engineering parlance, operation refers to daily operation of the components of a sewerage system such
as collection system, pumping stations, pumping mains, and equipment, etc., in an effective manner by
various technical personnel, and is a routine function. The term maintenance is defined as the art of keeping
the structures, plants, machinery and equipment and other facilities in optimum working order.
Maintenance includes preventive maintenance or corrective maintenance, mechanical adjustments, repairs,
corrective action and planned maintenance.
The infrastructures which need to be addressed are as follows:
• Sewage collection System including house service connections and manholes
• Pumping Stations
• Pumping Mains
Some of the key issues contributing to the poor Operation & Maintenance have been identified as follows:
i. Lack of finance, inadequate data on Operation & Maintenance
ii. Inadequate training of personnel
iii. Lesser attraction of maintenance jobs in career planning
iv. Lack of performance evaluation and regular monitoring
v. Inadequate emphasis on preventive maintenance
vi. Lack of operation manuals
vii. Lack of appreciation of the importance of facilities by the community
viii. Lack of real time field information etc.
ix. O&M contractors not having permanent staff.
x. Connection of road gullies to sanitary sewer system, which are major contributors of slit and
floating matter such as plastic bags, wood pieces etc.
xi. Lack of storm sewer system.
xii. Wastage of potable water, due to supply of unmetered water supply at cheap water tariff and free
water connections which add to the load of domestic sewage.
Therefore, there is a need for clear-cut sector policies and legal framework and a clear demarcation of
responsibilities and mandates within the sewerage sub-sector.
1.2. Source of wastewater
Following are the principal sources of waste water
• Domestic
• Industrial
• Storm water
1.3. Classification of Sewers
• Laterals – Sewers that discharge into a secondary or other sewer and have no other tributary; (9-
inch dia).

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 • Secondary Sewers – Also known as branch or sub-main sewers, into which two or more laterals
discharge, carry the flows to the primary collector or interceptor; (9 to 15-inch diameter).
• Primary sewers – Also known as main or trunk sewers, into which laterals and secondary sewers
discharge, carry flows to interceptor or pump station; (18-inch diameter and larger).
• Interceptors – Sewers that receive flows from a number of transverse or tributary sewers, and
conduct such flows to a point for pumping, treatment, or disposal; (similar range of sizes as of
primary sewers.
1.4. The sewage collection system
• Normally lateral sewers are installed in the less populated streets.
• These laterals of many streets terminate into secondary sewers (9-15inch size) on relatively wide
roads.
• Primary sewers – Also known as main or trunk sewers, into which laterals and secondary sewers
discharge, carry flows to interceptor or pump station; (18-inch diameter and larger).
1.5. Pipe Materials
• Reinforced concrete sewer pipes have been in use for sewerage system since long time due to ease in
availability and in a wide range of size.
1.6. Self-cleansing Velocity
• The minimum self-cleansing velocity is kept 2.50 ft/sec in designing of the sewerage system. For
this purpose, the slope of various sizes of pipes is kept as under:
Table 1-1 Slopes of sewer
Sewer size (inches) Minimum slope
9 0.00440
12 0.00300
15 0.00300
18 0.00180
21 0.00140
24 0.00120
27 0.00100
30 0.00090
36 0.00080
42 0.00057
48 0.00048
54 0.00041
60 0.00035
66 0.00031
72 0.00028
1.7. Manholes
1.7.1. Purpose of Manholes
They are provided for:
• Cleaning
• inspection and
• house connection
And they are provided at:
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 • Change in Sewer direction
• Change in sewer diameter
• Change in slope
1.7.2. Spacing of manholes
Manholes are provided in a sewerage system as a mean of access for inspection and cleaning. These are
essentially required at points where there is change in grade, size, direction and at all intersections. Sewers
can be categorized as
(1) Non man entry sewers (9” to 42” i/d)
(ii) Man, entry sewers (48”i/ d and above)
Table 1-2 Manhole spacings
Sewer Size Spacing
9”- 15” dia 50-100ft
18”-27” dia 100-150 ft
30”- 42” dia 150-200 ft
48-60” dia 300-400 ft
66-72” dia 400-500 ft
Conduit sewers 500 ft

1.7.3. Manhole covers

Two types of manhole covers are provided in this project
• RCC for main Roads
• Reinforced plastic composite for small streets because their loading capacity is about 10 ton only.

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 2+2 NO. 1 2" Ø
MANHOLE COVER SURROUND REINFORCEMENT
STRAIGHT BARS AT TOP

1½"
216mm 6 NOS SUPPORT BARS
79mm (BOTH SIDE) 16mm 63mm 63mm 16mm 13 mm Ø EQUALLY SPACED
38mm

CAST IRON TEE SHAPE

32mm

22" FRAME (WEIGHT 37.324 KG) AND WELDED TO C.L FRAME

2"X2"X1 4" M.S
ANGLE IRON FRAME 4X2 REINFORCEMENT

63mm

152mm
MAINTAIN 25 mm SPACING BARS 6mm

2"
5½"
CONCRETE COVER

25mm
7" REINFORCEMENT
2" 2"

64mm
IN ALL LOCATION
AT ALL TIMES R.C.C (1:1½":3) 5 NOS CIRCULAR 13 mm Ø bar

3½"
6 NOS SPACING BARS EQUALLY
191mm

CONC. STRENGTH ________ 4000 P.S.I

14" SPACED 13 mm Ø B
159mm

R.C.C 1:1½:3 560 mm DIA

1068 mm DIA
4+4 NO.1/2" Ø BENT UP
BARS AT BOTTOM SECTION C-C
SECTION AT C-C (BOTH SIDES) SCALE 1:5 cm
32mm 82mm

OUTER CIRCULAR REINFORCEMENT 4X2

BAR 13 mm Ø SPACING BARS 6 mm Ø
2"X2"X1 4" M.S
ANGLE IRON FRAME
MIDDLE CIRCULAR SUPPORT BARS AT TOP A
BAR 13 mm Ø & SPACING BARS AT BOTTOM
B EQUALLY SPACED 13 mm Ø
mm

OF M.I STEP C C

RM
INNER CIRCULAR

EA
BAR 13 mm Ø
1:5

RAM
NOTCH

C.I F
2"X2" 4+4 NO.1/2" Ø BENT UP
BARS AT BOTTOM
560 mm OPENING OF MANHOLE
(BOTH SIDES)
2+2 NO.1/2" Ø
STRAIGHT BARS AT TOP
(BOTH SIDES)
c C.I FRAME
c
1/4" 4-3/4" 4" 4" 4" 4-3/4" 1/4"
22"

PLAN-R.C.C. MANHOLE COVER 22"Ø

SCALE . 1:9

DETAIL OF CAST IRON FRAMEFigure 1-1 Manhole cover1 R.C.C SURROUND FOR M.H COVER BASE
SCALE 1:8
NET WEIGHT WHEN CASTED 37.324 kg
SCALE 1:10 820mm
63 mm

16.0mm
B 63.0mm 718mm
102.0mm
1 Source: WASA Lahore design criteria 560.0mm 686mm
152mm Page | 7
25.0mm
51 mm

SECTION 16mm 16mm

NOTE:
 Figure 1-2 Manhole covers frame2
1.8. Sewer Joints
• For RCC pipe sewers rubber gasket joints are used, pipe ends being bell and spigot or tongue and
groove design.

Figure 1-3 Bell and spigot joint

2 Source: WASA Lahore design criteria

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 Figure 1-4 Tongue and groove design

• Leakage Tests should be carried out for newly constructed sewers, by water testing.
1.9. Bedding Under RCC Pipe
If sewer is simply laid by placing the pipe on flat trench bottom, the pipe will not be able to support the load
significantly greater than the “Three Edge Bearing test”. However, if bedding touches at least lower quadrant
of sewer and backfill material is carefully tempted, the supporting strength of pipe significantly increases.
Load factors represent this increase in strength.

Load Factor = Load Carrying Capacity/ 3-Edge bearing strength

1.9.1. Sand Bedding

In this project sand bedding is used under sewers having less size than 24 inch.

1.9.2. Crushed Stone- Class B Bedding

Dry rammed crushed stone bedding will be used for RCC pipe sewers of size 24” i/d and large in dry
conditions. The thickness will be 3” below the pipe up to 27” i/d, 4” up to 60” i/d & 6” thickness for sewer
size 66” i/d and above. A load factor of 1.9 may be used.
1.9.3. Concrete Cradle- Class A Bedding
Concrete cradle bedding will be used for RCC pipe sewers below the water table level. The concrete used
should be of specified quality and strength. The concrete cradle should be properly shaped and designed
specifically proportioned to amply protect and strengthen the sewer pipe. Generally, a load factor of 3.0
may be used for RCC sewers with concrete cradle bedding.
1.10. House Connections
Common practice is to run the house sewers to manholes in the main sewer line. In densely built-up areas,
there are numerous connections discharging into each manhole, consideration has, therefore, been given
to closer spacing of manholes in lateral and secondary sewers (50ft to 100 ft for 9” to 15” i/d sewers)

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normally having shallow depth. For deeper sewers where closely, spaced manholes are not economical
shallow sidewalk junction boxes can be provided ultimately connected to a sewer manhole3.
1.10.1. Proposed SOP for installation of sewer house connection
(1) Following documents may be provided with the connection form:
• Attested photocopy of CNIC
• Attested photocopy of sale deed/proof of ownership
• Copy of the assessment (Excise Dept.) specify the dept. instead of giving abbreviations.
• Site Plan to indicate location of property.
(2) The MC Maintenance staff issues the New Connection Form after the submission of an application
(A written consent of the owner giving his attested copy of valid CNIC)
(3) This new connection form also includes the connection agreement between the consumer and MC.
The Officer In charge after site verification and arrears report sends form to the concerned Revenue
Section for issuance of demand notice/challan. The concerned section will return the new
connection form along with the security challan. Next the Officer In charge after recovery of security
will order the installation of a new sewer connection and will return the new connection form (after
filling in the installation date) along with security paid challan for billing purposes. An estimated
advance bill for 6 Moths is included in the challan which is later adjusted in the monthly bills.
(4) For House property of 12 Marla or more construction of septic tank of approved design is
mandatory. The wastewater from his house/property will first enter into the septic tank and then
from septic tank to Mc, s sewer/drain.
(5) No one without seeking written consent of the Engineer shall commence any work. The Engineer on
behalf of the MC may discontinue the use of or demolish any obstruction, private connection pipe
drains or sewer.
1.10.2. Septic Tanks

Septic Tanks shall be provided in the residential and commercial buildings. All the sullage water of the
buildings shall be connected to the septic tank and then to the public sewer.

The minimum sizes of septic tanks for residential plots will be as follows:

Table 1-3 Minimum size of septic tank4

Plot size Depth Length Width

Less than 1Kanal 4 ft-3inches (1.29m) 8 ft (2.44m) 4ft (1.22m)

1-Kanal to 2 Kanal 4 ft-3in (1.29m) 9 ft (2.74m) 4 ft- 6inches

Above 2-Kanal 4 ft-3inches (1.29m) 10 ft (3.05m) 5ft (1.52m)

• Size of septic tanks for commercial and public buildings shall be as per requirements of Public
Health Department.
• The roof of every building and floor of balcony abutting a street or constructed over a street shall
be drained by means of down take pipes.

3 Source: WASA Lahore design criteria

4 Amended_Building_Regulations_2019_with_amendment_approved_till_28_01_2020
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1.11. Types of gratings
In Government sector (Punjab)the Gully gratings are used as per following design:
Providing and fixing M.S Grating comprising of Angle Iron frame size 1.50” x 1.50” x 3/16” and ½” square
bars duly welded @ 4” c/c, including painting charges etc complete in all respect.
In AJK the design is as under:
Gully grating shall be provided on the road junctions by means of a 9-inch dia. RCC sewer pipe connecting
the nearest manhole with the chamber of size l ft.– 6 inches x 1 ft. – 6 inches. The pipe is laid in such a
manner that other services such as water supply and sewerage system are not disturbed or interfered.
Gullies fall into two main categories; road gullies and domestic gullies.
1.11.1. Road Drainage Gullies

Figure 1-5 Road grating

Road gullies, as the name would suggest, are designed to discharge surface water from roads and
highways, where often large volumes of surface water can build-up. Road gullies are designed to be much
more robust than domestic gullies, in order to withstand the heavier trafficked environments in which they
are installed. These are most commonly made from concrete or HDPE.
1.11.1.1. Hydraulic efficiency
A storm grate’s first job is to move surface water into the sewer system. The size and shape of the grating is
what determines their hydraulic efficiency. Varying situations change the rate of flow of a grate: a drainage
grate at the bottom of a pool processes water differently than one on the side of the road. The open area of
a grate, design of the holes, acceleration of water due to gravity, depth of water, and perimeter length of
the grate all determine how much surface water a sewer grate can remove.

1.11.1.2. Debris removal or passthrough

Grates should strain out the sort of debris that can clog a sewer system like the fall of large leaves in the
autumn. At the same time, small particles should generally pass through, so they do not clog the grate itself.

1.11.1.3. Strength and resilience

Most storm drain grates are made from cast iron, for both strength and resilience. Strength is necessary in
any place the grates will be driven over by cars and trucks: there are even extra heavy-duty grates
appropriate for airports and shipping docks. Resilience is the grate’s ability to withstand weathering over
time with minimal maintenance. Cast iron is often chosen because it develops a patina that prevents
destructive corrosion from setting in.

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 Figure 1-6 Various types of gully gratings in open market

1.11.2. Trench drain grates

Trench drain is long, narrow, linear drain that works as small collection capillaries in a sewer system.
Trench can often be spotted in pedestrian spaces, stretching across sidewalks and driveways, through
plazas, and edging green spaces.

Standard trench grates have a greater hydraulic capacity than heel-proof grates. They are a better choice
for places where silt or clay might clog a small slot.

Figure 1-7 Trench grating

1.11.3. Sewer grates (inlet frame)

Sewer grates are the most recognized storm water management grates urban landscape, positioned in
gutters between curb and roadway. They come in many different shapes and sizes. The different lattices
available offer different hydraulic capacity and debris straining while removing water from the street.

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1.11.4. Pipe Grates

Figure 1-8 Pipe grating

a) Diagonal alignment (average water flow)

In tests of drain clearing capacity given different slopes and water volumes, diagonal drains are the middle
of the pack. Vane and sinusoidal grates clear 0.1-0.5 cubic feet per second (cfs) more in most conditions;
horizontal and vertical drains clear 0.1-0.15 cfs less.

Figure 1-9 Diagonal grating

b) Horizontal alignment or cross-drain (lower water flow)

Horizontal alignment or cross-drain systems are slightly more efficient than standard vertical systems but
may be more troublesome for bicycles.

c) Vertical alignment or standard (lower water flow)

For many cities with low flood risk, vertically aligned storm drain grates are the standard system. They are
often easier for bicycles to ride over.5

1.11.5. Maintaining Drainage Gratings

(a) Visual inspection of the gratings:
• Check the gratings of drainage channels for mechanical damage and/or clogging by debris
entry
• With bolted gratings, check that all screw and locking handle connections are properly
secured
• Ductile iron gratings can show signs of corrosion. This has no effect on the functioning of
the channel
• During the visual inspection of the channel base and trash boxes through the grating, a
visual check must be made to see whether there is a large amount of debris in the channel
base or in the mud bucket.
• The amount of debris in the channel base can be determined with the help of a folding
ruler which is placed through the grating on the channel base.

5 A guide to storm drain grates https://www.reliance-foundry.com

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 • Removing gratings with narrow openings (e.g. perforated grating) for a visual inspection of
the channel base and trash boxes.
• An inspection camera can be used with monolithic drainage channels or slotted channels.
(b) Cleaning and maintenance of the gratings:
• Coarse debris and solids (e.g. cigarettes, paper, small stones) can be swept away with a
broom.
• Clean the openings of the gratings thoroughly, e.g. with a high-pressure cleaner, to ensure
the drainage function.
• Small stones can be removed with a screwdriver or other pointed object. Care must be
taken not to damage the gratings.
• Cleaning of the channel bodies and trash boxes
1.11.6. Fixing the gratings
The grating can be either screwed or clamped or a combination of both types of fastening.
The following tools can be used to remove the gratings.
• Gratings fixed with a hexagon head screw:
Wrench size 13 and 17
• Gratings which are fixed with a hexagon socket screw:
Wrench size 5 and 6
• When reinserting grating, the maximum tightening torque should not be exceeded:
• Channels with plastic locking handle of nominal widths 100 mm and 150 mm should be
tightened with four turns after the screw has been tightened.
• When screwing the grating with steel locking handles, a maximum tightening torque of 5
Nm must not be exceeded.
1.12. Types of maintenance of sewerage system
There are three types of maintenance of a sewerage system:
• Preventive
• Routine
• Emergency
Preventive or routine maintenance should be carried out to prevent any breakdown of the system and to
avoid emergency operations to deal with clogged sewer lines or overflowing manholes or backing up of
sewage into a house or structural failure of the system. Preventive maintenance is more economical and
provides for reliability in operations of the sewer facilities. Emergency repairs, which would be very rare if
proper maintenance is carried out, well also, have to be provided for. Proper inspection and preventive
maintenance are necessary.
1.12.1. Necessity of Maintenance
Sewer maintenance functions are most often neglected and given attention only as emergency arises.
Adequate budgets are seldom provided for supervision, manpower and equipment, unlike the case for
maintenance of other utilities like electric cables, telephone cables, gas and water mains. Such attitude
towards sewer maintenance is found even in large cities. Considering the health hazards that the public at
large has to face, it is appropriate to provide sufficient funds to take care of men, material, equipment and
machinery required for efficient maintenance.
All efforts should be made to see that there is no failure in the internal drainage system of premises; a serious
health hazard results when sewage backs up through the plumbing fixtures or into the basements. The
householder is confronted with the unpleasant task of cleaning the premises after the sewer line has been
cleaned. Extensive property damage may also occur, particularly where expensive appliances are located in
the basements.
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Maintenance helps to protect the capital investment and ensures an effective and economical expenditure
in operating and maintaining the sewerage facilities. It also helps to build up and maintain cordial relations
with the public, whose understanding and support are essential for the success of the facility.
The sewerage system in Punjab Pakistan is partially combined system meaning storm water is also
disposed of partially through sewerage system.
1.12.2. Objectives of Maintenance
Quality maintenance of sewerage system consists of the optimum use of labour, equipment, and materials
to keep the system in good condition, so that it can accomplish efficiently its intended purpose of collection
and transportation of sewage to the treatment plant.
1.12.3. Preventive Maintenance
Preventive maintenance is a set procedure whereby each component of the system goes through a
systematic check and these components are brought into dependable use. An example can be checking the
volume and consistency of oil in the gearbox after a specified number of hours of operation and correcting
the situation either by topping up or replacing fully as needed. The preventive maintenance issues, checking
parameters and timings are all given by every equipment vendor as a manual. Carrying out these tasks is to
be done by the respective equipment vendor under a separate contract called preventive maintenance
contract and should be delinked from the O&M contract. Most often this is not fully recognized and what
could have been saved by preventive maintenance finally ends up “breakdown repairs.” This situation needs
its importance.

1.13. Major issues in sewerage system

• Solid waste: Solid waste dumping into sewers is the main problem in O&M of sewerage system
efficiently.

Figure 1-10 Solid waste dumping in the sewer

The main causes of this problem are:

• Solid waste: MC does not have capacity to lift all solid waste of the City.
• Social problem: In spite of repeated campaigns people are not aware of consequences of throwing
solid waste into sewers.
• Overflowing Sewers: Undersized sewers, sewers laid by other agencies without proper grade.
• Deterioration of the material due to age factor:
• Attack of hydrogen sulphide: Crown failure

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 • Settlement of bedding: Proper bedding required not used as explained in previous sections.
• leaking joints: A crack or a leaking joint will allow subsoil water and soil to enter the sewer causing
cavities around it leading to slow settlement of foundation and the eventual collapse of the sewer.
• Very often soil with water is carried away below the bedding along the length of the sewer.
• The mushroom growth of private housing schemes in the Cities has created serious sanitation
issues. These schemes dispose of sewage into open fields, water bodies or storm water channels
without considering proper long-term solution of disposal of wastewater.
• Temporary lift stations have become permanent and consequently the storm water channels have
become sewage carriers.
• Receiving Bodies: All the wastewater is being discharged into the rivers without any prior
treatment causing severe environmental issues such as deteriorating water quality, decrease in
number of fishes, damage to the underground water aquifer due to seepage of wastewater and
public nuisance. The deteriorating state of Rivers is further aggravated due to low annual water
flows itself, due to this factor the dilution available in the river has drastically reduced which
eventually increases the concentration of pollutants in the river body.
• Excessive loading, either internally or externally, causes horizontal breaks.
• Breaks caused by internal pressure gives cracks in the sewer while external overload causes the
top of the pipe to crush-
1.13.1. Leaking joints:
• Sewer deterioration begins with initial defects such as overloading of the sewer pipe, which can
result in the sewer cracking. This classic failure features cracks at the crown, springing and invert.
Unfortunately, it is very hard to see the crack in the pipe invert because it is normally under water.
The cracks at the springing are also obscured because at this point, they are in compression.

Figure 1-11 Leaking joints of sewer

Ultimately, the initial failure results in the soil around the pipe being eroded by the infiltration of
ground water and exfiltration of the sewage. This process gradually washes away the fines in the
soil, and over time soil

• A crack or a leaking joint will allow subsoil water and soil to enter the sewer causing cavities
around it leading to slow settlement of foundation and the eventual collapse of the sewer. Very
often soil with water is carried away below the bedding along the length of the sewer.

