Geophysical Interpretation and Tectonic Synthesis

Precambrian Research 343 (2020) 105728
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Precambrian Research
journal homepage: www.elsevier.com/locate/precamres
Geophysical interpretation and tectonic synthesis of the Proterozoic T

southern McArthur Basin, northern Australia
⁎
T.N. Blaikiea,b, , M. Kunzmanna,b
a
CSIRO Mineral Resources, Australian Resources Research Centre, Kensington, WA 6151, Australia
b
Northern Territory Geological Survey, Department of Primary Industry and Resources, GPO Box 4550, Darwin, NT 0801, Australia
A R T I C LE I N FO A B S T R A C T
Keywords: The southern McArthur Basin is highly prospective for sediment-hosted Zn-Pb-Ag mineralisation, and hosts the
McArthur Basin McArthur River and Teena deposits within the Batten Fault Zone. The basin formed in response to widespread
Batten Fault Zone extension and thermal subsidence, and was subsequently deformed during crustal shortening events that affected
Proterozoic the North Australian Craton during the Proterozoic. Mineralisation is hosted in structurally controlled sub-basins
Structural architecture
that formed during deposition of the middle McArthur Group. Recognition of structures controlling these sub-
Tectonics
Potential field modelling
basins has traditionally been challenging because overprinting relationships from several extension and crustal
shortening events created a complex fault and depositional architecture. In this work, we interpret and model
newly acquired and existing gravity, magnetic and seismic data to better understand the regional structural
architecture and evolution of the southern McArthur Basin. Important for base metal exploration, results from
this study suggest that the prospective lower Barney Creek Formation was deposited during intermittent, and
broadly north–south-directed extension at ca. 1645–1640 Ma. This caused strike-slip movement along major
north-northwest-trending faults, and normal movement along east–west to east-northeast-trending faults.
Faulting resulted in significant sub-basin deepening in some areas, and uplift and erosion in others. These sub-
basins developed in transtensional segments of strike-slip faults, and adjacent to normal faults. Geophysical
modelling also identified an anomalously thick pile of mafic volcanics within the early basin fill represented by
the Tawallah Group. This is significant because mafic volcanics have previously been interpreted as the source of
base metals within the region, and the thick volcanic pile we identified occurs in close proximity to the McArthur
River and Teena deposits. Sub-basin bounding faults that were active during mineralization tap into this
anomalously thick pile of volcanics, suggesting that they likely represented fluid pathways for ascending me-
talliferous brines.
1. Introduction episodes of extension and inversion across the basin and produced a
complex architecture of large basin scale normal and strike-slip faults
The ca. 1815–1450 Ma McArthur Basin of Northern Australia pre- that were periodically reactivated during different phases of the basin’s
serves a 5–15 km-thick succession of mixed carbonate and siliciclastic development (e.g., Betts and Lister, 2001; O'Dea et al., 1997; Scott
rocks with intercalated bimodal volcanics near the base (Ahmad et al., et al., 2000; Southgate et al., 2000).
2013a; Jackson et al., 1987; Plumb, 1979). It is part of a much larger The McArthur Basin, together with the Mount Isa Basin as its lateral
basin system that extended across the North and South Australian equivalent, forms one of the largest zinc provinces on Earth, which
cratons and into the interior of Laurentia (Allen et al., 2015; Betts et al., preserves several world-class sediment-hosted Zn-Pb-Ag deposits (e.g.,
2008; Nordsvan et al., 2018; Rawlings, 1999). Developing in a far-field McArthur River (HYC), Century, Mount Isa; Betts et al., 2003; Huston
continental back-arc setting, the McArthur Basin was influenced by a et al., 2006; Leach et al., 2010; Southgate et al., 2006). Exploration for
long-lived subduction zone located along the southern margin of the sediment-hosted base metal deposits requires a strong knowledge of the
North Australian Craton and by rifting and development of a passive structural architecture of a basin. This is because a basin’s fault archi-
margin to the east of the craton (Betts et al., 2003; Giles et al., 2002). tecture controls critical processes for the formation of mineral deposits.
Ongoing tectonism at the Proterozoic plate margin resulted in transient This includes the formation of sub-basins and their sedimentary facies
⁎
Corresponding author.
