Revision Topics

Prof. Adrian Orifici

RMIT University ©2024 AERO2359 1

 Overview
• Aircraft Structures
• Topic Review
– T1: Introduction to Aircraft Structures
– T2: Bending of Beams
– T3: Torsion of Beams
– T4: Shear of Beams
– T5: Buckling of columns and plates
– T6: Stiffened Structures
• End-semester Assessment
• End-semester Test Tips
• Study Tips

2
 Aircraft Structural Analysis
• What is an aircraft structure?
–Semi-monocoque = thin-skins reinforced with
longitudinal and transverse stiffeners

• What is aircraft structural analysis?

– Determine structural response
e.g. internal loads, stresses, deformations, buckling

• Structural analysis is key to the aircraft design

– Loads taken from configuration and flight condition
– Structural analysis for design, sizing and certification

3
 multi-cell beam

Megson, 4th edn, p382, Fig 12.6

thin-wall
open section

thin-wall
stiffened beam

closed section beam

4
 Aircraft Structural Analysis
• What skills are needed in aircraft structural analysis?
• Idealisation into appropriate beams
• Determination of beam cross-section properties
• Understanding basics of structural analysis
• Analysing bending, shear and torsion
• Understanding thin-wall behaviour and stiffened structures
– Difference between open and closed cross-section beams
– Difference between single and multi-cell cross-sections
• Analysing buckling performance
– Buckling of columns, buckling of plates

5
 Course Plan
• Introduction to thin-wall structures
• Instability of structures
– Buckling of columns
– Buckling of plates

• Analysis of thin-wall structures

– Bending
– Torsion
– Shear

• Stiffened structures
– Assumptions and idealisation
– Analysis of aircraft structures

6
 Wk Class 1: Tuesday Class 2: Wednesday Work start Work due
1 Intro to structural analysis Thin-wall assumptions
2 Beam diagrams, TWA Bending of beams
3 Bending of beams Torsion of beams
4 Torsion of beams Shear of beams
5 Shear of beams Column buckling

6 Buckling lab# Mid-semester test Lab Mid-semester test (20%)

MID SEMESTER BREAK

7 Column buckling Plate buckling

8 Plate buckling Stiffened beams

9 Stiffened beams Multi-cell beams Assmt Laboratory (25%)

10 Multi-cell beams Aircraft structures

11 Aircraft structures# Space structures
12 Revision (topics) Revision (problems) Assignment (20%):
13 Study week
14-16 End-semester assessment period End-semester assessment (35%)

Classes run as Tutorials indicated in italics

Classes that fall on public holidays are indicated in red. No class will be held, and recordings will be available on Canvas.
# spreadsheet-based activity for some or all of Tutorial, use of laptop or other device with spreadsheet software necessary

7
 Course Learning Outcomes
1. Define, describe and apply the fundamental concepts for analysis
of thin-wall aircraft structures
2. Describe and analyse the bending response of solid, thick-wall and
thin-wall beams of symmetric and asymmetric cross-section.
3. Define, explain and analyse elastic and inelastic buckling columns
in compression and bending, and thin plates in compression and
shear
4. Describe and analyse the torsion response of thin-wall sections of
circular and non-circular cross-section.
5. Describe and analyse the shear flow of open and closed section
thin-wall structures.
6. Describe and analyse the bending stress, shear flow and torsion
response of stiffened thin-wall structures.

8
 T1: Introduction to Aircraft Structures
• Basics of structural analysis
– Loadings and Units, Unit Systems, Significant Figures
– Stress, Strain, Hooke’s Law
– Plane (2D) Problems, Beams and Plates
– 2D State of Stress, Aircraft Materials
– Static Equivalence, Partial Derivative
– Supports, Internal Loads, Force and Moment Diagrams

9
 T1: Introduction to Aircraft Structures
• Second moment of area (I)
– Selection of correct I value for a given problem
– Buckling: Minimum I about any axis around the cross-section
– Bending: Minimum I about a given axis of bending
– Calculation of Ix, Iy, Ixy, Imax, Imin

• Thin-wall assumptions
– Simplification of second moment of area calculation
– Use distance values from segment centrelines
– Ignore squares and higher powers of t (i.e., ignore, t 2, t 3, t 4, etc.)
– Assumptions about I affect the conservatism of analysis
– Reduction in I from exact case leads to conservative results
– Ignoring terms in I calculation is conservative
– Ignoring the exact height of the cross-section is non-conservative

10
 Topic 1: Learning Outcomes
• To define, describe and apply the fundamental
concepts for analysis of thin-wall aircraft
structures
–Demonstrate understanding of the fundamental
concepts of aircraft structural analysis, including
engineering conventions, section property calculation,
force and moment diagrams, aircraft materials and
structural components.
–Define and apply the assumptions for thin-wall and
idealised stiffened structures, and discuss the key
parameters that determine when these are applicable.