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 • Support is reduced. When this happens, the pipe starts to deform and eventually the sewer
collapses.
• Leaking joints can also lead to sewer failure. In this case an elastomeric seal could either fail or the
angular deflection could be greater than the joint can withstand. Alternatively, the mortar in a brick
sewer can weaken
• Over time, resulting in the infiltration and exfiltration of groundwater. This leads to the erosion or
loss of ground support and eventually the collapse of the sewer.
• In addition, displaced joints can also cause sewer failure, as can a hole or defect in the sewer. This
type of failure is usually caused by the use of rods to clean the sewer or a third party carrying out an
excavation close to the sewer.

1.13.2. Corrosion of Sewer Pipes (Crown Failure)

1.13.2.1. Corrosion induced by Microbial

Figure 1-12 Corrosion induced by microbial

• In sewer systems, when hydrogen sulfide gas (H2S) emitted from sewage meets condensing
moisture, the process can form sulfuric acid (H2SO4) that corrodes the concrete in sewer pipe
rapidly. This is known as the microbially induced corrosion.
• Acid corrosion causes a gradual loss of concrete, which significantly reduces the service life of
concrete structures in sewer pipes and may lead to crown failure and ultimately the sewer structure
fails to withstand and collapses.
Acid corrosion causes a gradual loss of concrete

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 Figure 1-13 Sewer deterioration due to Corrosion

• As long as an aerobic zone is present in the slime layer, sulfide(H2S) diffusing out of the anaerobic
zone will be oxidized and will not enter the wastewater stream.
• If the oxygen concentration in the stream approaches zero (i.e., < 0.1 mg/I) insufficient oxygen will
be present in the slime to oxidize all of the sulfide diffusing out of the anaerobic zone, and sulfide
will enter the stream.
• If the stream is stationary or moving slowly, local anaerobic conditions may occur near the pipe
wall and some sulphide may escape, even though the DO concentration in the bulk liquid may be
several milligrams per litter.
• When sulphide produced in the slime layer diffuses into a wastewater stream containing Dissolved
Oxygen, sulphide may be oxidized chemically or biochemically. In typical municipal wastewaters,
biological oxidation to thiosulfate is the prevalent mechanism
• H2S and carbon dioxide (CO2) are transported through the biofilm into the wastewater stream
where some is volatilised into the sewer headspace when the pH is below about 8.5. Corrosion of
exposed concrete or metal surfaces occurs from the bacterial oxidation of H2S to sulfuric acid under
aerobic conditions.
• Sulphuric acid (H2SO4) forms as the H2S leaves the wastewater, enters the air in the headspace
between the wastewater and the top (crown) of the sewer pipe, and diffuses into the condensation
present on the crown and walls of the gravity sewer.

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 Figure 1-14 Sulphuric acid formation
1.13.2.2. The Sewer Sulfide Cycle

Figure 1-15 The sewer sulphide cycle

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 • Anaerobic bacteria are present in a thin slime layer on the submerged surface of the sewer pipe.
Sulphate, which exists in wastewater, is converted to Hydrogen sulphide by anaerobic bacteria in
the slime layer.
• The generated Hydrogen sulphide escapes to the exposed sewer atmosphere where it is
transformed to sulphuric acid by aerobic bacteria in the presence of Oxygen.
• The acid reacts with the cementitious sewer pipe, which forms gypsum and causes corrosion.
• The sulfuric acid drips back down into the wastewater where it is neutralized back into sulfate, and
the process begins all over again and termed as the ―Sewer Sulfide Cycle,
1.13.2.3. High alkalinity of new pipe slows down the sulphuric acid formation
• Sulphuric acid formation is initially a slow rate process on new concrete due to the high alkalinity of
the concrete itself (pH ranging from 11 to 13). Thiobacillus (sulphide oxidizing bacteria) are unable
to survive under high pH conditions.
• Aging of the concrete results in a decrease of surface pH to between 7 and 8. At this pH, a different
species of bacteria colonises the concrete surface, further reducing the pH of the condensate to less
than 5.
• From this point corrosion proceeds faster if other environmental agents (H2S, humidity and
temperature) are present.
1.13.2.4. H2S formation is dependent upon pH

Figure 1-16 H2S formation relative to PH concentration

• The amounts of the three-sulphide species present (H2S, HS-, and S2-) are also pH dependent.
• The amount of H2S is very sensitive to pH.
• At a pH of 7, 50% is present as H2S.
• At pH < 5.5, almost all sulphide is H2S (> 97%)
• while at pH > 8.5, less than 3% is present as H2S.

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1.13.2.5. Factors Affecting Sulphide(H2S) Generation in Sewers
Table 1-4 Factors Affecting Sulphide(H2S) Generation in Sewers

Factors Effect

Dissolved oxygen (DO) Low DO favours proliferation of anaerobic bacteria and subsequent sulphide
generation

Biochemical oxygen High soluble BOD encourages microbial growth and DO depletion.
demand (BOD) (organic
strength)

Temperature High temperatures increase microbial growth rate and lowers DO solubility. It has been
reported that the rate of sulphide production is increased 7 percent/°C up to 30°C. This
is approximately equivalent to a doubling of the reaction rate for every 10°C increase
in temperature.

pH Low pH favours shift to dissolved H2S gas.

Presence of sulphur Sulphur compounds are required for sulphide generation. The concentrations of these
compounds compounds can be very significant when they are the result of groundwater and sea-
water infiltration and in some cases due to trade waste.

Hydraulic Drops Can promote H2S release, turbulence and may cause outgassing.

Surcharging Reduces oxygen transfer and promotes sulphide generation, will not corrode while
surcharged. Can also cause foul air release as the sewer headspace is restricted,
causing pressurization and driving air out of the sewer.

Slope, velocity and change Affects degree of reaeration, solids deposition, H2S release, thickness of slime layer.
in direction Note that change in direction can cause similar effects, as velocity suddenly decreases
and turbulence increases.

Accumulated grit and Slows wastewater flow, traps organic solids.

debris

Sewer pipe materials Corrosion resistance of pipe materials varies widely. Porous materials, such as
concrete, favor biofilm attachment, while comparatively less porous materials such as
plastic support a smaller a biofilm and the biofilm is more easily scoured off.

1.13.2.6. Crown Failure Prevention

• The critical dissolved oxygen concentration in the wastewater below which sulphate reduction
(formation of H2S) can occur is 0.1 to 1.0 mg/I. Above 1.O mg/I, sulphate reduction will be
eliminated.
• Presence of DO in the stream will also encourage growth of the aerobic portion of the slime layer,
increasing the distance through which organic matter and sulphate must diffuse to reach the
anaerobic zone.
• Any Hydrogen sulphide produced in the active anaerobic zone is likely to be oxidized as it passes
back through the aerobic zone if Oxygen is sufficient (above 1.O mg/I).
• Controlling the hydraulic retention time in long sewers to avoid anaerobic conditions.
• Adopting strategies to reduce turbulence, ensure that the sewer headspace is not too restricted (and
does not surcharge) and to allow the free flow of sewer air will be required. The reason for this is

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 that restriction in headspace will increase the pressure which will force air out at uncontrolled
locations.
• Managing the release of sewer gases requires effective containment so that gases are only released
at designed locations, such as educts.
• Avoiding gravity sewers with low sewage velocities.
• Clean sewers of settled debris to reduce the area of slime layer and minimize dissolved sulfide
generation.
• Industrial discharges with high concentrations of BOD increases the sulphide formation
1.13.2.7. Measurement and Monitoring of Corrosion
• Regular inspection of the sewer can pinpoint the sewer that needs to be attended to before there
is a complete failure or collapse because it takes a very long time from the onset of the first initial
defect to the collapse of the sewer. The type of break often gives a clue to the cause.
• Acid attack is confined to the interior, unsubmerged portion of the sewer pipe and is heaviest at
the crown and just above the liquid level. Concentrations of sulfuric acid can reach 5 percent and a
high percentage of this acid will react with the exposed surfaces and be neutralized by the
alkalinity of the concrete. An acid attack situation can easily be demonstrated by testing the wall
crust for pH.
• A sewer system map should be prepared for detailed assessment.
• The information should include age, size, 'and types of pipes; slopes of the lines; wastewater flows;
and accurate manhole locations.
• Soft deteriorated concrete should be first chipped away to determine the depth of corrosion
penetration.
• Core samples should be taken to determine wall thickness, alkalinity, and compressive strength at
various locations along the sewer.6

2. SEWER SYSTEM INSPECTION AND EXAMINATION

2.1. Significance of Inspection and Examination
Sewage is supposed to be transported safely through sewer networks from individual discharge to sewage
treatment facilities or final disposal. In order to ensure that both new and old collection systems continue
to fulfil their intended functions, operation and maintenance strategies are developed using information
gathered through inspection and examination. Inspection and testing are essential for:
• Identification of existing or potential issues in the collection system
• Evaluation of the gravity of the identified problems
• Locating the precise position of problem areas
• Provision of concise, transparent, and meaningful reports to supervisors regarding the identified issues
The detection of existing leaks so they can be repaired, and preventing potential leaks in the sewers are the
two main goals of inspection and examination.
Many sewage failures are directly attributable to a mistake made by the designer and a flaw in the
construction process. The structural failure of the sewer may be caused by ageing, degradation of the

6 SA Water: Sewer Network Hydraulic Design Considerations

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sewer's material from attack by hydrogen sulphide or other corrosive chemicals, foundation settlement, and
leaking joints. It takes a very long time from when the first problem appears till the sewer collapses. The
sewer will eventually collapse because of sluggish foundation settling caused by cavities surrounding it
created by subsurface water and soil combination entering the pipe through a crack or leaky joint.
Along the length of the sewer, soil with water is frequently transported away beneath the bedding. The type
of failures frequently provides a hint as to the cause. A clear vertical break in the pipe indicates a shear
failure caused by a poor foundation or ground movement. Horizontal breaks are brought on by excessive
internal or external loading., whereas external overload crushes the top of the pipe, internal pressure breaks
result in cracks in the sewer. Prior to a total breakdown or collapse, routine sewer inspection can identify
the sewer that has to be repaired. The maintenance engineer needs to implement sufficient inspection and
examination programs to prevent the major sewer system damages mentioned above.
2.2. Essentials for inspection and examination
The operation and upkeep of the facilities depend on documents and data that can provide information on
the condition of sewer facilities. However, examination and inspection of the whole data on sewer facilities
that cover a large area can take a tremendous amount of time and money.
It is, therefore, advised to do a preliminary inspection first to more easily gather documents and data that
can be used to prioritize which facilities should be reviewed and inspected, as well as which ones should be
examined and inspected at the end of data collection. The procedure is to first gather the fundamental data
through a preliminary inspection in order to examine and inspect the facilities in a specific length or area of
the sewers, as described below.
The approach for each inspection step is thoroughly explained in the next section. The steps involved are:
➢ Initial Inspection
➢ Inspection and Examination
➢ Evaluation of Inspection Results
➢ Decisions regarding necessary measures for repair, replacement, and modifications

Table 2-1 Initial inspection for newly constructed sewers7

Any other
sewerage
Category/Inspection Manhole Sewer Inverted siphon
infrastructure
stages
First/Initial inspection During the first 3 months of start of Defect Liability Period (DLP) to expose any
inherent/hidden construction deflects

Final inspection During the last 3 months of the DLP.

Additional inspections if Every 2 years after first inspection.

the DLP is greater than 4
years

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 Table 2-2 Initial inspection for manholes & sewers8

Category/Road & Traffic Conditions Manhole Sewer

Roads having heavy & mixed traffic Once a year Once every 2 years

Roads 2m to 5m wide having mixed Once every 2 years Once every 2 years
traffic

Less than 2 m wide lanes/roads Once every 3 years Once every 3 years

Footpaths Once every 2 years Once every 3 years

Table 2-3 Initial inspection for other facilities9

Category Invert siphon Force main and their

appurtenance

Other Facilities Once a year Once a year

If any sewage system components are found to be defective, distressed, or otherwise dysfunctional,
corrective action should be taken right away.
2.2.1. Preliminary inspection
During the preliminary inspection of the sewerage system, subsidence, collapse, and overflows on the roads
on which sewers are laid, should be confirmed. Deformation or damage to facilities, and deposits of sand
and silt are to be confirmed during observation from the manhole. If damage or possibility of damage to the
facility or if any of the abnormalities listed below are confirmed during the preliminary inspection, the facility
manager should examine and inspect the relevant locations for the following:
• Corrosion, wear, damage or crack in the facility
• Water infiltration
• Corrosion of steps, wear of covers, deformation of manhole, buried manhole
• Abnormal odors
• Clogging and overflowing
2.2.2. Inspection and Examination Types
Inspections and tests are required to determine how well the sewers are functioning. Inspection and
examination can be divided into two categories described below.
2.2.2.1. Direct Method
This refers to someone physically assessing the state of a sewer before it is put into service. After a sewer
has been put into operation, this should never be done. Even for brand-new sewers, the interior diameter
must be greater than 2 meters. It is required to take all necessary safety measures when operating in tight
places. It is strictly forbidden to use any tool, even a hammer, to hit the sidewall. Its sole function will be to

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provide a visual indication of how fully formed the pipe joints are. This practice is to be outlawed
permanently once a sewer is put into operation.
2.2.2.2. Indirect Inspection and Examination
These can be classified by a variety of methods as in Table -2.4 below
2.2.2.3. What issues are to be inspected?
• Corrosion, wear, damage or crack in the facility
• Water infiltration
• Corrosion of steps, wear of covers, deformation of manhole, buried manhole
• Abnormal odors
• Clogging and overflowing
Table 2-4 Methods of indirect inspection viable for Mcs10
Technology Sewer type Diameter
Gravity Internal Wall Leakage Remarks
condition

Camera Digital cameras ● 150-1500 ● ● ●

Zoom cameras ● >150 ● ● ●

Push-camera ≤300 ● ● ●

Acoustic In-line leak ● ≥100 ●

detectors

Acoustic ≥450 ●
monitoring
systems

Sonar/ ● ≥50 ● ●
ultrasonic

Even though there are so many technologies available, the technology to be chosen will depend on the
affordability of the user departments. A simpler and applicable technology compilation is as shown in Table
2.5.
Table 2-5 Sewer system inspection technologies most widely used11

No. Technology Application

Sewer Size Sewer Material Sewer Condition

1 Light and Mirror Up to 300 mm Any Empty

2 Closed Circuit Camera Any size Any Empty

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 No. Technology Application

Sewer Size Sewer Material Sewer Condition

3 Sonar Systems Any size Any Fully

flowing

Among all known technologies, the light and mirror are the earliest. Two manholes are opened one after the
other and are suitably vented for roughly an hour. Then, a long hand-held mirror fixed at a 45-degree angle to
the handle is lowered into the bottom of the manhole, and a torch light is directed downward at the mirror such
that the light beam is bent by 90 degrees to pass through the sewer pipe horizontally and be seen in the other
manhole.
Dusk makes this simpler; it can be easily determined if the pipe's bore is blocked, clear, or laid straight.
The closed-circuit camera goes through the sewage and transmits the image of the inside to a TV in the van
using a remote-controlled connected power supply from the van. It is analogous to the sonar system. High
frequency sound waves are emitted by a robot as it travels through the sewage, hitting the pipe surfaces and
reflecting back to the source. This can be programmed to check the structural integrity of the sewer pipe wall
by knowing the material used to build it.
Tree roots piercing the seams and encroaching within the sewers is a traditional issue with stoneware sewers
built through light forest or densely planted terrain. They congeal into a blockage and clog the sewer.
Similarly, sonar surveys, which may offer the frontal image of the wall on a 360-degree vertical spiral around the
horizontal axis, can be used to determine the structural state of old sewers like brick arch sewers and concrete
pipes. Information on the deflection and sidewall breaks of the sewer can also be provided by the system.
2.2.3. Manhole and sewer inspection and examination
The maintenance staff should determine the urgency and the nature of any irregularity that is discovered during
a preliminary internal inspection or that is spotted from the outside before conducting a thorough inspection
and analysis. One or more of the following methods are used to inspect the majority of sewer lines and
manholes.:
2.2.3.1. A. Visual Examination
The visual inspection of a manhole entails visually examining the manhole cover and the surrounding area of
the manholes inside components. The inspector must enter the manhole safely in order to inspect the interior
of the manhole. The status of the following items is the focus of the visual manhole inspection:
• Internal surface of manhole
• Sewer, viewed from the manhole, both on the upstream and downstream sides
• Groundwater infiltration
Either a mirror or a bright light should be used for observation, or a TV camera designed for checking conduits
should be used, to view the interior components of the sewer from the manhole.

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 Figure 2-1 Sewer inspection with light and mirror

Main features of manhole visual inspection:

• High inspection accuracy due to actual observation of the abnormality made by the inspector
• Cheaper than using a TV camera for inspection.
• Inspection findings eventually turn into highly relevant O&M data
The stepwise procedure for manhole visual inspection is described below:
➢ Preparation
➢ Inspection of manhole cover and its surrounding area
➢ Inspection of inside of manhole
➢ Clearance
➢ Work Completion
2.2.3.2. Inspection of manhole using pole-mounted TV camera
A camera and light are attached to the front of an extendable working rod to create a pole-mounted TV camera.
This device is placed into the manhole from the ground, and the inspector there views a monitor and examines
the pipe's internal components through the camera.
Advantages and disadvantages direct visual method versus pole-mounted by TV camera are shown in Table
2.6.
Table 2-6 Direct visual method vs pole-mounted tv-camera: advantages and disadvantages12

Advantages Disadvantages

Observations can be made quickly and easily Scope of inspection is limited to the area
after the inspection. In addition, surrounding the pipe's mouth.
photographs/images of the inspection data
may be recorded.

The inspector's work is safe because it is done above Fine cracks or offset in the horizontal direction cannot
ground, where there is no risk of an oxygen shortage or be seen.
mishaps from falls.

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 Advantages Disadvantages

It is impossible to understand the state of the sewer

pipe's side surfaces (sides cannot be viewed).

2.2.3.3. Closed-Conduit Television Inspection (CCTV)

The most popular, long-lasting, and cost-efficient approach to examine a sewer's internal condition is through
television (TV) inspections. An example of a television inspection is the closed-circuit TV camera, which is
propelled through the sewage by a remote-controlled wired power supply from a van. It travels through the
sewer and transmits the image of the interior to a TV in the van. Sewer lines with a diameter between 150 and
1,200 mm are compatible with CCTV inspections. CCTV inspection is another option for pipes with a bigger
diameter.
CCTV inspection can be employed for various purposes:
• Before accepting the new sewers, demand that a contractor or construction organization fix any
flaws.
• Locate and confirm the precise locations of service connections and other pipe construction points
and update any as-built maps as necessary.
• Determine the order of importance for "as needed" remedial maintenance on old pipes.
• For a preventative maintenance program encompassing a full collection system, ensure the most
efficient and effective use of personnel and resources.
• Check the lateral and branch sewer connections made for health services. Observe such connections
to see if infiltration, roots, debris buildup, and certain internal inflows are negatively impacting the
capacity of sewers.

Figure 2-2 Sewer inspection with camera

CCTV system comprises the following components which are normally included in some sort of permanently
mounted van or trailer:
• Television camera
• Camera light
• Power cable reel and video unit

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 • Television picture monitor
• System power control center or module
• Portablepower source
• Camera carrying skids
• Camera pulling winch
• Camera return winch
• Footage counter
• Sound power telephone communication system
• Float liner pipe stringing line
• VTR equipment with reel
The positioning of CCTV camera should be as close as possible to the center of the pipe. In larger sewers, the
camera and lights are mounted on a raft that is floated from one manhole to the next. The camera and lights
may be rotated both vertically and horizontally to provide a clear view of the features on the sewer walls. In
smaller sewers, the wire and camera are hooked to a sled, to which a parachute or drogue is attached and
floated from one manhole to the next. The detailed operation procedure for CCTV camera inspection is given
below:
➢ Preparation Process
➢ Cleaning Process
➢ Sewer inspection with TV Camera
o identification, evaluation and recording of results
o Report Preparation
➢ Clearance
➢ Work completion
2.2.3.4. Inspecting Water Infiltration
The pipelines and treatment facilities will suffer if penetration of water more closely matches the projected
water flow in the sewerage system.
Additionally, this causes the sewage treatment plant's treatment costs to rise (STP). Either the drainage system
or the pipeline must be adequate to prevent water infiltration.
Determining the route of water penetration and combining cross connection, flow rate, and waterproofing
examinations are therefore necessary. Flow-rate inspections are beneficial because they can gather information
that can be used to improve and modify the pipe facilities.
2.2.3.5. Inspecting Cross Connections
The connection of storm water equipment to the sewers in a different sewage system must be inspected to
ensure this is not the case. The scope of inspection is from the house drainage facility to the main sewage
pipe.
Cross connections can be inspected using three common techniques, including the smoke test, the echo sound
test, and dye test.
a) Smoke Test

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 Figure 2-3 Smoke test

A straightforward procedure known as a smoke test involves pumping significant amounts of air and smoke into
a sanitary sewer line, typically through a manhole. As it follows the path of least resistance, the smoke quickly
reaches locations with surface water inflow.
If there is a route for the smoke to travel to the surface, it will be able to detect fractured mains and laterals,
broken manholes, and even illegal connections. The main lines and laterals can be inspected using smoke
testing. As smoke moves across the system, it spots issues in every connected line, including those that were
previously unknown, believed to be independent, or assumed to be unconnected. Dry weather produces the
best outcomes since it gives smoke a better chance to rise to the surface.
Blower, smoke generator/materials, and other essential equipment are utilized during smoke testing
operations. Both traditional smoke candles and smoke fluids are currently available for smoke tests. Each piece
of equipment is described below:
A blower device is typically a squirrel cage blower with a belt drive and a gasoline engine. Usual blower capacity
is between 3,000 and 5,000 m3/hr. The blower's base has a rubber gasket underneath it, allowing it to set over
and blow air into an open manhole.
smoke candles: To utilize smoke candles, simply place them on the blower's side that receives fresh air. After
being lit, the smoke is released and is taken in by the fresh air before being blown into the manhole and
throughout the entire system. Smoke candles come in a variety of sizes and can be combined or used alone to
suit any need. This kind of smoke is produced by a chemical reaction, which results in smoke with a high
concentration of air moisture. It is incredibly effective at finding leaks and is highly visible even at low quantities.
A smoke fluid system is another option for producing smoke. They can be used successfully, but it's necessary
to comprehend how they operate. This system works by injecting a smoke fluid—typically a petroleum-based
substance—into the hot exhaust stream of the engine, where it is heated in the muffler (or heating chamber),
and then expelled into the air intake side of the blower. 12 smoke candles cost more than one gallon of smoke
fluid on average. Smoke fluids, however, may not always produce smoke of the same caliber. It's crucial to
realize that while utilizing smoke fluid, the cooling process starts as soon as the fluid is put into the heating
chamber (or muffler). Eventually, the heating chamber will reach a temperature where it is not hot enough to
totally transform all the fluid into smoke, resulting in thin/wet smoke. Depending on how quickly the fluid is
moving, this could potentially happen. It can be particularly challenging to see farther away if the smoke has
turned thin. Blocking off lines is often a smart idea for any form of smoke, but when utilizing smoke fluid, it
practically becomes a requirement.