E-mail address: teagan.blaikie@csiro.au (T.N. Blaikie).
https://doi.org/10.1016/j.precamres.2020.105728
Received 2 August 2019; Received in revised form 2 April 2020; Accepted 2 April 2020
Available online 03 April 2020
0301-9268/ © 2020 The Authors. Published by Elsevier B.V. This is an open access article under the CC BY license
(http://creativecommons.org/licenses/BY/4.0/).
T.N. Blaikie and M. Kunzmann Precambrian Research 343 (2020) 105728
as metal traps, and by acting as conduits for mineralising fluids. When a were interpreted as asymmetric half grabens bound on either side by
basin lies partially or wholly undercover, mapping the structural ar- stable continental shelves where only a thin succession of sediments
chitecture can be difficult. High-resolution geophysical data informs on was deposited (Plumb and Wellman, 1987). Potential field modelling
the 2D mappable, and 3D subsurface extent of geological features, and (e.g., Leaman, 1998) suggested that the Batten Fault Zone was not a half
is therefore an excellent tool to support regional structural analysis graben and that the sedimentary successions on either side were con-
(Armit et al., 2014; Blaikie et al., 2017; McLean et al., 2008). In the case tinuous and of comparable thickness. This interpretation was later
of sedimentary basins, geophysical interpretation and modelling can confirmed by deep seismic reflection data (Rawlings et al., 2004).
provide an additional level of constraint in basin reconstruction, and Modelling by Leaman (1998) also demonstrated broad scale variations
can inform on the potential for the formation and preservation of mi- in the thickness of mafic volcanics in the Tawallah Group, and identi-
neral systems. fied granitic bodies within parts of the basement. These interpretations
Although, recent attempts have been made to synthesise the struc- are important to better understand the distribution of potential metal
tural and tectonic evolution of the McArthur Basin (Betts et al., 2015; sources.
Frogtech Geoscience, 2018), new higher resolution geophysical data
provides greater constraint on the extent of geological features and fault 2.2. Stratigraphy
overprinting relationships. Interpretation of these new datasets allows
for critical insights into the structural and tectonic evolution of the The stratigraphy of the southern McArthur Basin comprises the
basin, which has significant implications for regional controls on Zn-Pb- Tawallah, McArthur, Nathan and Roper groups (Fig. 2; Ahmad et al.,
Ag mineral systems. 2013a; Rawlings, 1999). These represent four major depositional per-
Here, we present results from the interpretation and modelling of iods within the basin and are each separated by an unconformity.
newly acquired and legacy geophysical data which was used to define The Tawallah Group is laterally equivalent to successions preserved
the 2D mappable, and 3D subsurface extent of sedimentary and vol- in the Leichhardt (1800–1740 Ma; Neumann et al., 2006, 2009) and
canic successions, and major fault systems across the southern Calvert (1725–1690 Ma; Jackson et al., 2000; Neumann et al., 2009)
McArthur Basin. The aim of this work is to interpret the regional superbasins in the Mount Isa Inlier (Fig. 2). The group is estimated by
structural framework and develop a tectonic synthesis for the evolution Rawlings (2002) to range in age between 1790 and 1700 Ma based on
of the basin. Determining the nature of the basin’s structural archi- available SHRIMP U-Pb zircon ages (Wollogorang Formation:
tecture helps to understanding regional-scale controls on Zn-Pb-Ag 1730–1725 Ma (Page et al., 2000); Tanumbirini Rhyolite:
mineralisation. This includes faults controlling sub-basin formation and 1713 ± 7 Ma and Nyantu Formation 1708 ± 5 Ma (Page and Sweet,
fluid flow, metal sources, and potential tectonic triggers for miner- 1998)). Maximum and minimum ages are constrained by the basement
alisation. Additionally, understanding how deformation events have (Scrutton Volcanics: 1850 Ma; Pietsch et al. (1991)) and overlying
affected the basin provides information on structural overprinting re- McArthur Group (ca. 1660–1610 Ma; Munson, 2019).
lationships, and potential for preservation of deposits. The metho- The lower Tawallah Group consists of widespread fluvial to inter-
dology and results presented herein have broader implications for the tidal sandstones and conglomerates, and extensive flood basalts which
exploration of sediment-hosted base metal deposits across northern were deposited between ca. 1790–1760 Ma (e.g., Yiyinti Sandstone,
Australia and globally. Westmoreland Conglomerate, Seigal Volcanics; Ahmad et al., 2013a,b).