11
 T2: Bending of Beams
• Bending of a beam causes compression and tension
stresses on the cross-section (“bending stresses”)
• These are direct stresses, normal to the cross-section
• Between the compression and tension regions is a line of
zero bending stresses, called the neutral axis
• Bending stresses (in z) for a general asymmetric beam are
dependent on moments around both in-plane axes (x and y)
and the cross-section properties, Ix, Iy and Ixy
– These are simplified for symmetric cases (Ixy = 0), or single loading

no single double
symmetry symmetry symmetry

12
 Topic 2: Problems
• For the cross-sections and loading shown
– Determine the section properties, xc, yc, Ix, Iy, Ixy,
– Determine the bending stresses and neutral axis

13
 Topic 2: Learning Outcomes
• To describe and analyse the bending response of
solid, thick-wall and thin-wall beams of symmetric
and asymmetric cross-section
–Describe and analyse the stress distribution and
deflections for symmetric and asymmetric thin-wall
beams under bending
–Define the neutral axis of a beam cross-section, and
locate this for symmetric and asymmetric bending

14
 T3: Torsion of Beams
• Circular sections under torsion behave according to elementary bar
theory
• Non-circular sections use same equations for unrestrained torsion, but:
– Warping occurs, and if warping is restrained then axial stresses occur
– Shear stresses no longer linear with radius or normal to radius
• Thin-wall closed sections develop a constant shear flow through-
thickness under the action of a torque
• Thin-wall open sections develop shear stresses that vary linearly with
thickness under the action of a torque
• For combined torsion and axial loads need to consider principal
stresses and combination

4 AE
2
d L q T GJ d
thin-wall closed q 
dz 2GA  t
d T J  ds
 2 AE 2 AE dz
dz GJ section  ds / t
TL d d tT
 L thin-wall open st 3 d 2T
GJ dz J    2Gn  n  max  Gt 
section 3 dz J dz J

15
 Topic 3: Problems
Find the shear stress, shear strain, angle and rate of twist, and locate the
maximum shear (also in combination with shear from shear force)

16
 Topic 3: Learning Outcomes
• To describe and analyse the torsion response of
thin-wall sections of circular and non-circular
cross-section
–Calculate the shear stress, shear strain, rate of twist
and angle of twist for thin-wall circular or non-circular
sections under torsion
–Describe the difference between the torsion response
of circular and non-circular sections, and between open
and closed sections
–Calculate the principal stresses for a torsion member
under combined torque and axial load, and the
combined in-plane stresses from both torsion and shear
17
 Topic 4: Shear of Beams
• Shear flow, q =  t, is a key concept for thin-wall structures
• Shear stress and shear flow are constant through-thickness
and parallel to surface for thin-wall structures
• Shear flows around the edges of a rectangular thin-wall
element are all equal
• Shear centre for open sections
– the location at which applied loads cause zero twist
– always lies on an axis of symmetry if any exist

SC SC
SC

18
 T4: Shear of Beams
• Concentration of flange areas and separation of functions of flanges
and webs is common
– Flanges carry bending moments (I0 = 0)
– Webs (skins) carry constant shear (tD = 0)
• For thin-wall webs with constant shear flow
– Relation between torque and shear flow given by T = 2qAE
• Shear flow for open section beams given by continuous

𝑆 𝑆
concentrated 𝑞 𝐴 𝑦 𝑞
continuous 𝑞 𝐼
𝑦𝑡𝑑𝑠 𝑞
𝐼
areas

• Characteristics of shear flow

– Equivalent (in load, direction, moment) to external shear force
– Zero at free edge
concentrated areas
– Function of the distance to bend axis (idealised)
– Step changes at web thickness change or area change
– Constant for zero thickness webs (i.e. webs not carrying direct stress)