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 Manhole Smoke Blower Smoke Bombs Smoke Fluid

Figure 2-4 Materials for smoke test

Figure 2-5 Illustrative sketches of smoke test

The summary work procedure for smoke test is described below.

Preparatory Work
➢ Have a meeting
➢ Inspect the site
➢ Take some security measures
➢ Measure gases by gas detector
Smoke Test
➢ Detect smoke rising points
➢ Locate mis-connected pipes
➢ Take photos
➢ Record the sewer line problem in the field notebook
Work Completion
➢ Ventilate by a blower
➢ Notify residents about the completion of work

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 ➢ Clean up the site
Features of the smoke test
• The status of connection of drainpipes in each space can be checked in a short time.
• Inadequacies in the house drainage facility can be quickly detected. Smoke test procedure shown
in Figure 2.6.

Figure 2-6 Work procedure of smoke test

b) Echo Sound Test

This method is used to confirm that the piping facilities are correctly connected. It is an effective method for
identifying and knowing the plumbing systems and tracing the precise routes of sewers and lateral sewers.
Ultrasonic waves are used (transmitter and receiver) to carry out the test. The work procedure for echo sound
test is explained below.
Preparatory Work
➢ Have a meeting with maintenance staff
➢ Inspect the site
➢ Make construction schedule
➢ Collect relevant documents and materials
➢ Take some security measures
➢ Measure gases by gas detector

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Echo Sound Test
➢ Investigate connection conditions
➢ Locate mis-connected points
➢ Take photos
➢ Record the sewer line problem in the field notebook
Making a Report
➢ Compile data collected during the test
➢ Summarize records in charts
➢ Make a photo album
➢ Update charts and record in the ledger
Features of the echo sound test are:
• Simple method to identify whether a pipe has been connected or not.
• Particularly effective to determine connection conditions of lateral sewers.
• Cannot identify clogging or trap.
c) Dye Test
A dye test is used to determine whether specific buildings or fixtures are legally connected to a wastewater
collecting system, as well as whether any sewers have spilled or leaked.
Additionally, a dye test is performed to identify linkages between sanitary and storm sewers. This kind of testing
can use a special dye.
Examples of common dye tests include structures that might not exhibit smoke at vents during a smoke test
because of dips or traps in the service connection pipes, yards or storm drains that may be connected to a lateral
sewer or the building sewer, and any suspected inflow or surface drainage into the collection pipe.
Estimating flow velocity and checking for infiltration and exfiltration are two more applications for dye testing.
It is possible to find extraction areas that are not visible on TV inspection, like an open joint that is in line and on
grade, by moving a bag of dye up a sewer and halting at brief intervals.
One operator must apply the dye to the suspected spot, and another must keep watch at the next downstream
manhole from the suspected location in order for the dye testing to be successful. The water is turned on and
the dye powder or tablet is thrown straight into the drain when a plumbing device, such as a closet bowl or
basin, is being utilized. Pouring a bucket of water with dye powder is recommended in areas without an
immediate water source, such as a roof gutter or storm drain in dry weather. Depending on how far the next
manhole is away and the current flow, different amounts of water and color are required.
An estimation of the anticipated flow time to the downstream manhole may be made using an assumed flow
velocity. Since the dyeing process frequently takes much longer than anticipated, give yourself plenty of time.
When several dye tests need to be run on the same line or stretch of sewer system, the first dye test should
begin at the facility that is the furthest downstream and gradually move upstream for the other dye tests. In
contrast, if you dye the facilities upstream first, the flow is then required to wait several hours or until the
following day to undertake additional testing.

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2.2.3.6. Inspection of Flow Rate
The flow rate inspection should be performed in areas where there is a high risk of infiltration, such as areas
with high groundwater levels, portions of river crossings, or areas close to rivers.
a) Flow Rate Measurement
Both continuous and instantaneous measurements of flow are possible. A typical continuous system for
measurement comprises a flow sensor, primary flow device, flow recorder, transmitter, and totalizer. The
primary flow gadget can be used to measure the flow right away.
The principal flow device is the heart of a typical continuous flow measuring system. This device is made to
provide predictable hydraulic responses that depend on the amount of water or wastewater that passes through
it. Weirs and flumes, which correlate water depth (head) with flow, venturi and orifice type meters, which
correlate differential pressure with flow, and magnetic flow meters, which correlate induced electric voltage
with flow, are examples of such devices. When installed and constructed in accordance with accepted standards,
these common primary flow devices have shown to be precise.
The primary flow measurement device's specific hydraulic responses must be measured by a flow sensor in
order to be transmitted to the recording system. Typical sensors include floats, differential pressure cells,
capacitance probes, pressure transducers, ultrasonic transmitters, and electromagnetic cells, among others. The
sensor signal is typically translated into units of flow that are directly recorded on a chart or transferred into a
data system utilizing mechanical, electromechanical, or electronic methods. Systems that use recorders are
frequently fitted with flow totalizers that show the total flow in real time.
Obtaining continuous flow data at a site where only instantaneous flow data are being obtained is a key factor
for the investigator during wastewater research. Installation of a portable field sensor and recorder is required
if an open channel primary flow device is used to make instantaneous measurements. Systems for measuring
wastewater flow are often quite precise. It is deemed undesirable to employ a continuous flow monitoring
equipment to measure wastewater flow if it cannot do so within 10% of the actual flow.
b) Pumping Test
This technique is used to gauge the rate at which water has infiltrated the pipeline. Within a short period of
time, it is possible to determine the flow rate of infiltrated water into the area or system. However, because the
flow velocity of infiltrated water changes with groundwater levels, it is important to confirm the weather and
precipitation conditions at the time of measurement.
A cut-off plug should be put in during the inspection of each space to drain off household wastewater from the
test. This should ideally be done at night, when the amount of sewage produced by households is minimal.

Figure 2-7 Work procedure for measurement of pumped water

Page | 34
 Figure 2-8 Work procedure of pumping test
2.2.3.7. Inspection of Corrosion and Deterioration
TV cameras should be used to assess the level of deterioration or corrosion within the sewer. Concrete pipe,
ceramic pipe, hard unplasticized polyvinyl chloride (uPVC), brick, high density polyethylene (HDPE) pipe, ductile
pipe, and glass fiber reinforced plastic (GRP) pipe are some of the materials used in the piping facility. As a result,
the conditions for corrosion and deterioration vary.
Some of the methods for inspecting corrosion and deterioration conditions of a sewer include:
• Inspection by TV camera of the wall surface condition
• Crack inspection
• Neutralization test
The reasons for deterioration/failure of structural concrete parts of the piping facilities are the following:
• Cracks development in concrete due to concentrated loads)
• Deterioration of structure due to aging
• Corrosion of concrete structures due to sulphuric acid from the generation of hydrogen sulphide

In a facility where sewage is retained for an extended period of time, the sewage is likely to get anaerobic and
produce dissolved sulphur, which causes concrete corrosion because it forms sulphuric acid. locations where
sewage is prone to cause concrete deterioration:
• Piping systems at the pressure pipe's discharge location (including manhole pump)
• Ends of the sump discharge points upstream and downstream
• Ends of upstream and downstream of areas where sulphide-containing discharges take place
• Areas downstream of an inverted syphon

2.2.3.8. Other Examinations

The following special tests are used to thoroughly examine a facility's conditions. Various types of data that can
be analyzed for investigating gas exploration are provided.
• Examining the invert elevation of sewers: Understanding pipeline conditions and comparing
Page | 35
 records from sewerage facilities.
• Examining the sediment: Look for sediment materials like sand and silt that may have entered a
damaged sewer or through a junction that is loose from the outside. Around the sewer, this sand
and silt may build up and create cavities.
• Confirming gases produced in the pipe facilities by a dangerous gas detection check. Gases that
are present in a piping facility and the quality of the water are closely related. The gas analysis
equipment in a piping facility is shown in Table -- below.
Table 2-7 Gas analysis13
Name of Gas Symbol Unit

Carbon monoxide CO %
Carbon dioxide CO2 %

Hydrogen sulphide H2S ppm

Ammonia NH3 Ppm

Oxygen O2 %

Methane CH4 Ppm

Nitrogen Oxide NOx Ppm

A few essential gases are crucial monitoring variables to prevent gas-related mishaps for the sewer/drainage
maintenance team's employees. This includes carbon monoxide, oxygen deprivation, and hydrogen sulphide.
2.2.3.9. Precautions
Some of the safety precautions to be followed are listed below:
• When working in manholes, safety precautions should be taken to maintain pedestrian safety,
prevent oxygen deficit, and take protection against hydrogen sulphide, among other things.
Manual sewer/septic tank cleaning should be avoided to protect workers' health because it
increases the likelihood that they will come into touch with sewage and sludge.
• As a result, cleaning tools and machines are required. Additionally, safety precautions should be
performed when clearing out manholes.
• Drinking water supplies can become contaminated with sewage when water supply pipes pass
through sewer manholes, typically in narrow streets. This is especially true when water supply
pipe joints are enclosed in sewer manholes, and it also happens anytime water supply pipe joints
burst.
• Therefore, it is never advisable to encase water supply pipelines in a sewer manhole. If such a
situation is noticed, the affected community should be provided with clean drinking water by
other temporary means, such as water tankers or by laying separate pipe over the ground or road
surface, and any portion of water supply lines that are located in sewer manholes should be
moved out of the manholes immediately.
Decentralized sewer systems require extra care, especially when small-bore or shallow sewer systems are
used.

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Page | 36
2.2.4. Judgment of inspection and examination results
When an irregularity is discovered by studies and analyses, it is vital to determine if immediate repairs or
modifications are required or whether regular operation and maintenance would be adequate for proper
maintenance of piping facilities. The facility manager should decide after taking into account the pipe's material,
age, where it was buried, wastewater quality, groundwater state, local environment, and other factors.
The following factors can be used as evaluation/judgement criteria:
• Criteria for emergency responses
• Judgement based on an inspection or examination's findings
• Testing Criteria
2.2.4.1. Criteria for Emergency Response
Inspections or reports from the outside world typically reveal anomalies relating to piping facilities. When an
accident has already occurred, quick action should be taken. Further, action should be taken immediately if the
following events are confirmed.
• Road surface: There is irregularity that may result in a change in level that causes subsidence or
impediment to operation.
• Manhole: There is a level differential that may cause operation to be obstructed.
• Inverted siphon: Water is too high on the upstream side.
2.2.4.2. Judgement based on Inspection and Examinations’ findings
Based on the findings of the visual inspection, testing should be done for both the entire span and each individual
pipe. Tables 1.8 and 1.9 provide information on the testing criteria.
The three criteria for testing the overall span are as follows (A, B and C):
• Functional degradation
• Deterioration and
• Abnormalities
Table 2-8 Overall sewer span testing criteria14

Rating
Item
(A) (B) (C)
Corroded Reinforcing bars Aggregate Rough
pipe exposed exposed surface

Vertically ID < 700 mm ≥ ID ID = 1/2 ID < 1/2 of

deflected ID
pipe
ID 700 – 1650 ≥ 1/2 of ID 1/2 ID - 1/4 < 1/4 of
mm ID ID

ID ≥ 1650 mm ≥ 1/4 of ID 1/4 ID - 1/8 < 1/8 of

ID ID

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Page | 37
2.2.4.3. Testing Criteria
A maintenance engineer should judge what counter measures are applied for inspected sewers in accordance
with Table 1.1015.
Table 2-9 Testing criteria for sewer16

Emergency Category Testing criteria Criteria for measure

level
(A)s are more or (a)s are
Important more in the testing results
I Prompt measures are necessary

(A)s are less frequent and (B)s Necessary actions may be taken by
Medium are more, or (a)s are less and provisional measures and proper
II
importance (b)s are more in the testing measures will be implemented within
results 5 years

(A)s, (B)s are few, (C)s are

Minor many, or (a)s, (b)s are few, and
III importance Actions may be taken by provision
(c)s are many in testing results
measures, if required

According to the criteria in Tables above, emergency level I refers to a situation that requires an immediate
response.
Emergency level II denotes that radical actions may be taken during the next five years, along with basic
responses.
Additionally, emergency level III denotes partial implementation of a basic response and response selected by
operation and maintenance.
2.2.5. Record Keeping
The test results for operation and maintenance of piping facilities should be recorded and stored in the format
shown here.
2.2.5.1. Inspection Sheet
Once inspections and examinations are done, inspection record and sheets should be prepared as per the
formats.
2.2.5.2. Logbook
For field data collection, including but not limited to samples, measurements, and observations, dedicated
bound logbooks will be used. Logbook entries should be factual, objective, and devoid of any subjective
judgments or terminology that might be deemed inappropriate.
To avoid information loss, all relevant field activity data shall be concurrently captured as it is observed or
gathered. Daily work results that can be employed in the operation and maintenance of piping facilities should
be recorded in the logbook. Then, monthly reports should include a summary of the daily record.

15 https://openjicareport.jica.go.jp/pdf/12367207_04.pdf
16 https://cpheeo.gov.in/upload/uploadfiles/files/operation_chapter2.pdf
Page | 38
 MANHOLE INSPECTION REPORT17
MH NO.: ___________ DATE: _______________ TIME: _______________ INSPECTOR: _________

ELEVATION: _________________ DEPTH TO I N VERT: ___________ CLEANLINESS: _______________

TYPE CONSTRUCTION: _________________________ STREET REFERENCES: __________________________

DEFECTS:
(Cover, frame, grout, steps, shelf, pipes, or channels)

1.

2.

3.

4.

5.

6.

7.

8.

(USE REVERSE SIDE FOR ADDITIONAL DEFECTSTO BE NOTED.)

PIPE SIZE LENGTH TO MH# EST.FLOW TYPE FLOW

A.

B.

C.

D.

REMARKS:(Include need for repairs)

__________________________________________________________________________________________

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 Table 2-10 Inspection sheet18

Inspection Sheet No.

Location
(Manhole No. etc.)

Inspection Date Inspector

• Manhole Abrasion, backlash, difference in level, invaded pavement, damaged, location

cover unknown

• Inside of Damaged floor, corrosion of metallic steps, penetration, deteriorated pipe end,
Inspections Items

manhole rubbish, odor

Corrosion, damage, coupling displacement, inadequate inclination, infiltration, roots

• Pipe
of trees, earth, sand and mortar, road subsidence

Cover (no damage), difference in level, corrosion, damage, damaged invert, earth and
• House inlet
sand, location unknown, odor

• Lateral Damage, displacement, earth and sand, road subsidence

Inspection Date Inspector

Inspection Result

• Necessary • Contracted
Follow up actions
• Not necessary • Self

Date of order

Date of schedule

Date of completion

Remarks

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 Table 2-11 Daily report19

Daily Report Date Weather

Receipt Receipt date location: Work Description Inspector Tool Material Remarks
No.

Response to 1.
complaint
breakdown 2.

3.

4.

Diameter(mm) Daily total

No. of cleaned
Crew A Area District: Person
Person
Crew B
Trunk
cleaning
Removed sand m3
Volume

Cleaned Distance System No.

M

No. of drainage
Area System Entrusted Name of place name of System
Direct works Name of Place Repaired No. Works repaired drainage area no. Tool Daily total
Work material
Manhole Work description Description

19 https://cpheeo.gov.in/upload/uploadfiles/files/operation_chapter2.pdf

Page | 41
 Table 2-12 Monthly report20
Monthly Report: Date: Weather:
4.Ground
category 1.Lateral 2. Inlet 3. Manhole Subsidence 5.Odour 6.Others Total
Response to complaint
breakdown
Number

Diameter(mm)

Direct crew
Entrusted crew
Trunk
cleaning Removed sand

Cleaned
Distance

Manhole type 1 2 3 4 5 6 7 Special Direct Entrusted Total

Corer
replaced

Ring repaired
Manhole Repair
Barrel
Repaired

Noise

20 https://cpheeo.gov.in/upload/uploadfiles/files/operation_chapter2.pdf
Page | 42
3. CLEANING OF SEWER
3.1. Protection of Sewer Systems
If other infrastructure is constructed next to or at the cross section of a sewer, such as a water pipe or an electric
cable, the sewer may be harmed. Changes brought on by ground excavation, including piles, subsurface water
drops, and pile methods, can be particularly detrimental.
The maintenance engineer should take these steps to prevent sewer damage:
• Gather all pertinent data regarding the construction projects centered on the sewer location,
• Provide suggestions for effective building techniques to reduce the impact on sewers
• If necessary, ask the responsible authorities to take sewer protection measures before work is
started.
Typical protective measures are as follows:
• Temporary sewer pipe laying to protect an existing sewer system
• Changing sewer materials in advance.
3.2. Safety Practices
The frequency of accidents in the sewer cleaning industry as a whole is higher than in any other sector. The
obligation to provide a safe workplace for employees falls on the shoulders of the employer.
However, the employee is ultimately responsible for making sure the workplace is secure. Only by continually
considering safety and working safely can this be possible.
By developing safety protocols for the plant and then making sure they are implemented, the worker has the
duty to protect not just himself but also all other plant staff or visitors. He must learn to identify potentially
dangerous behaviors or conditions and train himself to examine tasks, work locations, and processes from a
safety standpoint. In the event that a hazard is identified, he must act right away to fix the situation. If repair is
not possible, prevent the hazard by using warning signs and devices correctly, developing and adhering to safety
procedures, and so on. The supervisor is personally responsible for any accidents that result in injuries or
property damage due to his carelessness.
Keep in mind that "accidents don't happen—they're caused!" Every accident had a series of circumstances that
culminated in an unsafe conduct, an unsafe environment, or both. Common sense, adherence to a few
fundamental safety guidelines, and thorough familiarity with the risks particular to the plant supervisor job can
all help prevent accidents.
3.2.1. Safety measures on sewer facilities
3.2.1.1. Traffic Hazzard
• Study the work area and make a strategy before beginning any project on a street or other high-
traffic area.
• High-level signs placed far in advance of the job site may serve as a warning to traffic.
• To direct traffic, traffic cones, signs, or barricades placed around the construction site are suitable,
as well as a flagger.
• If at all possible, position your work vehicle between the area being worked on and the
approaching traffic.
• Wear a bright safety vest when working near roads.

43 | P a g e
3.2.1.2. Manhole
All employees who are required to enter sewer manholes should be given the appropriate safety gear, as
suggested here.
1. Properly calibrated approved four gas detector
2. Safety harness
3. Fresh air blower
4. Tripod support
5. Half face masks
6. Approved hard hat
7. Safety shoes and goggles
Before entering the manhole, following guidelines may be adopted to ensure safety in manhole:
• In the small manhole, measured at all levels, the oxygen content must be at least 19.5%. (Bottom,
middle and top). If the oxygen concentration is between 19.5% and 21%, it is deemed safe. If the
oxygen level is below 19.5 percent, no one should go under the manhole.
• Open at least two or three manholes on both the upstream and downstream sides of the sewage
line where the work is to be done to allow for ventilation. When there are insufficient blowers for
ventilation sewers, this is required. At least an hour before the commencement of the procedure,
the manholes should be opened. To protect anyone, especially youngsters, from unintentionally
slipping into the sewer, the opening manhole must be adequately gated or walled. It is possible
to employ a wire-net or -welded fabric dummy cover.
• As much as possible, a fresh air blower ventilation system should be used. It is preferable to run
blowers for at least 30 minutes before to beginning and throughout the cleaning process.
• Utilize a detector to determine the gas flammability in manholes.
• Before a person enters a manhole or sewage line, as well as periodically throughout lengthier
activities, it may be examined for the presence of harmful gases.
• Before accessing the sewage system, all employees must wear a safety harness and lifeline. Each
person entering the manhole must have at least one support person waiting for them at the top.
Throughout the duration of operation, the person entering the manhole or sewage line must be
watched using a signal, camera, CCTV, etc.
• Before entering the manhole, the stairs or rungs must be checked for structural safety. Where
necessary, a portable aluminum ladder must be accessible during the work duration. During
operation, the portable ladder must be correctly fastened or seated.
• Make sure that there are no items or tools close to the edge that could fall into the manhole and
hurt the workers.
• In a bucket secured with rope and a pulley, lower all the tools to the workers.
• The lighting apparatus used for sewer cleaning must be both fire- and explosion-proof.
• Open manholes must have warning signs posted around them while construction is underway.
• Smoking, using open flames, and using spark-producing devices shall be forbidden both inside the
manhole and in the vicinity of an open manhole.
• All employees who enter the manhole must have the necessary tools and safety gear. The use of

Page | 44
 portable tools and equipment must be strictly regulated.
• For respiratory protection, personnel must have access to gas masks. The proper use of the gas
masks must be taught to the employees.
• A big sewer system may require the use of specialized equipment to penetrate. The equipment
may include alarm-equipped atmospheric monitoring systems.
An emergency escape breathing equipment (EEBA) with at least a 10-minute air supply should be worn for
escape in the case of a rapid or unanticipated atmospheric change.
3.2.2. Safety measures before sewer cleaning
3.2.2.1. Highly toxic components of sewer gas
• Hydrogen sulfide, methane, carbon dioxide, sulfur dioxide & Carbon mono oxide.
• Symptoms of headache, nausea, dizziness, or drowsiness may indicate exposure to an odorless gas
like methane or carbon monoxide, or to hydrogen sulfide, which smells of rotten eggs.
• Anyone experiencing severe symptoms should seek immediate medical care.
a) Gases of main concern in sewer

Figure 3-1 Gases of main concern in sewer

b) How are these gases formed?