This was followed by the deposition of the middle Tawallah Group
2. Regional geology between ca. 1760–1740 Ma, which comprises shallow marine, syn-ex-
tensional siliciclastic rocks overlain by post-extensional carbonate rocks
2.1. Basin architecture (Ahmad et al., 2013a). A ca. 1740 Ma mid-basin inversion event re-
sulted in the development of a regional unconformity at the base of the
The McArthur Basin unconformably overlies the Neoarchaean to Wununmantyala Sandstone (Fig. 2; Bull and Rogers, 1996). Renewed
Palaeoproterozoic Pine Creek Orogen in the northwest, and the extension between ca. 1730–1690 Ma resulted in widespread sedi-
Paleoproterozoic Arnhem and Murphy provinces in the northeast and mentation and volcanism across the North Australian Craton. In the
southeast respectively (Fig. 1; Ahmad et al., 2013a,b). The Neoproter- southern McArthur Basin, shallow marine to offshore siliciclastic rocks
ozoic to Devonian Georgina Basin, and the Mesozoic Carpentaria and and minor carbonates of the upper Tawallah Group were deposited on
Arafura basins unconformably overlie the McArthur Basin. Seismic and an extensive low-relief platform (Wollogorang Formation; Kunzmann
geochronology data indicate that the basin extends further undercover et al., 2020), and the regionally extensive Settlement Creek Volcanics
to the south and southwest through the Beetaloo Sub-basin, connecting were emplaced predominantly as high-level sills, with the Gold Creek
with the Birrindudu Basin in the west, and is also continuous with the Volcanics inferred to be their erupted equivalent (Ahmad et al., 2013a;
Tomkinson Province in the south (Ahmad et al., 2013a; Munson et al., Rawlings, 2006).
2019). This region is informally defined as the greater McArthur Basin Following a depositional hiatus of approximately 30 million years,
(Close, 2014). The basin is also continuous to the southeast with the ca. 1660–1610 Ma McArthur Group was deposited (Munson, 2019).
equivalent sedimentary successions occurring within the Mount Isa and The group is laterally equivalent to the Isa superbasin in northwest
South Nicholson basins (Jackson et al., 2000; Rawlings, 1999). The Queensland (ca. 1670–1575 Ma; Jackson et al., 2000). It comprises a
McArthur Basin is separated from the South Nicholson Basin and Lawn succession of carbonates, mudstones and sandstones deposited in
Hill Platform by the Murphy inlier which forms a palaeogeographical shallow to moderately deep-water environments (Ahmad et al., 2013a;
high (Ahmad et al., 2013a; Plumb and Wellman, 1987; Wygralak and Jackson et al., 1987; Kunzmann et al., 2019; Rawlings et al., 2004). The
Ahmad, 1989). group is inferred to be only slightly older than the maximum deposi-
The structural architecture of the McArthur Basin is defined by two tional age of 1653 ± 17 Ma for the Mallapunyah Formation, and an
north-trending fault zones, namely the Walker and Batten fault zones, absolute age for the Tatoola Sandstone of 1648 ± 3 Ma. The Barney
which are cross-cut by the east-trending Urapunga Fault Zone (Fig. 1; Creek Formation as the most important Zn-Pb-Ag host unit was dated to
Ahmad et al., 2013a). Although located distally to any paleoplate be 1640 ± 3 Ma (Page and Sweet, 1998), while the youngest age is
boundaries, these 50–80 km wide fault corridors are sensitive recorders determined from 1609 ± 3 Ma and 1613 ± 4 Ma tuffs in the Balbirini
of far-field stresses and experienced relatively intense deformation and Dolostone (Page et al., 2000). The McArthur Group is overlain by the
structural reactivation throughout the basin’s history, compared to re- ca. 1610–1580 Ma Nathan Group which comprises siliciclastic and
gions either side of the fault zone which are relatively undeformed carbonate rocks with minor intercalated mafic volcanics (Munson,
(Rawlings et al., 2004). Initially, the Batten and Walker fault zones 2019; Page et al., 2000).
2
Fig. 1. Regional geology of the McArthur Basin and Mount Isa Inlier showing major structural features, including the Batten, Walker and Urapunga fault zones, the
location of basement inliers, and stratiform Zn-Pb-Ag deposits (modified after Ahmad et al., 2013a,b). Inset refers to location of figures as labelled.