19
 T4: Shear of Beams: Closed Sections

• Analysis of closed sections uses the same framework as open sections

• Closed sections can withstand torsion, which generates shear flow q = T/2AE

• Shear flows due to torsion can be simply added to shear flows without torsion

• Shear flow in a closed section is usually calculated as: q = qbasic + qc

– qbasic: found by “cutting” into an open section, so you start calculating q from zero
– qc: the “closing” component of q that was ignored when the section was “cut”

• To solve for qc use torsional equivalence Texternal =  Tinternal

20
 Topic 4: Problems
For these sections, calculate and sketch the shear flow distribution (from only shear
force), calculate the force in each segment

21
 Topic 4: Learning Outcomes
• To describe and analyse the shear flow of open
and closed section thin-wall structures
–Describe the concept of shear flow for thin-wall
structures, and use this to discuss the equilibrium of a
structure under shear
–Derive and analyse the shear flow for typical open and
closed thin-wall cross-sections under shear loading
–Describe the concept of the shear centre of a cross-
section

22
 Mind maps, Flow charts, etc.
• Graphical summaries such as mind maps and flow charts are great to
organise and synthesise your learning
• Helps to see connections and differences between topics
• Can provide a process or checklist for solving problems
• Many different forms and purposes
• Software can assist!

shear
flexural buckling strength stress
structural direct
local
failure stress

fatigue
crack
stress-life
growth
23
Make a mind map for stress analysis
try to show how the loads and moments are incorporated
y
z x direct
stress

Px Py Pz
Mx My Mz

shear stress

24
 T5: Column Buckling – Euler Buckling
• Buckling is a fundamental phenomenon associated Euler buckling
with stability of structures
 2 EI
• Euler theory gives buckling load of perfect column PCR 
L2
• Assumptions
– The column is perfectly straight
– Load is applied at the section centroid L' = effective length
– Material is homogenous and in the elastic range  2 EI
PCR 
– No local section instabilities (no twist or deformation)
L'2
• Buckling load dependent on flexural rigidity EI
• Columns buckle about axis of minimum I value  2E
 CR 
• End fixity accounted for using effective length
– pin-pin L’=L, fixed-fixed L’=0.5L, pin-fixed L’=0.7L
L'  2
• Stress form of buckling equation shows buckling L'
determined by slenderness ratio, L’/ = slenderness ratio

25
T5: Column Buckling – Inelastic Buckling
• Stress form of buckling equation used to plot column curve
– buckling stress vs slenderness ratio
• From column curve, columns can be defined as:
– Long: following Euler theory,  < elastic limit
– Short:  > elastic limit, so plasticity involved

• Block compression for very small slenderness ratios (~10)

– Very limited buckling, column failure due to compressive ultimate failure

• For short columns, a range of theories exist

– Empirical equations, suitable for columns with non-stable sections
– linear  CR   c 0  k L'   Euler-Johnson
  c 0  L'  
2

– parabolic  CR   c 0  k L'  2  CR   c 0 1  2   
 4 E    

26
 T5: Plate Buckling
• Thin plates can buckle in compression and shear
• Buckling stress calculation uses the same equation
for both: 2
t
 CR  KE  
b
• K is restraint factor: found from graphs or standards
• Restraint (and hence buckling stress) varies with loading
(compression, shear, etc.), material, plate geometry and
boundary conditions
– Different compression and shear behaviour needs to be understood

27
 T5: Inelastic Plate Buckling
• Consideration of plasticity for plate buckling is similar to
inelastic column buckling
• Plasticity reduces the material stiffness, which reduces
the buckling load
• Plasticity can be accounted for with analytical or empirical
methods
• A column curve (and short column theories) can be used
with an equivalent slenderness ratio

L'  eq   b

 
K t

28
 T5: Buckling Modes
• Flexural buckling is the primary instability mode of
entire column, where buckling occurs between
supports
• Local buckling is instability of the cross-section
segments as plates
• Simple analysis method for local buckling considers
plate buckling of each individual segment or panel
• Critical buckling mode for a structure is the lowest
buckling stress considering local and flexural
modes