• The end products of anaerobic decomposition include gases like hydrogen sulphide, ammonia,
methane, etc. C6H12O6 → 3CO2 + 3CH4
• Aerobic decomposition is caused in the presence of air or oxygen which is available in sewage in
the dissolved form. During this process, organic matter is broken up and oxidized to form stable
and non-objectionable end products such as carbon dioxide, nitrates, sulphates, etc.
c) Hydrogen sulphide (H2S) and Carbon monoxide (CO)
d) Hydrogen sulphide (H2S)
Hydrogen sulfide has been reported as the leading cause of sudden death in the work place. At
concentrations in air of approximately 300 ppm, H2S can be immediately deadly.
At concentrations above 100 ppm, hydrogen sulphide has a paralysing effect on the sense of smell.

Page | 45
It is absorbed primarily through the lungs, but can also be adsorbed to a limited extent through the skin and
mucous membranes (eyes, ears, nose, mouth etc).
e) Carbon monoxide (CO)
The lethal colorless and odorless gas – carbon monoxide
Exposure to carbon monoxide at concentrations over 350 ppm can cause confusion, fainting on exertion
and collapse. An airborne concentration of carbon monoxide above 1,200 ppm is immediately dangerous
to life or health.
f) Methane (CH4) & CO2
❖ Methane is a simple minimally toxic gas and displaces oxygen, but does not itself cause significant
physiological responses.
❖ It is a colorless, extremely flammable and explosive gas that can cause fire and explosion.
❖ Carbon dioxide is a simple asphyxiant (displaces oxygen) and a stimulant for the respiratory system.
A concentration of 5% may produce headaches and shortness of breath. Background concentrations
of carbon dioxide in air range from 300 to 400 ppm.
Safety equipment used for sewer cleaning
Choose easy operated Four gas detectors

Figure 3-2 Four gas detector

Page | 46
 Figure 3-3 Half face mask

Figure 3-4 Breathing equipment & Full body harness

Figure 3-5 Tripod and ventilating arrangement

Page | 47
 Figure 3-6 Fresh air should be supplied to the working location and the blower fan must be carefully located to avoid sucking in
contaminated air.

g) Protective clothing
There are four primary types of disease-causing organisms that can affect humans and are found in sewage
— bacteria, protozoa, viruses and parasitic worms. PPE can help ensure that these contaminants are kept
off of the human body and keep the worker free from scrapes, cuts, scratches and other bodily harm.

Figure 3-7 Protective clothing

3.3. Sewer Cleaning

3.3.1. Sewer & manhole cleaning procedures suitable for MCs
I. Manual
II. Mechanical
To operate and maintain a sewer collection system to function as intended, the maintenance engineer
should try to strive towards the following objectives:
• Minimize the number of blockages per unit length of sewer, and
• Minimize the number of odour complaints.
For this purpose, sewer cleaning using hydraulic or mechanical cleaning methods needs to be done
on a scheduled basis to remove accumulated debris in the pipe such as sand, silt, grease, roots, and
rocks. If debris is allowed to accumulate, it reduces the capacity of the pipe and blockage can

Page | 48
 eventually occur resulting in overflows from the system onto streets, yards, and into surface waters.
Roots and corrosion also can cause physical damage to sewers.
3.3.2. Cleaning Equipment and Procedures
Sewer cleaning works require usual implements like pick axes, manhole guards, tripod stands, danger flags,
lanterns, batteries, safety lamps, lead acetate paper, silt drums, ropes, iron hooks, hand carts, plunger rods,
observation rods, shovels etc.
In addition, sewer cleaning work calls for the following special equipment and devices like a portable pump
set running on either diesel or petrol engine, rope and cloth balls, sectional sewer rods, a sewer cleaning
bucket machine, a dredger, a rodding machine with flexible sewer rods and cleaning tool attachments such
as augers, corkscrews, hedgehogs and sand cups, scraper, and hydraulically propelled devices such as flush
hags, sewer balls, wooden bail and sewer scooters, sewer jetting machine, gully emptier and pneumatic
plugs.
3.3.2.1. Manila Rope and Cloth Ball
The most common way of cleaning small diameter sewers up to 300-mm diameter is by the use of a manila
rope and cloth ball. Flexible bamboo strips tied together are inserted in the sewer line by a person on top. If
necessary, another person inside the manhole helps in pushing the rod through the sewer line. When the
front end of the bamboo strip reaches the next manhole, a thick manila rope, with cloth ball at one end, is
tied to the rear end of the bamboo splits. The bamboo splits are then pulled by another person in the
downstream manhole and pushed through the sewer line. As the rope is pulled, the ball sweeps the sewer
line and the accumulated grit is carried to the next manhole where it is removed out by means of buckets.
This operation is repeated between the next manholes until the stretch of sewer line is cleaned.
3.3.3. Manual cleaning
i. Long strips from bamboo stem are taken and tailored to use as sewer cleaning rod between two
consecutive manholes.
ii. Ventilate the manhole and test for toxic gases, explosive gases, and oxygen level
iii. Determine the depth of the manhole
iv. Assemble sufficient rod portion to firmly rest in the sewer and leave enough protruding above the
street level to allow for working conditions, usually about 18 to 24 inches

Page | 49
3.3.4. Mechanical cleaning
3.3.4.1. Bucket Machine (Winch Machine)

Part B: Operation and Maintenance CHAPTER 2: SEWER SYSTEMS

winch is then thrown out of gear and the opposing winch is put into action. When the reverse
pull is starts, the bucket automatically closes and the dirt is deposited in a truck or a trailer. This
operation is repeated until the sewer is cleared. Various bucket sizes are available for sewers of
150 mm to 900 mm in size. The machine is also used along with other scraping instruments for
loosening sludge banks of detritus or cutting roots and dislodging obstructions (Figure 2.25).

Source: EPA, 2003

Figure 3-8 Power bucket machine setup
Figure 2.25 Power bucket machine setup
The bucket 2.3.1.4
machineDredger
consists(Clam-shell)
of two powered winches with cables in between. For cleaning a section of
sewer; the winches are centered over two adjacent manholes. To get the cable from one winch to the other,
It consists of a grab bucket on a wire rope which is lowered into the manhole in the open
it is necessary
condition with the help ofthrough
to thread the cable a crane the
and sewer
pulley. line
On by meanstheofbottom
reaching sewerofrods
the or flexiblethesplit bamboo
manhole
rods. The cable fromare
segments theclosed,
drum and
of each winch is fastened
the accumulated to the
silt is picked up.barrel on each
The bucket endraised
is then of an above
expansion sewer
bucket fittedground level where
with closing the bucket
device, so that opens
theand the silt
bucket canis automatically
be pulled in dropped into a truckbyorthe
either direction a trailer.
machine on the
The bucket can be closed by wire ropes or by a pneumatically operated cylinder.
appropriate end. The bucket is pulled into the loosened material in the sewer until the operator feels that it The
disadvantage in this system is that it cannot clean the corners of the catch pits of manholes.
is loaded with debris. The
Sometimes winch isat then
the deposits thrown
tire corners mayout of gear
become so and
hardthe
that opposing winch
the same may is put into
be required to beaction. When
the reverse pull is starts,
chiselled out. the bucket automatically closes and the dirt is deposited in a truck or a trailer. This
operation is2.3.1.5
repeated until the sewer is cleared. Various bucket sizes are available for sewers of 150 mm to
Rodding Machine with Flexible Sewer Rods
900 mm in size. The machine is also used along with other scraping instruments for loosening sludge banks
This consists of a machine which rotates a flexible rod to which is attached a cleaning tool such
of detritus or cutting roots and dislodging obstructions.
as auger, corkscrew or hedgehog and sand cups (Figure 2.26). The flexible rod consists of a
i.series ofTwo
steelmachines
rods with screw couplings. The
are positioned overflexible rod is guided
the respective through the manhole by a
manholes
bent pipe. The machine rotates the rod with the tool attached to one end, the other end being
ii.fixed to The lower manhole
the machine. roller
The rotating rodis is
lowered intothethe
thrust into manhole.
bent pipe manually with clamps with
long handles for holding the rod near the couplings. As the rod is thrust inside, the machine also
iii.is drawnTo thread
towards thethe sewer,The
manhole. a synthetic rope
rod is pulled is used
in and out in quick succession when the tool is
engaging the obstruction, so as to dislodge or loosen it. When the obstruction is cleared, the rod
iv.is pulledTo this rope attach a nylon parachute designed for such use and allow this parachute to
out by means of clamps keeping the rod rotating to facilitate quick and easy removal.
float downstream
The various tools to the
attached to the rodsworking
are shownmanhole
in Figure 2.27.
v. The clearing bucket is now ready to be attached to the cable

Page | 50
 vi. As the bucket is pulled upstream into the material deposited in the sewer, a definite
resistance can be noticed when the bucket is full
vii. When the bucket is full, pull the loaded bucket back out of the sewer
viii. Final cleanup is performed with special care given to washing down and completely
cleaning the entire area
3.3.4.2. Velocity Cleaners (Jetting Machines)

Figure 3-9 Sewer high pressure jetting machine

1. The high velocity sewer cleaner makes use of high velocity water jets to remove and dislodge
obstructions, soluble grease, gut and other materials from sanitary, storm and combined sewerage
systems. It combines the functions of a rodding machine and gully emptier machine. Basically, it
includes a high-pressure hydraulic pump capable of delivering water at variable pressure up to about
8 MPa through a flexible hose to a sewer cleaning nozzle. The nozzle has one forward facing hole
and a number of rear wards facing holes. The high-pressure water coming out of the holes with a
high velocity breaks up and dislodges the obstructions and flushes the materials down the sewer.
Moreover, by varying the pressure suitably, the nozzle itself acts as a jack hammer and breaks up
stubborn obstructions. (A separate suction pump or air flow device may also be used to suck the
dislodged material).
2. The entire equipment is usually mounted on a heavy truck chassis with either a separate prime
mover or a power takes off for the suction device. The high-pressure hose reel is also hydraulically
driven. The truck also carries fresh water tanks for the hydraulic jet and a tank for the removed
sludge and the various controls grouped together for easy operation during sewer cleaning. The
manufacturer's operating and servicing manuals should be carefully followed for best results in the
use of the machine.
The items of the most importance in performance of these machines is listed below. Maintenance
will be easier and staff will be happy if these specifications are taken care of:
Table 3-1 Important specs

High pressure plunger pump Pressure should not be less than 190 bar

Strength of hose Should be minimum of 7500psi

Tank capacity Should not be less than 8000 liters

Page | 51
 1.3 Image of water nozzle

From above From

From side
side

1.4 Image in pipes(Before and After)

Before
After cleaning
cleaning
13
Figure 3-10 Pressure nozzle

3.3.4.2. Sludge suction machine

Suction units create the vacuum required for siphoning of mud, slurry, grit and other materials from sanitary,
storm and combined sewerage systems. The vacuum elevated is such as to siphon the materials from the
deep manholes catch-pits etc., having depth ranging from 1 m to 8 m in normal cases with an option to suck
an additional 4 m with the help of special accessories for the purpose. The unit can be vehicle or trolley
mounted.
Silt and heavy particles settled at the bottom can be agitated and loosened by pressurized air with the help
of the pump and then sucked in a tank. Once the silt tank is full, the effluent is discharged in the nearby
storm water drain or manhole and the operation is repeated until the silt is cleared off the manhole. The silt
deposited in the tank is then emptied at the predetermined dumping spot.

Figure 3-11 Sludge suction machine

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The items of the most importance which, are matter of concern for maintenance staff are:
Table 3-2 Important specifications

Vacuum pressure Should not be less than -90 Kpa at sealing temperature of 15C

Air Flow Should not be less than 30m3/min

Tank capacity Should not be less than 4500 liters

3.3.5. Maintaining record of cleaning

Records of all cleaning operations should be entered and filed for future reference. These records should
include the data, street name or number, line size, distance, and manhole numbers or identification. Also,
the kind and number of materials removed, wastewater flow, and auxiliary water used should be noted. If
particular problems were encountered, these too should be noted, especially the exact location of
obstructions. A record form sample is shown in Figure below.
During the routine cleaning operations, many manholes should be opened and used for high-velocity
cleaning or flushing of sewer. Manhole Inspection form detailing its location, condition, and any problems
observed should be completed. If this is done each time a manhole is opened during cleaning operations,
over time the database for these structures will include up-to-date information on a high percentage of them
and allow better decisions to be made in regard to routine maintenance, repair, or rehabilitation.
If pieces of broken sewer are removed, a TV inspection may be needed and repairs may need to be made on
the broken sections of pipe.
Recording traffic patterns at a site can be very helpful next time the equipment is set up at the location. Car
park (such as over manholes), traffic volume during rush hours, and whether police traffic control should be
called for help before going to the site, should be indicated.
Computers are being used in many aspects of operation, maintenance, and recordkeeping of collection
system. Computer software packages are available for scheduling preventive maintenance activities, issuing
work orders for repairs, keeping track of where work is done, who did the work, when, and the labour and
materials required. With the correct software, any information in the computer’s records can be recalled for
future use. Computers are also used to keep spare parts inventories and to order spare parts when the
supply runs low and before they are needed for scheduled maintenance and repairs.
When marking out records, remember that you or someone else will be referring to them. The more
complete the record, the easier the next operation becomes since you have a history of this sewer.
Record keeping and reporting is proposed as below:
3.3.5.1. Daily cleaning record
Table 3-3 Daily cleaning record
Office Record Machines used Record

Location of work Condition of flow before

cleaning

Size of sewer Condition of flow after cleaning

Length cleaned/desilted Kind of material removed

No. of M/H cleaned Time spent on cleaning

Supervisor Pictures taken?

Page | 53
 Office Record Machines used Record

Sewer men deputed

Pictures of cleaning may be maintained as below:

Table 3-4 Pictures for cleaning

DESILTING OF SEWER AT ----------------

Picture before desilting Picture after desilting

3.3.5.2. Annual record

Table 3-5 Annual cleaning record

Size of sewer Desilted length Frequency Remarks

9 inches

12 inches

15 inches

18 inches

21 inches

24 inches

27 inches

30 inches

Page | 54
3.4. Protection Against Infiltration and Exfiltration
Infiltration and inflow, while overlooked in many collection systems for decades, have now gained
recognition as major defects that can cause failure of a collection system. In most cases, this failure results
in hydraulic overloads (too much water) of the collection system or the sewage treatment plant.
In the case of a collection system, hydraulic overloads result in surcharged manholes, overflowing manholes
and exposure of community to diseases and pollutants carried by the wastewater in a collection system. This
type of failure is also known as a sanitary sewer overflow.
In the case of an STP, infiltration and inflow can result in plant loads exceeding the plant capacity. Bypassing
raw sewer to the environment has been the only answer in the past, but this practice is no longer allowed.
3.4.1. Measures Against Infiltration of Rainwater
Inflow detection and collection depend upon the type and source of inflow causing the problem. Inflow is
water that is not polluted and should not be in a wastewater collection system. Inflow is water that enters
a sewer as a result of a deliberate illegal connection or by deliberate drainage of flooded areas into a
wastewater collection system.
In many areas the main line portion of the collection system is relatively tight. A major source of infiltration
in this situation can be the house service lines. They can be tested for leaks using smoke tests and by
development of small cameras and robotic equipment.
Collection or elimination of inflow/ infiltration depends on the type and location of the source of problem.
Typical solutions to inflow/infiltration problems include:
a) Manholes
• Raise rim elevation by use of grade rings if not located in streets (inflow). Install watertight
covers where needed (inflow).
• Install inflow protection covers (inflow).
Seal covers (inflow).
• Seal or repair barrels (infiltration).
b) Sewer Pipes (Infiltration)
• Seal segment of damaged pipes and joints.
• Dig up and replace damaged pipes and joints.
• Line sewer with a plastic liner and/or fiber liner material.

3.4.2. Measures Against Exfiltration of Untreated Sewage

Exfiltration is the leakage of wastewater out of the collection system through broken or damage pipes and
manholes. All wastewater collection systems, except some constructed in recent years, have many leaks.
These systems may exfiltrate wastewater through defective pipe joints and cracks. The wastewater that
does exfiltrate may contaminate shallow wells or open ditches where children and pets play. To make an
old collection system airtight would be extremely expensive and not very cost-effective. Major points of
infiltration or exfiltration in a collection system can be identified by the use of television or smoke testing
and can then be corrected.

Page | 55
 Figure 3-12 Sewerage leaking locations

The proper selection of corrective or rehabilitation methods and materials depends on a complete
understanding of the problems to be corrected, as well as the potential impacts associated with the selection
of each rehabilitation method. Pipe rehabilitation methods to reduce exfiltration (and simultaneously
infiltration) fall into one of the two following categories:
• External Rehabilitation Methods
• Internal Rehabilitation Methods
Certain conditions of the host pipeline influence the selection of the rehabilitation method. It is therefore
necessary to assess these factors to prepare the pipe for rehabilitation. Rehabilitation is proceeded by
surface preparation by cleaning the pipes to remove scale, tuberculation, corrosion, and other foreign
matter.
The concerned departments, corporation, urban local bodies, etc. have to participate in the total sanitation
program. These departments should be part of a co-ordination committee constituted at a local level and
are required to meet half yearly to plan appropriate co-ordination specific to total sanitation. These
meetings, however, can be more frequent during specific items such as drought, floods, etc.
3.4.2.1. External Sewer Rehabilitation Methods
External rehabilitation methods are performed from above the ground surface by excavating adjacent to the
pipe, or the external region of the pipe is treated from within the pipe through the wall. Some of the methods
used include:
External Point Repairs
Chemical Grouting (Acryl amide Base Gel and Acrylic Base Gel) Cement Grouting (Cement, Micro fine
Cement, and Compaction)
3.4.2.2. Internal Sewer Rehabilitation Methods
Internal sewer rehabilitation methods are the same as infiltration measures.
3.5. Manholes And Appurtenances
Because they are part of the collection system, manholes require the same attention as the rest of sewer
network. When located in streets, these structures are subject to vibrations and pounding of vehicle traffic.
Manholes may settle at a different rate than connected sewer, creating cracks in joints. Determine the
proper elevations or grades around the lid, to confirm that the lid is not buried, and to examine structural
Page | 56
 Manhole inspection should be carried out together with the inspection and examination of
sewer. It is generally carried outand road surface,
together with theoffset of manhole
cleaning block, and so on.
of the sewer.
n and Maintenance Refer
Before entering any manhole,CHAPTER to Figure
adequate 2:safety2.37,
SEWER Figureshould
SYSTEMS
measures 2.38 and Figurein2.39.
be taken accordance with
subsection 2.11.1.2.
Safety measures during the work should be formulated giving consideration to traffic safety,
me of flows from a specific direction.
oxygen deficiency, poisoning due to toxic gas such as hydrogen sulphide, and so on.
integrity (look for cracks) of the manhole and its functional capacity. The condition of the pipelines coming
ctions and Examinations
2.7.1.1
into Manhole
a manhole may be known merely by observing the content and volume of flows from a specific direction.
ion and examination are made by visually inspecting the condition of the cover
parts. 3.5.1.
Damage Checking
or weartheincurrent situation
the manhole cover obstructs passage and is a risk. The facility manager
should inspect the manhole cover for damage, wear, play, non-coincidence of heights of cover
tion should be Manhole
carried examination
out together is madethe
by visually inspecting the condition
of of the cover and the internal parts.
and road surface, offsetwith inspection
of manhole and so
block, and examination
on.
rally carried out togetherinspection
Manhole with the cleaning
should beof the sewer.
carried out together with the inspection and examination of sewer. It is
Refer to Figure 2.37, Figure 2.38 and Figure 2.39. Figure 2.37 Wear of cover
any manhole, adequate safety measures should be taken in of
generally carried out together with the cleaning the sewer.with
accordance
1.2. Before entering any manhole, adequate safety measures should be taken.
during the work should be formulated giving consideration to traffic safety,
Safety measures during the work should be formulated giving consideration to traffic safety, oxygen
cy, poisoning due to toxic gas such as hydrogen sulphide, and so on.
deficiency, poisoning due to toxic gas such as hydrogen sulphide, and so on.
ole
3.5.2. Damage or wear
r in the manhole cover obstructs passage and is a risk. The facility manager
Damage
he manhole cover or wear in
for damage, the play,
wear, manhole cover obstructs
non-coincidence passageofand
of heights is a risk. The facility manager should inspect
cover
the manhole
, offset of manhole cover
block, and for damage, wear, play, non-coincidence of heights of cover and road surface, offset of
so on.
manhole block, and so on.
2.37, Figure 2.38 and Figure 2.39. Figure 2.37 Wear of coverFigure 2.38 Offset of manhole block