The onset of the Isan Orogeny caused mild deformation, uplift and 3. Geophysical methods and interpretation workflow
erosion across parts of the basin. A depositional hiatus of approximately
80 million years is observed, after which the interior of the continent 3.1. Geophysical data and processing
experienced renewed basin development. Sedimentation was wide-
spread, consisting of a laterally continuous siliciclastic succession ex- Publicly available geophysical datasets include gravity data with
tending from Queensland, across the Northern Territory and into 2 km station spacing across, and to the south of the Batten Fault Zone
Western Australia (Ahmad et al., 2013a; Munson, 2016; Rawlings, and 4 km spacing elsewhere (Northern Territory Geological Survey,
1999). In the southern McArthur Basin, these successions comprise the 2009, 2013, 2018). This data also includes several targeted 500 m
ca. 1500–1324 Ma Roper Group, which is laterally equivalent to the spaced gravity profiles acquired across the Batten Fault Zone to support
South Nicholson Group in Queensland (Ahmad et al., 2013a; Munson, forward modelling (Northern Territory Geological Survey, 2018).
2016). Standard gravity corrections were applied to account for instrument
drift, latitude and topography (includes free-air, Bouguer and terrain
corrections). Aeromagnetic and radiometric data acquired across the
southern McArthur Basin varies between 400 and 500 m line spacing
(Northern Territory Geological Survey, 1989, 1996, 2000, 2001).
3
Aeromagnetic data were reduced to the pole (RTP) prior to any further
processing or interpretation to transform magnetic anomalies to a
pattern that would be observed with a vertical magnetic field (Baranov
and Naudy, 1964). The Batten Fault Zone is reasonably well imaged by
airborne electromagnetic (AEM) data, with the resolution of individual
surveys varying between 200 m and 2 km line spacing. A deep seismic
reflection survey (Rawlings et al., 2004) and several small minerals and
petroleum seismic reflection surveys are also available (Armour Energy,
2012; Teck, 2015).
The gravity and magnetic data are dominated by long-wavelength
regional gradients. High and low pass filters were therefore applied to
improve contrast between long- and short-wavelength anomalies. These
grids enhance subtle features, providing better definition of the edges of
geological bodies, and of gradients in the data that inform on 3D geo-
metries (e.g., Blaikie et al., 2017). The first vertical derivative of the
gravity data was useful for examining shorter-wavelength anomalies,
however the data was required to be upward continued to suppress
noise from individual gravity stations (Fig. 3a). In the reduced to pole
magnetic data, the first vertical and tilt derivative were useful in en-
hancing subtle short-wavelength features, which allowed better re-
cognition of faults and assessment of their vertical and lateral offsets.
Composite images of derivative filters and the reduced to pole mag-
netics were useful for interpretation as they preserve information on
amplitudes while enhancing structural features (Fig. 3b).
Ternary images of the radiometric data were useful in interpreting
the extent of exposed sedimentary and volcanic rocks that otherwise
could not be resolved in the gravity or magnetic data alone (Fig. 3c).
This data was particularly useful in parts of the Batten Fault Zone where
stratigraphy is reasonably well exposed. Available airborne electro-
magnetic data which were recently reprocessed also highlights near
surface geological variability reasonably well (Fig. 3d; Munday et al.,
2017). Major structures are definable based on contrasts in conductivity
either side of the faults. Different formations and smaller-scale faults
can be resolved through interpretation of some of the higher quality
datasets (Spinks et al., 2017).
3.2. Lithostructural interpretation workflow
Geophysical interpretation allows regional scale recognition of li-

thological units and overprinting relationships of faults. The lateral
extents of major lithological packages were interpreted from correlation
of previously mapped outcrop with gravity anomalies, variations in the
amplitude and texture of magnetic anomalies, and different radiometric
and conductivity responses. This allowed for good correlation of the
geophysical response of different stratigraphic units from areas of ex-
posure to areas under cover. Where geophysical contrast was very low,
the interpretation of visible spectrum satellite images aided in mapping
the extent of exposed lithological packages. The extent of individual
formations was interpreted across most of the southern McArthur Basin.
However, some areas in the northeast and south of the Batten Fault
Zone could only be interpreted at the group or sub-group level because
of cover and poor geophysical contrast.