29
 T5: Beam-columns
• Bending of a compression-loaded column can be caused by imperfections
(geometric, load, material) or transverse loads (loads, moments)
• Addition of bending significantly affects column performance in compression
– Reduces the buckling load and increases the lateral and axial displacements
– Both effects increase without limit as P approaches PCR
• Simplified analytical approach considers sinusoidal deflection of pin-ended
column, and magnification effect of load on initial conditions
• Design curves for bending moment allow for stress analysis and sizing for
wide range of bending-compression cases


yz  z
y y0  z    0 sin
L


P P
z P
0 PCR
L 1.0

30
 Topic 5: Problems
Given column parameters (dimensions, material, length)
Determine buckling stress and column type

D
Discuss the column curve and short column equations
ET = dd
“Short” columns –

 CR
Alternative theories and test 
“Block
compression”
“Long” columns
Euler applies
 cy
range
 cy
E = dd
= constant

L' 

31
 Topic 5: Problems
y
 0  0.6 
P P
z Di

L Do

Analyse column performance incorporating bending from imperfection

(geometric, eccentric load) or transverse loads

Can consider: length L, load P, initial deflection 0, tangent bending stiffness s,
axial compression , lateral distributed pre-loads (, P0, M0)

Discuss column imperfections and lateral
deflections, with reference to design charts
and column behaviour
 P
PCR
1.0
32
 Topic 5: Problems
Given panel dimensions and support conditions, calculate buckling
stress or size panel thickness based on buckling

Compare different support conditions, the design of the panel using

direct/shear and buckling, and the buckling stresses and design
including plasticity

Calculate local buckling for a cross-section, compare to flexural buckling

33
 Topic 5: Learning Outcomes
• To define, explain and analyse elastic and inelastic buckling columns in
compression and bending, and thin plates in compression and shear
– Explain Euler column theory, describe its assumptions and describe the
influence of end fixity.
– Calculate the elastic and plastic buckling load and buckling stress for a column.
– Describe and use the column curve to characterise long columns, short
columns and columns in block compression.
– Describe the behaviour of columns with imperfections and lateral loads, and
discuss the effect of combined compression and bending on buckling load, axial
stiffness, axial contraction and lateral deflection.
– Calculate the maximum deflection and stress for a beam-column in
compression and bending considering geometric imperfection, load eccentricity
or lateral loading.
– Describe and calculate the elastic and plastic critical buckling stress for a
rectangular flat plate in compression and shear.
– Define and analyse local buckling and discuss the instability modes for thin-wall
columns in compression.

34
 Make a flow chart for buckling stress
include both columns and plates, with equations and a check for plasticity

check

elastic
buckling

plastic
buckling

35
 T6: Stiffened Structures: Stiffened Beams
• Idealisation for stiffened structure analysis
– Functions of the structural elements are separated
– Stiffeners carry only direct stresses, skins carry only shear stresses

• Need to ensure the idealised structure is statically equivalent to the real

structure
– Suitable idealisation is dependent on the loading condition

• Consideration of equilibrium of each element (or at each junction) is

important in solving for boom loads and shear flows

• Tapered structures can be analysed with simple theory and average

shear flows
– The effect of taper is small for bending stresses, but significant for shear
stresses
– Analysis of shear flows in stiffened beams with taper requires consideration of
the average shear flow and offset of forces along stiffeners

36
 T6: Stiffened Structures: Multi-cell Beams
• Analysis of multi-cell structures uses the same techniques
as for single cell tubes
• Need to apply to each N cell to create N+1 equations
– required to “cut” each cell in order to solve, as for closed cell tubes
– N equations for d/ dz in each cell
– 1 equation for torsional equivalence Text = Tint

• For a multi-cell structure, the rate of twist is assumed to

be constant for all cells, based on maintaining an
undistorted cross-section

Nth cell twist Nth cell twist, for consecutively connected cells
d 1 qs d 1  s s s 

dz 2 AE ,n G
t  
dz 2 AE ,n G 
 qn 1  
 t  n 1,n
 qn    qn 1  
 t n

 t  n 1,n 

37
T6: Stiffened Structures: Aircraft Structures

• Range of aircraft structures (wings, fuselages, etc.)

can be analysed using techniques previously
developed, once:
– loads and geometry are known
– appropriate idealisations and assumptions made

• Design calculations use analysis approaches to

solve for geometry
– wide range of design conditions and real-world factors
• Understanding the assumptions and limitations for
any analysis is critical