FigureWear
2.37 Wear of coverFigure 2.38OffsetOffset
of cover ofblock
of manhole manhole
Figure blockNot coinciding
2.39 with height of road surface
manhole damaged

2.7.1.2Figure
Conditions
3-13 Damage Inside Manhole
to manholes

Manhole is an essential facility for operation and maintenance of sewer pipes; it

3.5.3. Conditions Inside Manhole
and maintenance to be performed safely and easily. For smooth flow of wastewa
Manhole is an essential facility for operation and maintenance of sewer pipes; it helps operation and
maintenance to be performed safely and
Final easily. For smooth flow of wastewater through
Draft 2-42 the
sewer pipe, the following are to be properly inspected: scouring of sewer bottom, differential settlement,
manhole block, crack in side wall, sediments and condition of mouth of connected sewer pipe.
Figure 2.38 Offset of manhole block
Inspection should be performed
Figure 2.39on ground, while examination
Not coinciding with heightshould besurface
of road performed by the relevant person
entering the manhole and working inside.
2.7.1.2 Conditions Inside Manhole
Manhole is an essential facility for operation and maintenance of sewer pipes; it helps operation
and maintenance to be performed safely and easily. For smooth flow of wastewater through the

Final Draft 2-42

Figure 2.39 Not coinciding with height of road surface

tions Inside Manhole
ssential facility for operation and maintenance of sewer pipes; it helps operation
e to be performed safely and easily. For smooth flow of wastewater through the

2-42

Page | 57
 sewer pipe, the following are to be properly inspected: scouring of sewer bottom, differential
settlement, manhole block, crack in side wall, sediments and condition of mouth of connected
sewer pipe.
Inspection should be performed on ground, while examination should be performed by the
relevant person entering the manhole and working inside.
The inspection items and their descriptions are given in Table 2.14.
Table 3-6 Manholes Check items21
Table 2.14 Inspection and examination items for manhole
Item inspected Description of inspection
a. Check for crack, subsidence, and cave-in
b. Check for overflow stream
Ground surface
c. Check for any invaded pavement
d. Check surrounding condition
a. Visual check for backlash, abraded surface, and
corrosion (Check if any mark on external or internal
Exterior condition
surface of cover is erased.)
b. Check for any malfunction of float preventive
Manhole cover
function, locking device, fall preventive function, etc.
c. Others (damage on rising spacer, difference in grade
of cover and grade ring, damaged grade ring, caved in
manhole cover, offset, etc.)
a. Check for stagnant water or flow
b. Check for any accumulation of sand and soil, pieces
of wood, and mortar including remains of
Flow and sediment
construction works and illegal disposals.
c. Check for appearance of inverts such as scouring,
damage, etc.
a. Check steps for corrosion, rattling, and missing items
(No.).
Interior condition
b. Check blocks for damage, crack, corrosion, gap, and
deteriorated caulking.
Damage c. Check barrel and base for damage, crack, and
corrosion.
d. Check for any improper joint of main sewers and
laterals.
e. Check for any irregular subsidence.
Infiltration a. Check for infiltration
a. Check inflow for unacceptable or inferior quality.
Others
b. Check for toxic gases or odour.
Source: JASCOMA, 2007
3.6. House Service Connection
House connections or service connections to the public or municipal sewer should preferably be approved
by the Maintenance Engineer. It is necessary to ensure that the fittings and pipes in the houses are according
to the byelaws or rules or regulations in force. If such byelaws, rules or regulations do not exist, then
reference may be made to the relevant IS code of practice. House connections may be of minimum size of
150 mm in diameter and should preferably be connected to the Municipal or Public sewer through a
manhole. When “Y or T” connections are allowed, extreme care must be taken when breaking the sewer
pipeline and inserting the “Y or T” saddle.
Similarly, the connection to the manhole must be properly done and closed. Care has to be taken so that the
brick bats or other materials of construction are not allowed to fall and lie in the manhole. This extraneous
material is largely responsible for persistent clogging of the sewer lines.
It should also be ensured that the house fittings are properly trapped not only to prevent the ingress of
sewer gases into
Final the houses but also to ensure that
Draft 2-43large objects do not find their way into the sewers.
Similarly, it should be ensured that any liquid or material which is likely to be injurious to the material of the
sewer line or to prejudicially interfere with its contents or be a hazard to the workmen engaged in the
maintenance of the sewer lines, like very hot water, acids, chemicals, etc., are not allowed.
3.6.1. Examination of house connection
Inspection of lateral sewer and house inlet (household) should be carried out if deemed necessary from
documents and data, and cross connections and mains should be studied. Clogging of lateral sewer and
sedimentation of house inlet are the items to be inspected.

21 JASCOMA, 2007
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3.7. Accidents related to Sewer Facilities
3.7.1. Need for Traffic Control
The primary function of streets is to provide for the movement of traffic. A common secondary use within
the right-of-way of streets is for the placement of public and private utilities such as sanitary sewers. While
the movement of traffic is very important, streets need to be constructed, reconstructed, or maintained,
and utility facilities need to be repaired, modified, or expanded Consequently, traffic movements and street
or utility repair work must be regulated to provide optimum safety and convenience for all.
Working in a roadway represents a significant hazard to a collection system operator as well as pedestrians
and drivers. Motor vehicle drivers can be observed random things like reading, talking on cell phones, etc.,
rather than concentrating on driving. At any given time of the night or day, a certain percentage of drivers
can be expected to be driving while under the influence of drugs or alcohol. Given the amount of time
collection system operators’ work in traffic while performing inspection, cleaning, rehabilitation, and repairs,
the control of traffic is necessary if we want to reduce the risk of injury or death while working in this
hazardous area. The purpose of traffic control is to provide safe and effective work areas and to warn,
control, protect, and expedite vehicular and pedestrian traffic. This can be accomplished by appropriate and
prudent use of traffic control devices.
Most states, counties, and cities have adopted regulations to control traffic and reduce the risk under
different circumstances. This section illustrates examples of traffic control which may or may not meet the
specific requirements of the laws in your geographical area but should serve to make you aware of various
aspects of traffic control.
At any time, traffic is affected, appropriate authorities in your area must be notified before leaving for the
job site. These could be state, country or local depending on whether it is a state, country or local street.
Frequently, a permit must be issued by the authority that has jurisdiction before traffic can be diverted or
disrupted. In some cases, traffic diversion or disruption may have an impact on the emergency response
system in your area, such as access by fire or police, and so these agencies may be involved as well in most
cases, you will need to plan ahead to secure permits and notify authorities. This may mean only a phone call
or two or it could mean several days' or weeks' advance planning if you need to make extensive traffic control
arrangements.
Upon arrival at the job site, look for a safe place to park vehicles. If they are to be parked in the street to do
the job, route traffic around the job site before parking vehicles in the street. If practical, park vehicles
between oncoming traffic and the job site to serve as a warning barricade and to discourage reckless drivers
from ploughing into operators.22

22
https://cpheeo.gov.in/upload/uploadfiles/files/operation_chapter7.pdf
moud_manual_on_sewerage_and_sewage_treatment_part_b_operation_and_maintenance_2012

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4. O&M OF DISPOSAL PUMPING STATIONS/LIFT STATIONS
4.1. Introduction
Typical Flow Diagram

Figure 4-1 Typical flow diagram

Figure 4-2 General components of a disposal station

4.2. Typical design of a disposal pump station
4.2.1. Influent Chamber & Channels
The influent chamber will receive the incoming sewers and divide the flow as necessary to the influent
channels and wet wells. There will be more than one influent channel and wet wells, to facilitate repairs and
cleaning without shutting down the pump station operation. Manually operated or motor driven sluice /
penstock gates should be provided at the sluice gate to shut down the sewage flow.

4.2.2. Pump Station Overflow

An overflow and emergency discharge conduit will be provided for each sewage pump station, for use if the
pump station must be shut down, where required to prevent immersion damage to electric motors, switch
gear, and/ or other equipment. The overflow will be located at the influent chamber or a conventional
upstream chamber to and will discharge by gravity to the nearest drainage channel.

Page | 60
4.2.3. Influent Channels and Bar Screens

Figure 4-3 Bar screen

Normally there should be two influent channels, each designed to carry half the flow from the influent
chamber. Each chamber will have a manually / mechanically cleaned bar screen of mild steel or stainless
steel properly designed with spacing of bars to match pump requirement.

4.2.4. Wet Wells

Normally wet wells should at least be provided in duplicate. This will permit isolation and shutdown of one
side during cleaning or maintenance work in the wet well area, while keeping the other side in service for
continuity of pump station operation. The effective capacity of the wet well should provide a holding period
not to exceed 10 minutes for the average sanitary (dry weather) flow. For the ultimate anticipated flow
conditions, it is suggested that an effective wet well capacity be selected to provide a holding time of
approximately 5 minutes at average sanitary design flow. The wet well floor shall be hopper shaped. The
horizontal area of the hopper bottom shall be no larger than needed for proper installation of the sewage
pump suction pipes and other wet well appurtenances.

4.2.5. Pumping station capacities

Sewage pumping station are designed to have pumping capacity to handle total design flows i/c storm water.
If the area development is likely to be extensive, it is advisable to design the pumping station so that
additional pumping units can be added at a later stage along with leaving space in both wet well and pumping
chamber including provision of additional rising mains / force mains. Following conditions should be met in
the design of pumping stations:

a) cycle time must not be less than 5minutes.

b) Each pump must run at least 2 minutes.
c) Detention time should not be more than 10-20 minutes to avoid septic conditions.

Page | 61
4.2.6. Wet Well Design
4.2.6.1. Storage and holding Capacity of wet well

• The effective capacity of the wet well should provide a holding period not to exceed 10 minutes for
the average sanitary (dry weather) flow.
• For the ultimate anticipated flow conditions, it is suggested that an effective wet well capacity be
selected to provide a holding time of approximately 5 minutes at average sanitary design flow.

4.2.6.2. The primary variables for sizing the wet well are:

• number of pumps,
• pump bell diameter,
• pump bay width,
• minimum distance to trash rack, and
• minimum distance to inlet invert.
• Effective Volume = V = [Qmax x t(min)]/4
• Detention time of wet well=wet well volume/average discharge
Cycle Time for Minimum and Average Flow. It should be greater than 2 minutes
t = V/(P-Qmin)
• CYCLE TIME for average flow = t = (V/(P-Q)) +(V/Q)
• Pumps will be selected for minimum, average and peak flow.

• Cycling Sequence and Volumes

• Cycling is the starting and stopping of pumps, the frequency of which must be limited to prevent
damage and possible malfunction. The wet well must be designed to provide sufficient volume for
safe cycling, or sufficient volume must be provided outside the wet well. However, to keep sediment
in suspension, the wet well should not be oversized. The volume required to satisfy the minimum
cycle time is dependent upon the characteristics of the power unit, the number and capacity of
pumps, the sequential order in which the pumps operate and whether or not the pumps are
alternated during operation.

Storage and holding Capacity of wet well

• The effective capacity of the wet well should provide a holding period not to exceed 10 minutes for
the average sanitary (dry weather) flow.
• For the ultimate anticipated flow conditions, it is suggested that an effective wet well capacity be
selected to provide a holding time of approximately 5 minutes at average sanitary design flow.

4.2.6.3. There are two basic cycling sequences:

➢ One will be referred to here as the “common off elevation.” In this sequence, the pumps start at
successively higher elevations as required; however, they all stop at the same off elevation. This is
advantageous when large amounts of sediment are anticipated.
➢ The other sequence uses a “successive start/stop” arrangement in which the start elevation for one
pump is also the stop elevation for the subsequent pump; i.e., the start elevation for Pump 1 is the
stop elevation for Pump 2, the start elevation for Pump 2 is the stop elevation for Pump 3 (see Figure
below). There are countless variations between these two sequences.

Page | 62
 Figure 4-4 Wet well showing sequence of pumps

Figure 4-5 Pump Sequences

I. Decreasing sump volume by pump alternation. Pumps starting in sequence and stopping in reverse order.
II. By designing the control system for pump alternation, the sump volumes can be reduced and distribute the
pump operating time more evenly between the four pumps.
III. This system works for any number of pumps in a station.
IV. For example, when four pumps are installed in the same station and if the inflow is less than the capacity of
one pump, pump number one would, without alternation, do all the work.
V. With alternation, pump number one starts and draws down. Next start would call pump number two. This
means that, with four pumps of the same size and operating in an alternating sequence, each pump is called
on to pump down the sump volume, V1, every fourth time. The cycle time of each pump will be four times
longer than the cycle time offilling and emptying of V1.

(a) Lowest Pump “Off” Elevation

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The Hydraulic Institute recommends that the lowest pump “off” elevation be no lower than the invert
elevation, unless plan dimension constraints dictate that the station floor be lowered to obtain the necessary
cycling volume. This recommendation is based on the fact that it is usually less expensive to expand a
station’s plan dimensions than to increase its depth. This elevation represents the static pumping head to
be used for pumping selection.
(b) Pump “On” Elevations
These should be set at the elevations that satisfy the individual pump cycling volumes (Vx). Starting the
pumps as soon as possible by incrementing these volumes successively above the lowest pump-off elevation
will maximize what storage is available within the wet well and the collection system. The depth required
for each volume is computed as follows:
Hx = Vx /plan area
In theory, the minimum cycle time allowable to reduce wear on the pumps will occur when the inflow to
the usable storage volume is one-half the pump capacity. Assuming this condition, cycling time can be
related to usable volume.
t= Vt/(Qp −Qi)+Vt/Qi
where: t = minimum cycle time
Vt = minimum required volume for pump cycling, ft3
Qp = individual pump rate, ft3/s
The time in minutes for all pumps is computed as follows:
tmin = Vmin /15Qp
where: Vmin = minimum required cycle volume, ft3
the following limits may be used for estimating allowable cycle time during preliminary design:

Table 4-1 Cycling time

Motor kW Cycling Time (t), min
0 – 11 5.0
15 – 22 6.5
26 – 45 8.0
48 – 75 10.0
112 – 149 13.0

Knowing the pumping rate and minimum cycling time, the minimum necessary allowable storage, V, to
achieve this time can be calculated by: V = 15Qpt
Having selected the trial wet well dimensions, the pumping range, ∆h, can then be calculated. The
pumping range represents the vertical height between pump-start and pump-stop elevations. Usually, the
first pump-stop elevation is controlled by the minimum recommended bell submergence criteria specified
by the pump manufacturer or the minimum water level, H, specified in the design. The first pump- start
elevation will be a distance, ∆h, above H.
Where the only storage provided is in the wet pit, the pumping range can be calculated by dividing the
allowable storage volume by the wet pit area:
∆h = V/wet pit area
This distance between pump starts may be in the range of 1 ft to 3 ft for stations with a small amount of
storage and 0.25 ft to 0.5 ft for larger storage situations.
Page | 64
 Figure 4-6 Inside and outside dry well or pump house23

4.2.7. Suction and Discharge Piping

All pump suction and discharge piping with- in the pump station wet well and dry well should be cast iron or
ductile iron, with flanged joints. A separate suction pipe will be provided for each sewage pump, including a
flange and flare intake elbow, wall casting, shutoff valve and necessary connecting pipes and fittings. Suction
piping will be sized adequately to avoid high flow velocities under the normal design conditions. Velocities
should preferably be within a range of 2 to 4 ft/sec at the flare inlet and 4 to 8 ft/second in the suction pipe.
The discharge line from each sewage pump will include a flexible connection, a swing type check valve, a
shutoff valve, and necessary connecting pipes and fittings. Velocities should preferably be within a range of
6 to 10 ft/second in the discharge pipe. Ample supports will be provided for suction and discharge piping, to
prevent loads from reaching the sewage pumps and to resist hydraulic thrust. Force mains may be cast iron
pipe (CI), Ductile iron pipe (Dl) or fabricated steel pipe. Flow velocities in the force main should be within a
range of 6 to 10 feet per second, preferably in the lower part of the range. High points in force mains, where
air locking might occur, should be avoided.

23 Source: Dr. Fahid Rabah: Pumping Stations Design UDOT Manual of Instruction
Page | 65
A delivery pipe is the pipe that connects the pump with the manifold. The
diameter of this pipe is determined using the Continuity equation:
Dia of delivery pipe= (4*Q/ V) ^0.5
D = pipe diameter, m
Q pump = discharge of one pump when operation alone, m3/s
V = flow velocity, m/s
The velocity in delivery pipes is usually assumed in the range of 2-2.5 m/s.
Q pump is the determined from the intersection between the system curve and
The characteristic curve of a single pump in operation.

Figure 4-7 Force main and header

In case of multiple discharge lines, one single discharge of bigger diameters should be installed that will carry
flow from all sewage discharge lines. This saves financial burden as less pipe cost is involved and also reduces
head losses in pipe due to larger diameter hence easy maintenance.

4.3. Understandings Centrifugal Pumps

4.3.1. Understanding Suction Lift of the pump

Suction lift deals with the maximum distance to the intake of a pump. Fire pumps and others may lift about
5' to 10' of suction. You must lower the pump continually towards the water to keep them pumping. This
creates a water risk, and when they put it back in, it pumps for a while, and if it quits again, then the same
process must be repeated until it is pumping properly. Pumps operating at a negative minimum inlet
pressure are capable of creating a suction lift (non-self-priming). The suction capacity is approximately equal
to the level of the negative minimum inlet pressure minus a 1 m safety factor.

Page | 66
 Figure 4-8 Total dynamic head

Total Dynamic Head = Total discharge head + Total Suction Lift

Total Suction Lift = static + friction

Depending on how the measurement is taken suction lift and head may also be referred to as static or
dynamic. Static indicates the measurement does not take into account the friction caused by water moving
through the hose or pipes. Dynamic indicates that losses due to friction are factored into the performance.
The following terms are usually used when referring to lift or head.

4.3.1.1. Static Suction Lift

The vertical distance from the water line to the centerline of the impeller.

4.3.1.2. Discharge Head

The vertical distance from the discharge outlet to the point of discharge or liquid level when discharging into
the bottom of a water tank.

4.3.1.3. Dynamic Suction Head

The Static Suction Lift plus the friction in the suction line. Also referred to as a Total Suction Head.
4.3.1.4. Dynamic Discharge Head
The Static Discharge Head plus the friction in the discharge line. Also referred to as Total Discharge Head.
4.3.1.5. Total Dynamic Head
The Dynamic Suction Head plus the Dynamic Discharge Head. Also referred to as Total Head.

Page | 67
4.3.1.6. Suction Lift Chart
The vertical distance that a pump may be placed above the water level (and be able to draw water) is
determined by pump design and limits dictated by altitude. The chart below shows the absolute limits. The
closer the pump is to the water level, the easier and quicker it will be to prime.
4.3.1.7. Suction Lift at Various Elevations
Table 4-2 Suction lift at various altitudes
Altitude Suction Lift in Feet

Sea Level 25.0

2,000 ft. 22.0

4,000 ft. 19.5

6,000 ft. 17.3

8,000 ft. 15.5

10,000 ft. 14.3

4.3.2. Understanding Pump Performance

4.3.2.1. NPSH - Net Positive Suction Head Section
If you acknowledge that a pump can create a partial vacuum and atmospheric pressure forces water into the
suction of the pump, then you will be able to find NPSH a simple concept.
NPSH (A) is the Net Positive Suction Head Available, which is calculated as follows:
NPSH (A) = p + s - v - f
Where:
'p'= atmospheric pressure,
's'= static suction (If liquid is below pump, it is shown as a negative value) 'v'= liquid vapor pressure
'f'= friction loss
NPSH (a) must exceed NPSH(r) to allow pump operation without cavitation. (It is advisable to allow
approximately 1-meter difference for most installations.) The other important fact to remember is that
water will boil at much less than 100 degrees CO if the pressure acting on it is less than its vapor pressure,
i.e., water at 95 degrees C is just hot water at sea level, but at 1500m above sea level it is boiling water and
vapor.
The vapor pressure of water at 95 degrees C is 84.53 kPa, there was enough atmospheric pressure at sea
level to contain the vapor, but once the atmospheric pressure dropped at the higher elevation, the vapor
was able to escape. This is why vapor pressure is always considered in NPSH calculations when temperatures
exceed 30 to 40 degrees C.
NPSH(r) is the Net Positive Suction Head Required by the pump, which is read from the pump performance
curve. (Think of NPSH(r) as friction loss caused by the entry to the pump suction.)
The formula for calculating NPSHA:
NPSHA
Term = HA ± HZ - HF + HV - HVP

Page | 68
 Table 4-3 NPSH terms

HA • Typically, atmospheric pressure (vented supply tank), but

can be different for closed tanks.
The absolute pressure on the
surface of the liquid in the • Don’t forget that altitude affects atmospheric pressure
supply tank (wet well) (HA in Denver, CO will be lower than in Miami, FL).
• Always positive (may be low, but even vacuum vessels are
at a positive absolute pressure)
HZ The vertical distance • Can be positive when liquid level is above the centerline
between the surface of the of the pump (called static head).
liquid in the supply tank and
• Can be negative when liquid level is below the centerline
the centerline of the pump
of the pump (called suction lift).
• Always be sure to use the lowest liquid level allowed in
the tank.

HF Friction losses in the suction • Piping and fittings act as a restriction, working against
piping liquid as it flows towards the pump inlet.

HV Velocity head at the pump • Often not included as it’s normally quite small.
suction port

HVP Absolute vapor pressure of • Must be subtracted in the end to make sure that the inlet
the liquid at the pumping pressure stays above the vapor pressure. Remember, as
temperature temperature goes up, so does the vapor pressure.