Faults were interpreted based on narrow linear demagnetised zones,
edges of anomalies which are offset or truncated by fault movement, or
significant variation in the geophysical texture across a narrow linear
corridor. In the southern McArthur Basin, faults are best defined in
magnetic data processed to enhance short wavelength features and
subtle textures. However, due to the non-magnetic nature of the
McArthur Group, faults are only resolvable if they penetrate and cause
Fig. 2. Stratigraphy of the Batten Fault Zone showing time correlatives to Isan significant vertical or lateral offset of magnetic units within the
superbasins and tectonic events interpreted to have affected the McArthur
Tawallah Group. Interpretation of AEM and very high-resolution
Basin. Stratigraphic sub-divisions after Rawlings (1999) and Ahmad et al.
gravity data (minimum of 500 m station spacing) are more effective at
(2013a,b). Note change of time scales at 1500 Ma and 1800 Ma.
resolving smaller faults blind to the magnetic data. In gravity data
processed to enhance short wavelengths, faults can be defined by sharp
linear contrasts in the gravity response, but usually require validation
from another dataset (e.g., magnetics, AEM or seismic).
4
Fig. 3. Processed geophysical data of the southern McArthur Basin. a) 1st Vertical Derivative (1VD) of the complete Bouguer gravity anomaly; b) Composite image of
reduced to Pole (RTP) aeromagnetic data in colour, overlain on greyscale 1VD of RTP data. c) Ternary image of radiometric data shown in RGB format with K (%) as
red, Th (ppm) as green and U (ppm) as blue; d) Airborne Electromagnetic mosaic of conductivity depth interval (130–150 m) overlain on SRTM image. (For
interpretation of the references to colour in this figure legend, the reader is referred to the web version of this article.)
3.3. Forward modelling workflow and constraints (Blaikie et al., 2014, 2017; Jessell et al., 1993; McLean et al., 2008;
Valenta et al., 1992).
Geological cross-sections through key regions of the Batten Fault The geological cross-sections were located along 500 m spaced
Zone were modelled against the potential field data with the purpose of gravity profiles acquired along six east–west, and one north–south
better defining its 3D architecture, the distribution of depositional profile. The interpretations along four key sections are described below
packages and nature of the basement. Although this form of modelling (additional sections are provided as Supplementary figures). Cross-
is limited in that solutions are non-unique, cross-sections constructed sections were produced using the GM-SYS module of Geosoft Oasis
purely on geological data, especially where outcrops or drill holes are Montaj™, which allows gravity and magnetic profiles to be jointly
sparse, are also subject to uncertainty at depth and between constraint modelled along 2.5D sections. Cross-sections were modelled based upon
points. Modelling a cross-section using potential field data provides an the reduced to pole magnetic data, and the complete Bouguer gravity
additional level of constraint to the geological interpretation, which anomaly (i.e., terrain corrected data). A regional gravity field was
when also integrated with petrophysical and seismic data, can be re- calculated by upward continuing the data to 20 km. The regional re-
liably used to inform on the 3D architecture of a geological terrane sponse was subtracted from the complete Bouguer anomaly and the
5
residual field was modelled. Topography was imported into the model These are evident in both magnetic and gravity datasets as linear fea-
from elevations obtained at each gravity station, and the models tures with different gravity and magnetic responses either side. In the
background density was set to the slab and terrain correction density. magnetic data, these faults overprint the stippled texture associated
The magnetic data was calculated at a height of 80 m above this sur- with volcanic units in the upper Tawallah Group, constraining at least
face, while the Bouguer gravity anomaly was calculated at this surface. one generation of movement to post-Tawallah Group. These northwest-
Each cross-section was constrained by previously mapped geology trending faults are overprinted by a series of north-northeast oriented
and structural measurements from the 1:250 K map sheets (Haines faults, which show evidence of dextral strike slip movement in the
et al., 1993; Pietsch et al., 1991). The interpretation of magnetic and offset of magnetic marker horizons, and reverse movement in the uplift
gravity gradients were used to determine fault geometries where no of the basal units of the Tawallah Group (Fig. 4c-label: 1). Seismic and
mapping or seismic data were available (Jessell et al., 1993). The re- outcrop data also suggest these faults had some component of normal
gional scale nature of the cross-sections required stratigraphy to be movement along them in early stages of deposition of the Roper Group.