38
T6: Stiffened Structures: Space Structures

• Space structures use a range of different structural

types for primary structures
– primary structure: trusses, stiffened-skins, cylinders

• Basic analysis techniques developed in this course

and others can be applied for design and analysis
• Many design considerations from aircraft are
relevant, though others are specific to space

39
 Topic 6: Problems
Determine suitable idealisation
1 2 3

4
6 5

Calculate the distribution of stiffener loads and

the shear flow distribution in the web panels

40
 Topic 6: Problems
Tapered beams Multi-cell untapered boxes Aircraft structures

41
 Topic 6: Learning Outcomes
• To describe and analyse the bending stress, shear flow and
torsion response of stiffened thin-wall structures
–Describe and demonstrate the idealisation of stiffened structures in
terms of the functions of the structural elements and the relationship
to the applied loads
–Calculate the stiffener loads and shear flow distribution for a stiffened
thin-wall beam structure
–Calculate the stiffener loads, shear flow distribution and angle of twist
for an untapered unrestrained single or multi-cell box structure due to
bending, shear and torsion.
–Describe and analyse the effect of tapering on the stiffener loads and
shear flow distribution of stiffened structures.
–Describe the necessary assumptions and theoretical limitations for
the analysis of aircraft stiffened structures

42
 Bending symmetric, single moment asymmetric section
M  M y I x  M x I xy   M x I y  M y I xy 
 y z   x   y
I  I I I 2   I I I 2 
 x y xy   x y xy 

force/moments due to shear flow force/moments due to Batho-Bredt

Shear for constant q
B B
constant shear flow
X O   qdx YO   qdy
B
TO   hqds T
A A A X  ql x Y  ql y T  2qAE  ql  h q
2 AE
continuous symmetric, single load asymmetric
S  S x I x  S y I xy  s  S I  S x I xy  s ‘closing’ shear
qs    tyds qs    txds   y y  tyds
q  qs  q0
I  I I  I 2  0  I I  I 2  0 stress for with
 x y xy   x y xy 
zero twist

concentrated symmetric, single load asymmetric   qb ds  qb s

areas S  S x I x  S y I xy   S I  S x I xy  qc , 0  
q  qn  q0
qn  
I
An yn qn  
 I I I 2 
 An xn   y y
 I I I 2  n n
A y  ds s
 x y xy   x y xy 

GJ d
2 2
Torsion 4 AE 4 AE T d 1 q
closed J  q    t ds
section  ds / t s / t  2 AE 2 AE dz dz 2GAE
unrestrained torsion
d T TL d open 1 3 st 3 d tT
  L J   t   max  Gt  d 2nT
dz GJ GJ dz section dz J
  2Gn 
3 3 dz J

43
Structural Idealisation

b b t Db  2 
A1 A1  
 2 
6  1 
tD = t t (tD = 0)
1 1 t Db   
A2   2  1 
2 6  2 
2 A2

Multi-cell Structures constant shear flow

N-cell beam Text   2 AE qb   2 AE ,n qc ,n   qbl  h   2 AE ,n qc ,n

d 1  l  l  l   qb l  
N cells connected   qc ,n 1    qc ,n     qc ,n 1      
consecutively dz 2 AE ,nG  t
  n 1,n t
 n t
  n 1,n  t n 

Tapered Panel
q
2
a a
b q  q a q  q 
b q b

44
 Study Tips
• Use this presentation as a checklist
– can I solve all problems?
– can I discuss all key concepts in my own words?

• Revise your assessment tasks

– Test questions drawn from all topics
– All previous assessment tasks are relevant
– Do NOT assume that calculations are exactly the same
as assessments
– Read questions carefully, pay attention to assumptions and
question information
– Learn from your previous study / test experience
45
 Study Tips
• Study “smart not hard”
– only a limited amount of questions and study time
– target study where needed
– think about what is being solved for don’t just learn the methods
– avoid relying on repetition and memory-based learning
– practice under test conditions (don’t check solutions as you go)
– attempt previous test questions LAST

• Consider interaction between topics

– column buckling, inelastic buckling, plate buckling, beam-columns
– bending, shear and torsion of beams
– buckling and stress analysis
– thin-wall assumptions and all topics

46