4.3.2.2. Suction Lift

A pump cannot pull or "suck" a liquid up its suction pipe because liquids do not exhibit tensile strength.
Therefore, they cannot transmit tension or be pulled. When a pump creates a suction, it is simply reducing
local pressure by creating a partial vacuum.
Atmospheric or some other external pressure acting on the surface of the liquid pushes the liquid up the
suction pipe into the pump.
Atmospheric pressure at sea level is called absolute pressure (PSIA) because it is a measurement using
absolute zero (a perfect vacuum) as a base. If pressure is measured using atmospheric pressure as a base it
is called gauge pressure (PSIG or simply PSI).
Atmospheric pressure, as measured at sea level, is 14.7 PSIA. In feet of head, it is:
Head = PSI X 2.31 / Specific Gravity
Head = 14.7 X 2.31 / 1.0 = 34 Ft
Therefore, 34 feet is the theoretical maximum suction lift for a pump pumping cold water at sea level.
No pump can attain a suction lift of 34 feet; but well-designed ones can reach 25 ft. quite easily.
You will note, from the equation above, that specific gravity can have a major effect on suction lift.

Page | 69
4.3.2.3. Cavitation - Two Main Causes:
A. NPSH (r) exceeds NPSH (a)
Due to low pressure the water vaporizes (boils) and higher pressure implodes into the vapor bubbles
as they pass through the pump, causing reduced performance and potentially major damage.
B. Suction or discharge recirculation. The pump is designed for a certain flow range, if there is not enough
or too much flow going through the pump, the resulting turbulence and vortexes can reduce
performance and damage the pump.
4.3.2.4. Discharge head defined.
It is the vertical distance between the intake level of a water pump and the level at which it discharges water
freely to the atmosphere. The energy per unit weight of fluid on the discharge side of a pump.
The centrifugal pump pumps the difference between the suction and the discharge heads. There are three
kinds of discharge head:
• Static head. The height we are pumping to, or the height to the discharge piping outlet that is
filling the tank from the top. Note: that if you are filling the tank from the bottom, the static head
will be constantly changing.
• Pressure head. If we are pumping to a pressurized vessel - like a boiler- we must convert the
pressure units (psi. or Kg.) to head units (feet or meters).
• System or dynamic head. Caused by friction in the pipes, fittings, and system components. We get
this number by making the calculations from published charts.
Suction head is measured the same way.
o If the liquid level is above the pump center line, that level is a positive suction head. If the
pump is lifting a liquid level from below its center line, it is a negative suction head.
o If the pump is pumping liquid from a pressurized vessel, you must convert this pressure to
a positive suction head. A vacuum in the tank would be converted to a negative suction
head.
o Friction in the pipes, fittings, and associated hardware is a negative suction head.
o Negative suction heads are added to the pump discharge head; positive suctions heads
are subtracted from the pump discharge head.
Total Dynamic Head (TDH) is the total height that a fluid is to be pumped, taking into account friction
losses in the pipe.

Page | 70
 Figure 4-9 Head of pump

TDH = Static Lift + Static Height + Friction Loss

where:
Static Lift is the height, the water will rise before arriving at the pump (also known as the 'suction head').
Static Height is the maximum height reached by the pipe after the pump (also known as the 'discharge
head').
Friction Loss is the head equivalent to the energy losses due to viscose drag of fluid flowing in the pipe (both
on the suction and discharge sides of the pump). It is calculated via a formula or a chart, taking into account
the pipe diameter and roughness and the fluid flow rate, density, and viscosity.
4.3.2.5. Pump Performance and Curves

Figure 4-10 Pump performance curve

Page | 71
4.3.2.6. Pump performance curve

When selecting a centrifugal pump, one should match the performance of the pump to that needed by the
system. To do that, an engineer would refer to a pumps composite curve. A typical composite curve includes
the pump performance curves, horsepower curves and NPSH required.

4.3.2.6.1 Head and flow curve:

A pump performance curve indicates how a pump will perform in regards to pressure head and flow. A curve
is defined for a specific operating speed (rpm) and a specific inlet/outlet diameter. In our example below,
these curves show the performance at 1450 rpm for a 3” inlet/2” outlet. Several curves on one chart indicate
the performance for various impeller diameters. In the example below, the impeller size ranges from 6.3” to
8.7”. These curves also tell you the possible conditions that the pump could be modified to meet in the
future by installing a different impeller size.

Flow is indicated on the x-axis while pressure/head is indicated on the y-axis. In this example, if pumping
against a head of 40 ft using an impeller size of 7.9”, you could pump at a rate of 140 gallons per minute.
Typical centrifugal pumps will show an increased flow rate as head pressure decreases. The curve also shows
the shut off head or the head that the pump would generate if operating against a closed valve. In our same
example, the shutoff for the 7.9” impeller is 45 ft of head.

The pump performance curve also provides efficiency curves.

These efficiency curves intersect with the head-flow curves and
are labeled with percentages. The efficiency varies throughout
the operating range. In our same example with the 7.9”
impeller, we can see that at 140 gallons per minute, the pump is operating at 72% efficiency.

Some curves will also mark the Best Efficiency Point (B.E.P.). This is the point on a pump's performance
curve that corresponds to the highest efficiency and is usually between 80-85% of the shutoff head. At this
point, the impeller is subjected to minimum radial force promoting a smooth operation.

Figure 4-11 Head and flow curve

Page | 72
4.3.2.6.2 Power curve:

Figure 4-12 Head and flow curve

If we take our same example of a flow of 140 gpm using the 7.9” impeller, the power demand is 2 hp.

When sizing a motor, the total current and future demand should be considered to make sure that the motor
is the correct size. The motor is typically sized not at the peak efficiency point but by the maximum power
draw that will be needed. It is common practice to size the motor for the End of Curve (EOC) horsepower
requirements. In the example shown, even though 2 hp is required for a flow of 140 gpm with 40 ft head,
the end of curve horsepower requires a 2.5 hp motor be used.

4.3.2.6.3 NPSHr Curve

The 3rd part of the pump curve is the Net Positive Suction Head Required (NPSHr) curve. The NPSHr curve
provides information about the suction characteristics of the pump at different flows.

The x-axis is still measured in flow units (gallons per minute), but the y-axis is now measured in feet of NPSHr.
Each point along the curve identifies the NPSHr required by the pump at a certain flow to avoid cavitation
issues that would be damaging to the pump and would have a negative impact on overall pump
performance. In other words, the NPSH available must be greater than the NPSHr to avoid cavitation.
Looking back at our example design flow of 140 gallons per minute, we can see that this pump will require
approximately 2.5 ft of NPSHr at that condition.

Generally speaking, NPSHr does not vary dramatically between variations in impeller trim which is why we
do not see separate curves for the minimum and maximum impeller trims. Those curves are actually present,
but they are overlaid by the design- trim NPSHr curve.

Page | 73
per
ately 2.5

etween
eparate
hose
design-

Figure 4-13 NPSHR curve

4.3.2.6.4 Composite or Quick Selection Curve

Often, an entire line of pumps of one design can be shown in a composite curve to give a complete picture
of the available head and flow. These charts provide flow, head and pump size only. For more specifics, you
must then refer to the specific performance curve for impeller diameters, efficiency and other details.

mgne ell com e anol mgne ell com

Page | 74
Figure 4-14 composite curves

Page | 75
 4.4. Affinity Laws - Centrifugal Pumps
If the speed or impeller diameter of a pump changes, we can calculate the resulting performance change
using:
Affinity laws
i. The flow changes proportionally to speed i.e.: double the speed / double the flow
ii. The pressure changes by the square of the difference i.e.: double the speed / multiply the pressure
by 4
iii. The power changes by the cube of the difference i.e.: double the speed / multiply the power by 8.24
4.4.1. Wastewater Pumps used in current project of PMDFC
Centrifugal
United States pumps are recommended for the sewerage systems
Office of Water EPA of the project Cities. Submersible pumps
832-F-00-073
shall not be Protection
Environmental used because Washington,
these take much
D.C. more time inSeptember
repair and2000
are damaged frequently in our
environment of excessive solid waste in the sewage. The sewage pumps shall be vertical, centrifugal, non-
Agency
clog type suitable for installation in a dry well with the drive motor located above on a separate motor floor
Collection Systems
at the new pump stations and horizontal centrifugal, non-clog type suitable for installation in a dry well for
existing disposal stations. RPM of the pumps having less than 10 cusec capacity will be about 960 and above

Technology Fact Sheet

10 cusecs will be 750.

Sewers, Lift Station

dry-well lift stations, pumps and valves are housed
in a pump room (dry pit or dry-well), that is easily
ations are facilities designed to accessible. The wet-well is a separate chamber
from lower to higher elevation attached or located adjacent to the dry-well (pump
y elements of lift stations include room)
Horizontal structure. Figures 1 and 2 illustrate the two
centrifugal
ceiving well (wet-well), often types of pumps.
screen or grinding to remove
umps and piping with associated Hoist
a power supply system; an D is c h a rg e
and alarm system; and an odor
d ventilation system.
Wet Well
Dry Well
pment and systems are often
closed structure. They can be
te (custom-designed) or pre-
station capacities range from
e (20 gallons per minute) to more
per minute (100,000 gallons per
Inlet
cated lift stations generally have
Figure 4-15 Above horizontal and below Vertical pump
38,000 liters per minute (10,000
Shafting pumps are
ute). Centrifugal Source: Qasim, 1994.

n lift stations. A trapped air FIGURE 1 DRY-WELL PUMP

r system, that senses pressure and
y used for pump station
24 Pumping control.
Principles: Submersible lift stations do not have a separate
http://www.ABCTLC.comdownloads/PDF/Pumping%20Ass.pdf
natives include electrodes placed pump room; the lift station header piping, Page | 76
floats, mechanical clutches, and associated valves, and flow meters are located in a
switches. A more sophisticated separate dry vault at grade for easy access.
nvolves the use of variable speed Submersible lift stations include sealed pumps that
operate submerged in the wet-well. These are
Intermediate shafting between pump and motor shall be having suitable couplings, bearings and supports.
Motors
The drive motors shall be vertical/horizontall, Open, drip proof, solid shaft, squirrel cage, induction type
design.
Pump Priming and Intake
The pump shall be installed so that it will operate under a positive suction head under normal operating
conditions. Each pump should have an individual intake and the wet well should be designed to avoid
turbulence near the pump intake.
4.4.2. Supervision of operation
• Do not operate the pump with the outlet and/or inlet valve completely closed.
Any maintenance work on the pump must be done only when the pump is not running.
• If the packing Seal starts to leak while the pump is operating, tighten the backup Packing Rings
through the Gland Bolts, to reduce the leakage. This should give the operator some time to
schedule a shut down for the pump and replace the Mechanical Seal.
Reverse rotation of the pump through improper electrical wiring connection can cause the
Impeller to spin off the Shaft and possibly damage any or all of the following parts:
a. Pump Shaft
b. Impeller Casing
d. Stuffing Box Cover
e. Wear Pad
• Pumps should be operated only within the recommended range of the head-discharge
characteristics of the pump.
• If pump is operated at a point away from duty point, the pump efficiency normally reduces.
• Operation near the shut-off point should be avoided, as it causes substantial recirculation within the
pump, resulting in overheating of water in the casing and consequently, overheating of the pump.
• Voltage during operation of pump-motor set should be within ±10% of rated voltage. Similarly,
current should be below the rated current shown on the name plate of the motor.
• When parallel pumps are to be operated, the pumps should be started and stopped with a time lag
between two pumps to restrict change of flow velocity to minimum and to restrict the dip in voltage
in the incoming feeder. The time lag should be adequate to allow the head on the pump to stabilize,
as indicated by a pressure gauge.
• The stuffing box should allow a drip of leakage to ensure that no air passes into the pump and that
the packing gets adequate water for cooling and lubrication. When the stuffing box is sealed with
grease, adequate refill of the grease should be maintained.
• The running of the duty pumps and the standby pumps should be scheduled so that no pump
remains idle for a long period and all pumps are in ready-to-run condition. Similarly, unequal running
should be ensured so that all pumps do not wear equally and become due for overhaul
simultaneously.
• If any undue vibration or noise is noticed, the pump should be stopped immediately and the cause
for vibration or noise should be checked and rectified.
• Generally, the number of starts per hour shall not exceed four. Frequent starting and stopping
should be avoided as each start causes overloading of motor, starter, contactor and contact.
Although overloading lasts only for a few seconds, it reduces the life of the equipment.
Page | 77
 • Troubles in a sewage pumping station can be mostly traced to the design stage itself. This is all the
truer when too much grit is likely to come into the sewage pumping stations from sewages at
monsoon time, which is difficult to handle. Hence sewer collection system should not be allowed to
collect any storm water from the roads.
4.4.3. Increased wear due to dry running Damage to the pump set!
• Never operate the pump set without liquid fill.
• Never close the shut-off element in the suction line and/or supply line during pump operation.
4.4.4. While the pump is in operation, observe and check the following points:
• The pump must run quietly and free from vibrations at all times.
• Check the correct functioning of any auxiliary connections.
• Monitor the stand-by pump.
To make sure that the stand-by pumps are ready for operation, start them up once a week.
• Check the flexible elements of the coupling or belts and replace them, if required.
4.4.5. Visual inspection through the inspection hole
If there are problems with clogging, the inside of the casing and the impeller can be checked via the
inspection hole.
4.4.6. Risk of injuries, damage to the pump!
• Check that the inside of the pump is free from any foreign objects. Remove any foreign objects.
• Never insert your hands or any other objects into the pump, if the pump set has not been
disconnected from the power supply and secured against unintentional startup.
4.4.7. Undesirable Operations
• The following undesirable operations should be avoided.
• a. Operation at higher head
• A pump should never be operated at a head higher than the maximum recommended head
otherwise such operation may result in excessive recirculation in the pump and overheating of the
water and the pump. Another problem that arises if a pump is operated at a head higher than the
recommended maximum head is that the radial reaction on the pump shaft increases causing
excessive unbalanced forces on the shaft which may cause failure of the pump shaft. As a useful
guide, appropriate marking should be made on the pressure gauge. Efficiency at a higher head is
normally low so such an operation is also inefficient.
• b. Operation at lower head
If a pump is operated at a lower head than the recommended minimum head, the radial reaction on the
pump shaft increases causing excessive unbalanced forces on the shaft which may cause failure of the
pump shaft. As a useful guide appropriate marking should be made on both pressure gauge and ammeter.
Efficiency at a lower head is normally low, so such an operation is also inefficient.

4.4.7.1. Operation on higher suction lift

If a pump is operated on suction lift higher than the permissible value, pressures at the eye of impeller and
the suction side fall below vapour pressure. This results in flashing of water into vapour. These vapour
bubbles collapse during passage, resulting in cavitation in the pump, causing pitting on the suction side of

Page | 78
impeller and casing, and excessive vibrations. In addition to mechanical damage due to pitting, pump
discharge also reduces drastically. Typical damage to impeller and sometimes to the casing is shown in Figure
below.
Entrained air Vortices
It is widely known that even minor air entrainment, Unlike excessive pre-swirl, vortices appear lo-
of some 3.4% of the volume, will lead to a clear cally with higher intensity and are a major hindrance
reduction in pump performance and loss of effi- to proper pump operation, resulting in cavitation,
ciency; the severity d epends upon the quantity of uneven load, noise and vibration. There are several
air entrained and the pump t ype. The expansion of different types of vortices.
ingested air bubbles within the impeller may result
in mechanical imbalance, vibration and accelera- The most commonly known type is the free surface
tion of mechanical wear. Normal design practices vortex, which can have varying d egrees of intensity
recommend the exclusion of any air entrainment in – from weak surface vortices to fully d eveloped vor-
the approach flow to the pump intake. In addition, tices with a continuous air core that extends from
entrained air leads to increased corrosion. the surface into the pump.

While air bubbles may b e present in the liquid for a Less well known, but just as common is the vortex
Figure 4-16
variety of reasons, their presence Typicaldue
is usually cavitation
to damage of an impeller
that originates under the surface from the sump
cascading of the water as it enters the sump from bottom, walls or b etween t wo pumps, and extends
4.4.7.2. Operation of the pump with low submergence
a weir, culvert or incoming pipe located above the to the pump inlet. This type of vortex can achieve
surface water level
Minimum submergence in the
above sump.
the bell-mouth or foot valve high
is rotational
necessary speeds
so aswith
tohigh subpressures
prevent entry ofandair into the
cavitations.
suction of the pump, which gives rise to the vortex phenomenon, causing excessive vibration, overloading
of bearings, reduction in discharge and in the efficiency. As a useful guide, the lowest permissible water level
should be marked on the water level indicator. Usually, the pump manufacturer indicates the minimum
height of submergence.

4.4.7.3. Operation of pumping units at keeping free water fall in collecting tanks
Design of Free fall vertical drops at wet wells of Disposal stations is not recommended by Hydraulic Institute
specs ANSI/HI 9.8-2012 and 2018. Because Entrained air can influence efficiency, create cavitation and lead
Causes
to corrosion Entrained
of the air and vor tex shown in scale model test.
impeller and vibration. Strong surface vortex with an air cor e will result in cavitation,
uneven load, noise and vibration.

• Wet Well Layout results in

areas of low velocity
• Creates islands of solids that
require ongoing maintenance
• Deposited solids are re-
suspended during higher flow
• Pump wear
• Plugging
• Influent drops from significant
height or is introduced in a
manner that
Entrained air can cause causes
r eduction inFigure 4-17
dischar ge andFree
loss offall not recommended by vortex.
Strong submerged HI
efficiency.
turbulence
10

Minimum level of wet well should be such that there is no free fall rather steady flow to avoid air 5
entrainment.

Page | 79
 Figure 4-18 Minimum submergence level

S is the minimum submergence level of suction bell for dry pit pumps.

The Hydraulic Institute recommends minimum submergence of suction bell at the inlet velocity of 5.5 ft/s.
This minimum level of wet well is where 1st pump is started and it is at the bottom line of inlet pipe.

A few examples are given below:

For 10 cusec capacity pump submergence is recommended 4.2 ft, for 6 cusecs=3.5 ft

And for 4 cusec 3.3 ft

4.5. Maintenance of Pumping Station

Maintenance as follows shall be carried out for screens, penstock/gate, sump/intake/well and pump house
including civil works.
4.5.1. O&M of Bar Screen

The following are important for O&M of manual bar screen:

Our sewage contains excessive floating material because the MC staff and general public thinks that
sewage can also carry solid waste. Cleaning and maintenance of screens is of utmost importance which,
unfortunately our operational staff normally ignore and thinks that it will not result in any major
breakdowns. In fact, poor screening is one of the major causes of pump breakdown. Any object (especially
the ropes and any wrapping object can seize the impeller.
i) Screen should be cleaned at a frequency depending on ingress load of floating matters. The
frequency in monsoon season shall be more than that in fair season.
ii) Care should be taken to remove and dump the screening far away from the pump house.
iii) Lubricate wheels and axle of wheel burrows.
iv) The screen, catch tray and screen handling arrangement shall be thoroughly inspected once in
six months and any item broken, eroded, corroded shall be rectified.

Page | 80
 Figure 4-19 Bar screen and a chocked impeller

Even shopping bags frequently choke t suction pipe of the pumps and reduce the discharge. This results in
reduced output and energy inefficiency.
Screens must be cleaned in, at least two shifts. This cleaning process should continue without any break if
we want to avoid any pump breakdown.
4.5.1.1. Regular maintenance on a daily basis and repairs
• Verify that the screen rods have not broken loose.
• Verify that the cleaning rake is well washed in running water after each use.
• Verify that gum boots are kept inside a locker covered with mesh.
• Verify that disposable gloves are available for all 3 shifts and a stock of one month is available.
• Verify that helmet is available. Operation
• Before daily operation, verify all the above. If these points are not met, do not enter the screen area.
Enter all missing items in the site register.
• If all items are in order, do the cleaning once in four hours in each shift.
• Ensure that operators do not stand one behind the other. This may cause an accident because while
pulling the rake backwards, the operator in the front may hit and push the operator in the rear into
the sewage channel.
• Once the screens are cleaned and screenings are deposited on the slotted platform allow them to
drip dry till the next cleaning after 4 hours.
• Push the screenings with the rake to the side of the platform to drop them into the tipper positioned
there.
• Move the tipper to the vermin compost site, dump the contents in the pit and cover with earth
“Disposal of Screenings.”
• Screenings generally consist of non-bio degradable stuff like plastic sachets, milk packets, shampoo
packets, etc., with very little organic content. Hence, it is best disposed of as a secure landfill, which
should be prevented from direct rainfall and also flow of overland rainwater.
4.5.1.2. Weekly Preventive maintenance
• Check whether the standing platform is at least 2 m wide with the first 1 m as slotted. As an example
of a risky platform, in which there is no space for the operator to stand after he has lifted and
dumped screenings on it. Because of the lack of space, the operator may move backwards and fall

Page | 81
 into the sewage channel. Also, screens should be inclined to the horizontal by an angle of 60 degrees
or more, otherwise, the operator has to bend forward. The rear side of the platform should have
handrails. If handrails are not provided, enter this point in the site book.
• Check the condition of ladders and paint them periodically. Verify that there are no broken metal
parts that protrude outside. Once a month check the rigidity of handrails. Verify the platform for
its sturdiness by gently setting the foot on it.
• The lighting is not in front or behind the operator. It should be above the operator, at high and
mounted on the sidewall.
• Verify that the operator platform and slotted platform have 3-m head room and roof so that the
operator is not drenched and he can lift the cleaning rake freely.
4.5.2. Cleaning of wet well
Normally cleaning of wet well is not required daily if screens of disposal station are working satisfactorily
and labour clean the screens in two shifts. Unfortunately, importance of cleaning of screens is not well
understood. Everywhere it is considered a routine activity whereas this cleaning provides lifeline to pumps.
A large number of breakdowns occur due to blockage created by floating material in the suctions and
impellers of pumps.

There are two reasons of accumulation of solid waste in the wet well:

• The design of screens is not satisfactory to fulfil the requirement.

• Cleaning staff is unable (due to less labour available for this job) to remove large quantity of
screenings therefore, they make a wide gap between the bars so that solid waste pass the screens
easily and they are saved of excessive cleaning.
• The present condition of wet wells in almost all the MCs is such that it requires daily cleaning as a
part of screen cleaning is what was to be stopped and removed there.

Figure 4-20 Cleaning of wet well with clamshell excavator

4.5.2.1. Desilting of Wet well
Desilting of wet well may be carried out once in a year.
Necessity of Wet well desilting

• Cleaning is necessary to avoid suction bells of pumps from chocking and reduced output due to difficulty in
lifting of wastewater.
Page | 82
There are Two methods of desilting:

• Manual
• Mechanical
(a) Manual desilting:
• Wet well will be isolated by closing of penstock gate.
• Wet well be emptied from wastewater as much as possible. Remaining wastewater may be discharged out
through a potable submersible pump.
• contractor may be hired for the job who will arrange sufficient labour and safety belts, manila rope and long
safety shoes and gas masks.
• He will also arrange T&P for removal and lifting of silt and dumping it on a truck or trolly.
• A truck/Trolly may be arranged for transportation of silt to dumping place.

Assessment of volume of silt:

Measure the dia of wet well

Measure the depth of silt

Volume of silt=Pie/4(d)2 * depth of silt, from volume of silt one can estimate the rounds of a trolly.

(b) Mechanical Desilting

Mechanical desilting is easily carried out with the help of a clamp shell dragline excavator or if depth of wet
well is not so much the normal excavator with clamshell arrangement may be used

Figure 4-21 Clamshell dragline excavator and a simple excavator having clamshell bucket

Precautions with Mechanical Desilting

Desilting with clamshell machine may damage the suction pipes, wet well structure and other allied items if
the operator does not know about geometry of wet well therefore, he may be completely briefed before
start of work.

4.5.3. Penstock / Sluice Gate

A sluice gate is traditionally a metal plate which slides in grooves in the sides of the channel. Sluice gates
are commonly used to control wastewater levels in sewerage disposal pumping stations. They have a key
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importance in controlling the flow especially the repair of pumps is not possible when sluice gates at inlet
channel of disposal station are defective along with gate valves on suction pipe of the pump because
sewage flows round the clock and no control is possible when both are jammed due to non-maintenance.

Figure 4-22 Penstock gates

4.5.3.1. Reasons of sluice gate not working properly

• Rust on frame
• Deflection of leaf
• Lack of lubrication
• Specifications not suitable
• Specifications do not fulfill the requirement of a trouble-free gate.

Attention should be paid to the following points for proper operation:

4.5.3.2. Maintenance of penstock gates

i. Monthly maintenance
The penstock/sluice gate normally remains in open position and closed only when inflow is to be
stopped. Since floating matters may adhere to the gate and may accumulate in the seat, it should
be operated once in a month. In order to ensure that gate remains free for operation
ii. Yearly maintenance
• The gate should be thoroughly inspected once in a year preferably after monsoon and components
found worn out shall be replaced. Particular attention shall be paid to the seats of the frame and
gate.
• The gate should be closed to check the leakages. For this purpose, the sump/intake shall be partly
dewatered so that differential head is created on the gate and leakage test at site can be
performed.
4.5.4. Sump/Intake well Maintenance
• All foreign floating matters in the sump/intake shall be manually removed at least once in a month
and shall be disposed of away from pump house.
• Desilting of intake/sump shall be carried out once in year preferably after monsoon. Care should
be taken to dump the removed silt away from pump house.
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 • It is generally observed that reptiles like snakes, fish, etc. enter intake particularly in monsoon. The
intake should be disinfected.
• The sump/intake should be fully dewatered and inspected once in a year.
• It is advisable to undertake leakage test of sump once in a year. For this purpose, the sump shall be
filled to FSL and drop in water level for reasonably long duration (2-3 hours) should be observed. If
leakage is beyond limit, rectification work shall be taken.
4.5.5. Pump House Maintenance
• The pump house should be cleaned daily. Good housekeeping and cleanliness are necessary for
pleasant environment.
• Entire pump house, superstructure and sub-structure shall be adequately illuminated and well
ventilated. Poor lighting, stale air etc. create unpleasant environment and have an adverse effect on
will of the staff to work.
• Wooden flooring and M.S. grating wherever damaged should be repaired on priority.
• It is observed that at many places, roof leaks badly and at times the leakage water drips on the
panel/motor which is dangerous and can cause short circuit and electric accidents. All such leakages
should be rectified on priority.
• All facilities in sub-structure i.e., staircase, floors, walkways etc. should be cleaned daily.
• Painting of civil works should be carried out at least once in two years.

4.5.6. Tools And Testing Instruments

The pumping installation should be equipped with all necessary tools, testing instruments and special tools
required for repairs and testing. Their quantity and special tools depend on size and importance of
installation. Generally following tools and testing instruments shall be provided.
a) Tools
• Double ended spanner set, and ring spanner set.
• Box spanner set
• Hammers (of various sizes and functions)
• Screwdriver set
• Chisel
• Nose plier, cutting plier
• Flies of various sizes and smooth/rough surfaces
• Adjustable spanner
• Pipe wrenches
• Bearing puller
• Torque wrench
• Clamps for column pipes, tube and line shaft.
• Specials tools such as grinder, blower, drilling machine.
• Tap and die set.

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 • Bench vice
• Special tools for breakers
• Crimpling tool
• Heating stove for heating sleeves.
b) Test instruments
• Insulation tester
• Tongue tester
• A VO meters
• Test lamp
• Earth resistance tester
• Wattmeter, CT and PT
• Dial gauge
• Tachometer
4.5.6.1. Lifting and Material Handling Aids
Following lifting and material handling aids shall be kept in the pump house.
• Chains
• Wire rope
• Manila rope
• Chain pulley block and tripod.
• Other lifting equipment
• Hand cart
• Ladder
4.5.7. Pumps Maintenance:
• Sealing
• lubrication
• Vibration
• Electric control panel
4.5.7.1. Packing Seals

How can we prevent the water from leaking along the shaft?
A special seal is used to prevent liquid leaking out along the shaft. There are two types of seals commonly
used:
• This leakage must be controlled for two reasons:
1) to prevent excessive fluid loss from the pump, and
2) to prevent air from entering the area where the pump suction pressure is below
atmospheric pressure.

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 • The amount of leakage that can occur without limiting pump efficiency determines the type of shaft
sealing selected. Shaft sealing systems are found in every pump. They can vary from simple packing
to complicated sealing systems.
• Packing is the most common and oldest method of sealing. Leakage is checked by the compression
of packing rings that causes the rings to deform and seal around the pump shaft and casing. The
packing is lubricated by liquid moving through a lantern ring in the center of the packing. The sealing
slows down the rate of leakage. It does not stop it completely, since a certain amount of leakage is
necessary during operation. Mechanical seals are rapidly replacing conventional packing on
centrifugal pumps.

4.5.7.2. Gland packing is commonly used in as seals.

Figure 4-23 Shaft of pump worn out at sleeve due to gland packing

❖ The shaft sleeve is a sacrificial component that protects the more expensive pump shaft.
❖ Because packing needs to contact the shaft it will eventually wear a groove into it, which can be
costly to repair or replace.
❖ Inspect every 150 hours of operation for excessive leakage. Adjust as required

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 Figure 4-24:Parts related with gland packing seal

a) Stuffing Box Bushing

Installed in the bottom of the stuffing box to prevent packing from extruding through the bottom of the
stuffing box.
b) Lantern Ring
The lantern ring is grooved and drilled with holes to allow lubrication and distribute cooling water to all
packing rings as well as keep the stuffing box clean of containments
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 c) How to size Gland packing?
Simply measure the inner diameter of the bore of the stuffing box and subtract from it the outside
diameter of the shaft. The figure obtained be divided by 2 to get your gland packing size.
d) Standard sizes
Generally, the following sizes of the gland packing are recommended for the different shaft sizes as
follows:
• For shafts of size 50 to 75 mm diameter the gland packing of size 12.5 mm is used
• For shafts of size 75 to 120 mm diameter the gland packing of size 16 mm is used
e) Lubrication
• Lubrication of the pump packing is extremely important.
• The quickest way to wear out the packing is to forget to open the water piping to the seals or
stuffing boxes.
• Be sure there is always a slight trickle of water coming out of the stuffing box or seal.
• Rapid wear of the packing will be caused by roughness of the shaft sleeve.
4.5.7.3. Mechanical seal

Some of the reasons for the use of mechanical seals are as follows:

1. Leaking causes bearing failure by contaminating the oil with water. This is a major problem in engine-
mounted water pumps.
2. Properly installed mechanical seals eliminate leak off on idle (vertical) pumps. This design prevents
the leak (water) from bypassing the water flinger and entering the lower bearings.

4.5.7.4. Motor-Pump alignment

It should be an important part of any maintenance program. Most pump distress events or failures)
have their root cause in the misalignment of the pump to motor. Misaligned pumps can even consume up
to 15% more energy input than well-aligned pumps.
Even small pumps can generate big losses when shaft misalignment imposes reaction forces on shafts, even
if the flexible coupling suffers no immediate damage. The inevitable result is premature failure of shaft seals
and bearings.
Performing precise alignment, therefore, pays back through preventing the costly consequences of poor
alignment. Indeed, using precise alignment methods is one of the principal attributes of a reliability focused
organization.
Good alignment has been demonstrated to lead to:
• Lower energy losses due to friction and vibration
• Increased productivity through time savings and repair avoidance
• Reduced parts expense and lower inventory requirements
• Further, in order to ensure good alignment, the alignment must be checked and correctly set
when:
• A pump and drive unit are initially installed (before grouting the baseplate, after grouting the
baseplate, after connecting the piping, and after the first run).
After a unit has been serviced.
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• The process operating temperature of the unit has changed.
• Changes have been made to the piping system.
• Periodically, as a preventive maintenance check of the alignment.

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4.5.7.4.1 Operating procedures for scheduled checks or maintenance.
Proper shaft alignment is achieved by moving the motor. The motor is shimmed vertically to achieve the
proper elevation to align it to the pump, both parallel (offset) and angular. The motor is them moved
horizontally to achieve proper horizontal placement for aligning the shaft centerlines, both parallel and
angular. The motor is moved horizontally by the use of jacking bolts, or by the use of pry bars, hammers, or
other tools.
Motors are normally easier to move, since the motor is not piped into a process system. A short run of
flexible conduit is most often used to run the electrical wiring from a local disconnect, or a rigid conduit, to
the motor termination box. This allows for ease of movement of the motor.
Motor-Pump alignment is critical for these reasons:
• It minimizes the forces of misalignment acting upon the bearings and seals of both components.
• It minimizes wear of the coupling.
• It can help reduce energy costs.
• It maximizes the life of the machine components by minimizing wear, increasing time between
failures, and reducing vibration.
4.5.7.4.2 The pump coupling serves two main purposes:
• It couples or joins the two shafts together to transfer the rotation from motor to impeller.
• It compensates for small amounts of misalignment between the pump and the motor.
Remember that any coupling is a device in motion. If you have a 4-inch diameter coupling rotating
at 1800 rpm, its outer surface is traveling about 20 mph.
There are three commonly used types of couplings:
4.5.7.4.3 Rigid, Flexible and V-belts.
a) Rigid Coupling
Rigid couplings are most commonly used on vertically mounted pumps. The rigid coupling is usually
specially keyed or constructed for joining the coupling to the motor shaft and the pump shaft. There
are two types of rigid couplings: the flanged coupling, and the split coupling.
b) Flexible Coupling
The flexible coupling provides the ability to compensate for small shaft misalignments. Shafts should
be aligned as close as possible, regardless. The greater the misalignment, the shorter the life of the
coupling. Bearing wear and life are also affected by misalignment.

Figure 4-25 Closed coupled pump

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4.5.7.4.4 Alignment of Flexible and Rigid Couplings
Both flexible and rigid couplings must be carefully aligned before they are connected. Misalignment will
cause excessive heat and vibration, as well as bearing wear. Usually, the noise from the coupling will warn
you of shaft misalignment problems.
Three types of shaft alignment problems are shown in the pictures below:

Figure 4-26 Alignment positions

Different couplings will require different alignment procedures. We will look at the general procedures for
aligning shafts.
1. Place the coupling on each shaft.
2. Arrange the units so they appear to be aligned. (Place shims under the legs of one of the units to
raise it.)
3. Check the run-out, or difference between the driver and driven unit, by rotating the shafts by
hand.
4. Turn both units so that the maximum run-out is on top.
Now you can check the units for both parallel and angular alignment. Many techniques are used, such as:
straight edge, needle deflection (dial indicators), calipers, tapered wedges, and laser alignment.
Shaft misalignment is responsible for as much as 50 percent of all costs related to rotating machinery
breakdowns.
4.5.7.5. Worn Wear Ring/ Wear Plate
Device used to seal the pressure leakage of the liquid between the inlet of the impeller and the pump casing.
Excessive Clearances: If clearances are too wide for the type of fluid pumped, excessive slip will occur.

Figure 4-27 Wear ring25

25 http://www.ABCTLC.comdownloads/PDF/Pumping%20Ass.pdf
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4.5.7.6. Electric control panel
Auto star delta electric control panels are being used with the squirrel cage induction motors for this
project in all MCs. It has following items:
Sizing and setting of Contactors & Overload Relay: Whenever somebody requires replacement of parts
of panel the capacity may be calculated as under:
Full line current in an induction motor flc = KW X 1000/ (400*1.732*0.80)
Over Load Relay Setting
• The overload should be sized according to Main Contactor
• Relay Min (70% of FLC Phase)
• Relay Max (120% of FLC Phase) or
• Relay Setting (100% of FLC Line)
Making / Breaking Capacity of Contactors:
• Main Contactor (58% of FLC Line):
• Delta Contactor (58% of FLC Line):
• Star Contactor (33% of FLC Line):

Figure 4-28 ASD panel

4.5.7.7. Bearings:
The most important part in pump failure is bearing. There are various studies showing high rate of failures
due to defects in bearings. Some of them are illustrated below:
a) The study carried out as “Main Oil Line Pump Seal Failure Prevention; Advanced Simulation and Case
Study. by A.M. Khalaf, A.M. Al Omari, A.H. AL-Sherif, A. Toubar, ADMA-OPCO I. Barsoum, The
Petroleum Institute.A. Karrech, The University of Western Australia” Their report is summed up in
below graph.

Page | 93
 seal is exposed to widely varying operating conditions. Sometimes operating conditions
change to become quite different from the specific conditions for which the seal was intended.

The diagrams below show that shaft seal failure is by far the most co mmon cause of pump
CAUSES OF PUMP FAILURES
system failure. See figures 5.1 and 5.2.

Causes
Causes
of pump
of pump
failure
failure PumpPump
repairrepair
costscosts
1 % 3 1%% 3 % 2% 2% Shaft Shaft
seal seal
3% 3% 1% 1% Miscellaneous
Miscellaneous
5% 5% 5% 5%
BEARINGS
Impeller
Impeller
Operation
Operation
15 % 15 %
Coupling
Coupling
MISCELLANEOUS 30 % 30 % 18 % 18 %
BEARINGS
Housing
Housing
RollerRoller
bearings
bearings
34 % 34 %

39 % 39 % 44 % 44 %
SHAFT SEAL SHAFT SEAL

Fig. 5.1: Analysis of pump failure. Fig. 5.2: Analysis of pump repair costs.
Mechanical seals account for 39 % Mechanical seals account for
of pump failures. [1] 44 % of pump repair costs. [ 1]

Figure 4-29 Causes of pump failure

Typical shaft seal failures depend highly on the seal type and mate rial pairing. O-ring-type
shaft seals with dynamic O-ring and one seal ring in carbon-graph ite typically have problems
According to a survey bearing failures occur due to Improper lubrication. Major causes of
with wear on seal faces and seal hang-up, which prevents axial movement of the dynamic
Bearing Failure
are listed below: O-ring and seal ring. Mechanical shaft seals with hard/ hard seal fa ce material pairings usually
experience problems associated with dry running.
i. The wrongDetailed
lubricant type 20%.
information is required to make a failure analysis of a damaged shaft seal and
ii. Too much lubricant;
subsequentlyToo little
prevent newlubricant
failures. On 15%.
the damaged shaft seal, it is p ossible to observe what
iii. Aged lubricant 20%.
is damaged, but the reason for the damage must often be found on the basis of knowledge
of the pump and the application. This information should be recorded in a damage report,
iv. Contamination of the grease/oil by objects or
including details on the operating conditions of the equipment and components around the
v. water 25 %shaft seal.
See shaft seal failure analysis, pages 89-91.
b) AESSEAL, 2015 According to (AESSEAL, 2015), an equipment reliability study conducted at a major
In the following, examples of common causes of failure of mechanical shaft seals will be
refinery has published statistics on causes of rotating equipment failures and found that 40% of
discussed.
rotating machinery failures were due to bearing defects. The study further estimated that 48% of all
bearing failures were due to contamination.
76

Figure 4-30 Pump failure due to bearings failure

Credit SKF
Page | 94
 c) Study carried out by Science Direct: “Bearing fault diagnosis under various conditions using an
incremental learning-based multi-task shared classifier”.26
Their findings are: “Rotating machinery has applications in aerospace, automotive, energy, and
transportation fields. Rolling bearings are critical components of such machines. Approximately 40%
of significant machine failures originate from bearing defects; this figure increases to approximately
90% for small machines. Such failures cause safety issues, economic loss, and system breakdowns.
An effective, automatic fault diagnosis method is urgently needed”.
a) Types Of Bearings Commonly Used
There are three types of bearings commonly used: ball bearings, roller bearings, and sleeve bearings.
Regardless of the particular type of bearings used within a system--whether it is ball bearings, a sleeve
bearing, or a roller bearing--the bearings are designed to carry the loads imposed on the shaft.
Bearings must be lubricated. Without proper lubrication, bearings will overheat and seize. Proper lubrication
means using the correct type and the correct amount of lubrication. Similar to motor bearings, shaft bearings
can be lubricated either by oil or by grease.
b) Lubrication is required
The surfaces of bearing rolling elements and rings (inner ring and outer ring) are finished extremely
smooth. But however smooth they are their surfaces still have unevenness. When a bearing rotates, the
convex regions of the bearing rings and the rolling elements come in contact with each other. This contact
between the convex regions leads to friction and wear, inhibiting the smooth rotation of the bearing. In
order to prevent this friction and wear, oil or some other substance is applied between the contact
regions. This is called "lubrication

No contact between a bearing ring and a rolling No contact between a bearing ring and a rolling
element (with lubricant) element (with no lubricant)

Figure 4-31 Purpose of lubrication

The surfaces of bearing rolling elements and rings (inner ring and outer ring) are finished extremely
smooth. But however smooth they are their surfaces still have unevenness.

26 Pengcheng Wang, Hui Xiong, Haoxiang

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When a bearing rotates, the convex regions of the bearing rings and the rolling elements come in contact
with each other. This contact between the convex regions leads to friction and wear, inhibiting the smooth
rotation of the bearing.
In order to prevent this friction and wear, oil or some other substance is applied between the contact
regions. This is called "lubrication.
c) Purpose of lubrication
• To reduce friction and wear on the components of the bearing
• To carry away the heat generated by friction inside the bearing, and decrease the temperature
• To prolong the bearing fatigue life by maintaining the proper oil film on the rolling contact surface
at all times
• To prevent corrosion during use of the bearing
• To remove contaminants that penetrate into the inside of the bearing
d) How lubrication be carried out?
• Lubricate pump bearings every year of operation. Frequent lubrication is not required
• Many applications call for only a ¼ to ½ ounce of grease every month, which translates to;
• “One or two strokes on a standard grease gun. (Annually 0.17 KG per bearing or 0.34 KG per pump)”
• A general way to determine how much grease to replenish is to multiply the outside diameter of
the bearing in millimeters by the bearing width in millimeters, then multiply by 0.005. This will give
you the re-lubrication amount expressed in grams.

4.5.7.7.1 Factors Causing High Bearing / Lubricant Temperatures

• The load on the bearing: High relative bearing loads will increase bearing temperature. Factors
that can increase the bearing load include:
a. The pump flow rate.
b. Misalignment of the bearings.
c. Heat from the pumped fluid expanding the shaft into the bearing inner race.
Higher oil viscosity increases oil and bearing temperatures, so the oil grade should not be
higher than necessary. Synthetic oils will often allow lower oil grades. Higher oil viscosity also
increases the power loss from the bearings, which slightly increases life cycle costs.
• Oil level too high: The oil level should not be above the center line of the lowest ball/roller, to
prevent overheating of the oil.
• Too much grease: Greased bearings will generally run hotter than oil lubricated bearings, and over-
greasing will increase the bearing temperature even further.
• Higher speed pump operation increases the bearing temperature.

4.5.7.7.2 What if bearings are exposed into water due to leakage in dry well?

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 Figure 4-32 Contaminated bearing with water

Water contamination
If bearings are dipped into leakage water in the pump house, cooling of the housing with water will restrict
the expansion of the bearing outer race, increasing the internal bearing load and overheating.

4.5.7.7.3 Other Lubrication Factors Impacting Bearing Life

• Prevent abrasive dirt from entering the lubricant before it reaches the pump, with proper storage
and handling. Keep reservoir hatches closed, use air filter-breathers on all reservoirs, and clean
reservoirs before installing new oil. Further, filter all oil introduced into the reservoirs/sumps with
the use of a filter cart or off-line filtration.
• Ascertain that bearing fits comply with specifications.
• Ensure that the approved grades of oil or grease are used.
• Do not permit oil levels to go higher than the center of the lower ball.
• Do not mix incompatible greases.
• Use synthetic lubricants.

Figure 4-33 Over greasing

Over greasing can lead to high operating temperatures, collapsed seals.

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 Figure 4-34 Bearing surface damaged due to vibration27

Bearing surfaces damaged by fretting (vibration) wear

4.5.7.7.4 Factors affecting life of pump bearings
• Wrong fitting (loose or tight fit)
• Stuffing box leakage on bearings
• Low quality greasing
• Over greasing
• Shaft vibrations
• Sinking of pumps in leakage water
• Swear vibration jerks due to sudden blockages and delayed stopping of pumps.
4.5.7.8. Piping and Appurtenance Maintenance
• Properly maintaining pumping-station pipelines and other appurtenances can minimize pump loads.
Excessive head losses on either the suction or discharge side of a pump can increase energy use and
the wear rate and consequently, the O&M costs. Excessive head losses also may lead to process or
treatment problems because solids move slower, so the proper solids balance is not maintained.
Operators can monitor head losses by routinely checking the pressure gauges on both sides of the
pumps.
• When operators notice excessive head losses (indicated by a pressure drop on the suction side of
the pump or an increase in pressure on the discharge side), they should determine whether the
losses are a result of partial clogging, a restriction somewhere in the line, or materials built up on
the pipe wall. To find clogs, operators should start by checking the pressure at various points in the
suction and discharge piping and look for spots with abrupt head loss (such as valves or other
constrictions). If something is caught in a valve or other appurtenance, the operator should stop the
pump and physically open out the valve head, remove the blockage. In smaller pumps, it is easier to
remove the entire valve, disassemble and remove blockage, reassemble and refit. During such time,
other pumps shall be run. Scum build-up problems typically are addressed via source control (for
instance, by installing grease traps in the collection system at locations suspected or known to
generate grease, such as restaurants, etc.).

4.5.8. Trouble shooting

4.5.8.1. Pump problems and possible causes
a) Causes Of Pump Vibration

27 https:// www.watertechonline.com › wastewater › article

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 • Misalignment
• Bent shaft
• Clogged, eroded, or unbalanced impeller
• Insufficient suction pressure
• lack of rigidity in the foundation
b) Causes of Pump requires excessive power
• Misalignment
• Bent shaft
• Wrong wearing ring
• Shaft bearing worn
• Gland too tight resulting in no flow of liquid to lubricate gland
• Bearings rusted up due to flooding of water in dry well
• Excessive grease
c) Causes of Stuffing box leaks excessively
• Misalignment
• Pump (impeller) shaft bent
• Shaft or shaft sleeves worn or scored at the packing
• Gland packing improperly installed
• Incorrect type of gland packing for operating conditions
• Shaft running off center because of worn bearing or misalignment
• Rotor out of balance, causing vibration
• Failure to provide cooling liquid to water cooled stuffing boxes

d) Causes of Pump not delivering any liquid

• Insufficient priming

Figure 4-35 Insufficient priming

• Partially closed valve or some other obstruction in the discharge line

• Excessive suction lift

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 Figure 4-36 Suction lift
• Clogged impeller
• Wrong direction of rotation
• Clogged suction
• Ruptured suction line
e) Insufficient Discharge
• Air leak into suction pipe
• Air leak into pump through gland packing
• Concentric reducer in suction line causing air pocket (Replace with eccentric one)
• Casing not air-tight and therefore breathing in
• Total head of system higher than design head of pump
• Pump main clogged
• Line valve malfunctioning
• Impeller locking pin loose
f) Pump vibrates or is noisy at low flow
• Pump not fully primed
• Check clogging on suction side
• Suction lift too high
• Suction bell mouth insufficiently submerged

4.5.8.2. The most common causes of motor failure

• Electrical Overload (Overcurrent): This can be caused by a low supply voltage, short circuited
conductors. Install effective overcurrent protection relay
• Low Insulation Resistance
• It is caused by the degradation of the insulation of the windings due to overheating, corrosion, or
physical damage and Moisture.
• Over-Heating
• Around 55% of insulating failures in motors occur due to overheating caused by poor power
quality (low voltage), or a high temperature operating environment.
• Contamination
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 • Contamination from dust, dirt and chemicals is one of the leading causes of motor failure. Foreign
bodies can dent bearing raceways and balls
• Vibration
• The motor positioned on an uneven or unstable surface often causes vibration. Vibration can also
be a result of loose bearings, misalignment, or corrosion.
• Poor lubrication
4.5.8.1.1 Insulation Resistance
• For insulation resistance, A general rule-of-thumb is 10 Mega ohm or more

Figure 4-37 Measuring resistance

4.5.8.1.2 Motors Insulation Classes

Generally, Class-F insulation is used in Electric motors installed with pumps. This class has more temperature
tolerance (155oC) than class-B (130oC), therefore more safety and more life.

4.5.8.2. Trouble Shooting for Electric Motor

Table 4-4 Motor trouble shooting
Sr No. Trouble Cause Remedy

1 Hot bearings • Misalignment • Straighten or replace shaft.

• Oil too heavy or too light • Correct coupling alignment.
• Insufficient oil level • Use recommended oil.
• Bearing loose on shaft or • Replace bearings.
in bearing housing • Remetal shaft/housing or replace
• Insufficient grease shaft or bearing housing.
• Deterioration of grease or • Remove old grease, wash bearings
lubricant contaminated thoroughly with kerosene and
• Excessive lubricant replace with new grease.
• Overloaded bearing • Reduce quantity of grease. Bearing
should not be more than two-third
filled.
• Check alignment

Page | 101
Sr No. Trouble Cause Remedy

Motor dirty • Ventilation passage • Dismantle entire motor and clean

blocked. all windings and parts by blowing
Windings coated with fine off dust, and if necessary, varnish.
dust or lint. • Clean and wash with cleaning
• Rotor winding coated with solvent.
fine dust/cement • Clean and polish slip ring. Clean
rotor and varnish
3 Motor stalls • Motor overloaded • Check any excessive rubbing or
• Low voltage clogging in pump
• Open circuit • Correct voltage to rated value.
• Incorrect control • Correct voltage to rated value.
resistance of wound motor Fuses blown, check overload relay,
• Mechanical locking in starter and push button.
bearings or at air gap.
4 Motor does • No supply voltage or single • Check voltage in each phase.
not start. phasing or open circuit or • Start on no load by decoupling.
Wrong voltage too low. Check for cause for overloading.
rotation • Motor may be overloaded • Examine starter and switch/breaker
• Starter or switch/breaker for bad contact or open circuit.
contacts improper • Remove end shields, check
• Initial starting torque of • end connections. Dismantle and
load too high. repair.
• Rotor defective • Inter change connections of two
• Mechanical locking in leads at motor or at switchboard
bearings or at air gap. for two phases.
• Wrong sequence of phases
5 Motor • Check for overload • If overloaded, check and rectify
overheats • End shields may be cause for over loading.
while • clogged with dust, • Blow off dust from the end shields.
running preventing proper • Check to make sure that all leads
ventilation of motor. are well connected.
• Motor may have one • Check for faulty leads, connections
phase open. from transformer.
• Motor may have one • Check insulation resistance,
phase open. examine and revarnish or change
• Unbalanced terminal insulation.
voltage • correct voltage of the extent
possible.
• Replace worn bearings.
6 Motor • Motor misaligned • Realign
vibrates • Weak foundations or • Strengthen base plate/
holding • foundation; tighten holding down
down bolts loose bolts.
• Defective ball or roller • Replace bearing
bearings • Rotor unbalanced
Rotor unbalanced • Single phasing
• Single phasing • Unbalanced terminal voltage.
• Excessive end play • Motor may be overloaded.
7 Leakage of • Thrust bearing oil seal • Clean the spilled oil on winding.
oil or grease damaged Replace oil seal.
on winding • Excessive oil, grease in • Reduce quantity to correct extent.
bearing.

Page | 102
 Sr No. Trouble Cause Remedy

• Grease should be filled up to

maximum half space in bearing
housing.

4.5.8.3. Maintenance of Valves

4.5.8.3.1 Gate Valves

Figure 4-38 Gate valve

Gate valves are simply a shut-off device used on force mains to allow for pump or valve removal. These
valves should not be used to throttle flow. They should be either totally open or totally closed.
Maintenance as follows shall be carried out.

• As time goes by, the steel gate valve will start to get stuck. Periodically lubricate the stem of the
valve wheel.
• Be watchful of rust: It can stick the disc.
• Use wire brush to scrape the rust off of the metal
• Check gland packing of the valve at least once in a month. It should be ensured that packings inside
the stuffing box are in good trim and impregnated with grease. It may be necessary to change the
packing as often as necessary to ensure that the leakage is within limit.
• Grease should be applied to reduction gears and grease lubricated thrust bearing once in three
months.
• Check tight closure of the valve once in 3 months.
• A valve normally kept open or closed should be operated once every three months to full travel of
gate and any jamming developed due to long disuse shall be freed.
• Inspect the valve thoroughly for flaws in guide channel, guide lugs, spindle, spindle nut, stuffing box
etc. once in a year.
• Important DON’T for valve is that it should never be operated with oversize handwheel or cap or
spanner as this practice may result in rounding of square top and handwheel or cap or spanner may
eventually slip.

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 • An important DON’T for valve is that it should never be operated under throttled i.e. partially open
condition, since such operation may result in undue chatter, wear and failure of valve spindle.

4.5.8.3.2 Check Valves

Figure 4-39 Check valve

Check valves are watertight and are required to prevent backflow on force mains that contain sufficient
water to restart the pumps. They also effectively stop backflow from reversing the direction of pump and
motor rotation. They must be used on manifolds to prevent return flow from perpetuating pump operation.
Check valves should be “non-slam” to prevent water hammer. Types include swing, ball, dash pot and
electric.
Maintenance of check valves
• Check proper operation of hinged door and tight closure under no-flow condition.
• once in 3 months.
• The valve shall be thoroughly inspected annually. Particular attention should be paid to hinges and
pins and soundness of hinged door.
• Condition of dampening arrangement should be thoroughly examined once in year and necessary
maintenance and rectification as per manufactures’ instructions shall be carried out.
• In case of dampening arrangement, check for oil leakage and replace oil once in a year.
4.5.8.3.3 Air/Vacuum Valves

Figure 4-40 Air valve

Air/vacuum valves are used to allow air to escape the discharge piping when pumping begins and to prevent
vacuum damage to the discharge piping when pumping stops. They are especially important with large-
diameter pipe. If the pump discharge is open to the atmosphere, an air-vacuum release valve is not
necessary. Combination air release valves are used at high points in force mains to evacuate trapped air.
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 Table 4-5 Air/vacuum valves maintenance

Operation Year 0.5 Year 1 Year 1.5 Year 2 Year 2.5 After 5 years

Verify degassing function Yes yes Yes Yes Yes Inspection two times for
using the control valve year

Verify the seal of filling Yes yes Yes Yes Yes Control at every
orifice inspection

Verify the clamping of Yes yes Yes Yes Yes Control at every
bolts of flanges inspection

• Verify of the degassing function: If the degassing orifice is well working when opening the control
valve, only a little quantity of air must go out. If the flow of air is long, it means that the float is
embedded in closed position and there's a big sack of air in the valve. In this case it's necessary to: -
Close the isolating device; - Remove the cover of air valve; - Clean the internal parts and verify the
integrity of various components; - If there's some relevant wear sign it's necessary to replace the
gasket seal or the float; - Close the valve with its cover and re-open the isolating device.
• In case of failure of hydraulic seal This anomaly can be caused by the deposit on the seat of material
suspension that builds-up during the functioning or it is caused by the blocking of float on the guides.
In this case it's necessary to: - Close the isolating device; - Remove the cover of air valve; - Clean the
internal parts and verify the integrity of various components; - If there's some relevant wear sign it's
necessary to replace the gasket seal or the float; - Close the valve with its cover and re-open the
isolating device.
4.5.8.3.4 Butterfly valves
Butterfly valve is a shut-off valve. It is also used for regulating flow. Basically, the disk is operable up to 90
degrees and that’s why it is called a quarter-turn valve.

Figure 4-41 Butterfly valve

• Check seal ring and tight shut-off once in 3 months.

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 • Lubricate gearing arrangement and bearing once in 3 months.
Inspect the valve thoroughly including complete operations once in a year. Change oil or grease in
gearing arrangement once in a year.
• Operate bypass valve wherever provided once in 3 months.
• Flange adapter/dismantling joint provided with valve shall be loosened and retightened once in 6
months to avoid sticking.
4.5.8.4. Maintenance of starters. Breakers etc.
Circuit diagram of starter/breaker should be pasted on door of switch gear and additional copy should be kept on
record.
i. Daily
• Clean the external surface.
• Check for any spark or leakage current. 1 Check for overheating.
ii. Monthly
• Blow the dust and clean internal components in the panel, breaker and starter.
• Check and tighten all connections of cable, wires, jumpers and bus-bars. All carbon deposits shall be cleaned.
• Check relay setting.
iii. Quarterly
• Check all connections as per circuit diagram.
Check fixed and moving contacts and clean with smooth polish paper, if necessary.
• Check oil level and condition of oil in oil tank. Replace the oil if carbon deposit in suspension is observed or
color is black.
• Check insulation resistance.
• Check condition of insulators.
iv. Yearly
• Check and carry out servicing of all components, thoroughly clean and reassemble.
• Calibrate voltmeter, ammeter, frequency meter etc.

Figure 4-42 Motor starter and breaker

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4.5.8.5. Trouble Shooting for Starters, Breakers and Control Circuits
Table 4-6 Trouble shooting starters and breakers

Sr. No. Trouble Cause Remedy

1 Starter/breaker • Non availability of power • Check the supply.

not switching supply to the
• Reset the relay.
on starter/breaker
• Clean and reset relay
• Overcurrent relay operated.
• Remove lock and lock it properly
• Relay reset not operating
• Castle lock is not locked
properly

2 Starter/breaker • Relay contacts are not • Check and clean the contacts.
not holding contacting properly.
• Readjust latch and cam.
on ON-
• Latch or cam worn out
Position

3 Starter/breaker • Overcurrent relay setting • Check and reset to 140-150% of

tripping incorrect. normal load current.
within short
• Moderate short circuit on • Check and remove cause for short
duration
outgoing side. circuit.
• Sustained overload • Check overcurrent setting.
• Loose connection • Check for short circuit or
• earth fault.
• Examine cause of overload and
rectify.
• Clean and tighten.

4 Starter/breaker • Lack of lubrication to • Lubricate hinge pins and

not tripping mechanism mechanisms.
after
• Mechanism out of • Adjust all mechanical devices i.e.,
overcurrent
adjustment toggle stops, buffers, springs as per
or short
manufacturer’s instructions.
circuit fault • Failure of latching device
occurs • Examine surface, clean and adjust
• Mechanical binding.
latch. If worn or corroded, replace it.
• Relay previously damaged
• Replace overcurrent relay (and
by short circuit.
heater, if provided)
• Heater assembled
• Replace overcurrent relay and
incorrectly.
heater.
• Relay not operating due to:
• Review installation instructions and
* Blown fuse
correctly install the heater assembly.
* Loose or broken wire
• Replace fuse.
• Relay contacts damaged or
dirty

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 Sr. No. Trouble Cause Remedy

5 Overheating • Poor condition of contacts. • Clean and polish contacts.

• • Contacts out of proper • Align the contacts.
Alignment
• Clean the contacts with smooth
• Contacts burnt or pitted polish paper or if badly burnt/pitted,
replace contacts. (Contacts shall be
• Loose power connection.
cleaned with smooth polish paper to
• Sustained overcurrent preserve faces. File should not be
used.)
• or short circuit/earth fault.
• Tighten the connection.
• Check cause and rectify.

6 Contacts • Low voltage • Check voltage condition. Check coil

chatter voltage rating.
• Poor contact in control
circuit • Check push button station, (stop
button contacts), auxiliary switch
• Defective or incorrect coil.
contacts and overload relay contacts
and test with test lamp.
• Check for loose connections in
control circuits.
• Replace coil. Rating should
compatible for system nominal
voltage.

7 Noisy magnet • Defective coil • Replace coil

(humming)
• Magnet faces not mating • Replace magnet assembly.
correctly.
• Hum may be reduced by
• Dirt oil or foreign matter on
• removing magnet armature and
magnet faces.
rotating through 180.
• Low voltage
• Clean magnet faces with carbon
tetrachloride.
• Check system voltage and voltage
dips during starting.

4.5.8.6. Trouble Shooting for Cables

Table 4-7 Trouble shooting cables

Sr. No. Trouble Cause Remedy

• Provide a cable in parallel to existing

• Cable size cable or higher size cable
1 Overheating
inadequate.
• Increase clearance between cables.

• Check size of lug and whether properly

• Improper
crimpled and correct.
2 Insulation burning termination in
lug termination • Check whether only few strands of cable
are inserted in lug. Insert all strands

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 Sr. No. Trouble Cause Remedy

using a new or higher size lug if

necessary.

4.5.8.7. Power Factor Improvement

• Electric motors consume two types of power
• Power used to rotate the pump (useful work)
• Power used to magnetize or produce the flux within the motor called reactive power (wasteful
power).

Figure 4-43 PF

• This reactive power can be supplied by capacitors. It is measured in KVAR.

• A power factor of -0.7 for example, indicates that only 70% of power supplied to your motor is being
used effectively and 30% is being wasted.

• So, you are using 70% of power but Power Companies are supplying you100 % (70+30%) of power
that’s why they charge penalty for the power wasted by your system but not reflected in your
consumed KWH units.

• For example, if a motor of 60 KW has 0.7 power factor, it will draw current as I=60x1000/1.732 x400
x0.7=123.7 A say=124 amperes

• But if power factor is 0.95the motor will draw current as 91 amperes

• So, 33 A current is reduced by improving PF from 0.7 to 0.95

a) Simplest way to calculate required KVAR of a capacitor

• Check the existing power factor (Either by direct checking with meter, reading name plate or with
formula)

• Formula: Existing PF=KW/KVA

• Normally KW & PF is given on the name plate of motor.

• However, you can calculate the KVA by following formula; KVA=√3x V x I

• Suppose a 100 KW motor is drawing 90 A.

• KVA=1.73 x400 x90/1000= 62.35

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 • Existing PF= 50/62.35=0.8

• Check the table against existing and required PF.

• Multiply Factor from the table with power of the motor

• Required=0.95

• From table MF =0.421

• Required rating of capacitor will be=50 x 0.421=21 KVAR

Table 4-8 PF improvement table

4.5.8.7.1 Operation and Maintenance of power factor improvement panel

a) The supply voltage at the capacitor bus should always be near about the rated voltage. The fluctuations
should not exceed + 10% of the rated voltage of the capacitor.
b) Frequent switching of the capacitor should be avoided. There should always be an interval of about 60
seconds between any two switching operations.

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 Figure 4-44 PFI panel

c) The discharge resistance efficiency should be assessed periodically by sensing, if shorting is required to
discharge the capacitor even after one minute of switching off. If the discharge resistance fails to bring
down the voltage to 50V in one minute, it needs to be replaced.
d) Leakage or breakage should be rectified immediately. Care should be taken that no appreciable quantity
of impregnant has leaked out.
e) Before physically handling the capacitor, the capacitor terminals shall be shorted one minute after
disconnection from the supply to ensure total discharging of the capacitor.
f) Replace capacitor if bulging is observed.
4.5.8.7.2 Trouble Shooting for PFI Panel

Table 4-9 Troubleshooting PFI panel

Sr. No Trouble Cause Remedy

• Arrange for circulation of air
either by reinstalling in a cooler
• Poor ventilation and ventilated place or arrange
1 Overheating of unit for proper ventilation.
• Over voltage
• Reduce voltage, if possible,
otherwise switch off capacitors.

• Low voltage • Correct the voltage.

Current below
2 • Element fuses blown • Replace capacitor
normal value
• Loose connections • Tighten carefully

• Correct the voltage.

• Gas formation due to
3 Abnormal bulging • Replace capacitor
internal arcing
• Tighten carefully

• Partial internal
4 Cracking sound • Replace the capacitor
faults.

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 • Short, external to the
units. • Check and remove the short.

• Over-current due to • Reduce voltage and eliminate

over • harmonics.
5 HRC Fuse blowing
• voltage and • Replace the capacitor.
harmonics
• Replace with bank of
• Short circuited unit.
• appropriate kVAR.
• kVAR rating higher.

Capacitor not • Discharge resistance • Correct or replace the discharge

6
discharging low resistance.

• Insulation or
7 Unbalanced current • Replace capacitor unit.
dielectric failure.

4.5.8.8. Lifting Equipment

Figure 4-45 Lifting gantry

Relevant points in the maintenance schedule as follows shall be applicable for lifting equipment’s,
depending on the type of lifting equipment i.e., chain pulley block, monorail (travelling trolley and chain
pulley block), manually operated overhead crane and electrically operated travelling crane.
a) Quarterly:
• Check oil level in gear box and top up if required.
• Check for undue noise and vibration.
• Lubricate bearings and gear trains as applicable.
• Check insulation resistance of motors.
b) Half yearly:
• Clean limit switches.
• Clean all electrical contacts.
c) Yearly:
• Change oil in gear box.
• Conduct load test of crane for rated load or at least for maximum load required to be handled.

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 • All fast-moving components which are likely to wear should be thoroughly inspected once in a year
and if necessary, shall be replaced.28

28 https://www.seattle.gov/documents/Departments/SPU/Engineering/11PumpStationsFinalRedacted.pdf

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