simplified and modelled at the group scale. When known, information This orientation of faulting is pervasive across the north and to the west
on the preserved thickness of each group was included as a constraint of the Batten Fault Zone, in the Walker Fault Zone, and south-west of
prior to modelling. Constraints were derived from seismic data (e.g., the Mallapunyah Fault Zone in the Beetaloo Sub-basin. These north-
02GA-BT1 and GA-BT2 lines; Rawlings et al. (2004)) and wells, al- northeast-trending faults are overprinted by the north-northwest-
though these usually do not intersect an entire group. The Seebase™ trending strike-slip faults, including the Four Archers Fault, and the
surface was also used as a guide during modelling (Frogtech Emu Fault Zone which separates into several segments (Fig. 4c-labels:
Geoscience, 2018). 2–3). The Emu Fault Zone is defined in the magnetic data by linear
Petrophysical data from Hallett (2018) were used to constrain each contrast between areas of moderate and low magnetic response. It is not
model. Density and magnetic susceptibility measurements were pri- well defined in the gravity which is limited to 4 km resolution. The Four
marily acquired on legacy drill core. A reasonably good distribution of Archers Fault is defined by the edge of a linear gravity high located on
data for each formation is available (Supplementary dataset 1), how- the western side of the fault, and by truncated magnetic anomalies
ever over or under-sampling of certain stratigraphic intervals and located on the eastern side.
measurements undertaken on weathered samples (either acquired from Patterns of faulting are complex in the central Batten Fault Zone,
the weathering zone, or on degraded core) has introduced some bias with east–west to east-northeast, north-northwest and northwest fault
into the data. Weighted averages of density for each group were cal- orientations observed (Fig. 4d). Major structures include the highly
culated to account for these biases, and for variations in the maximum arcuate, west-dipping Hot Spring and Tawallah faults, and the north-
thickness of different formations as reported in Ahmad et al. (2013a,b). northwest-trending Emu Fault Zone. The signature of the Emu Fault
Weighted averages are shown in table 1, and were calculated con- Zone is similar to that described for the northern Batten Fault Zone. It
sidering 1: all the data; 2: the central tendency of 75% of the data for tends to overprint all other structures and has multiple segments.
each formation; 3: an average of data exclusive of the first quartile for Strike-slip movement along the various fault segments created trans-
each formation, which is assumed to represent samples that experi- tensional zones where elliptical shaped, north-northwest-trending sub-
enced the greatest degree of weathering. These averages are based on basins filled with McArthur Group strata developed. These are typically
dry-bulk density measurements and do not account for an increase in evident in the geophysics as elliptical-shaped magnetic lows and gravity
density due to water saturation and lithostatic loading, and therefore highs (Fig. 4d-label: 1).
represent minimum density values. During modelling, it was necessary The Hot Spring Fault is not as clearly defined in geophysical datasets
to increase the modelled density of each group above the weighted as other major faults but can be interpreted from the truncation of
average value, but still within the Q3-Q4 range of data. Modelling was east–west-trending magnetic anomalies, and the boundary of the
initially completed along sections that were coincident with seismic weakly magnetic stratigraphy of the Roper Group (Fig. 4d-label: 3). The
data to ensure the petrophysical properties were able to reproduce the Tawallah Fault is defined by the truncation of magnetic anomalies on
well-constrained architecture, then extrapolated to other sections the western side of the fault. These magnetic anomalies are associated
where the architecture was not as well understood. with volcanics of the Tawallah Group and indicate that the western side
of the fault has been uplifted relative to the east (Fig. 4d-label: 4). West
of the Tawallah Fault, a series of small, north-northwest-trending faults
4. Geophysical interpretation and modelling of the southern are recognised from geological mapping (Pietsch et al., 1991). These
McArthur Basin faults cause very subtle truncations and offsets to magnetic anomalies.
Timing of movement is not well constrained from geophysics, but ex-
4.1. Geophysical interpretation of major structures isting mapping data indicates these are reverse faults that have caused
repetition of lower McArthur Group stratigraphy (Pietsch et al., 1991).
The north of the Batten Fault Zone shows evidence of several fault The region between the Hot Spring Fault and the Emu Fault Zone is
generations affecting the McArthur Basin (Fig. 4c). The oldest genera- recognised for the development of restricted sub-basins where thick
tion of faults in this region are a series of northwest oriented structures.
Table 1
Weighted average dry bulk densities for each group in the southern McArthur Basin (Additional data provided in Supplementary information).
Tawallah Group (g cm−3) McArthur Group (g cm−3) Nathan Group (g cm−3) Roper Group (g cm−3)
Minimum 1.84 1.39 2.24 1.61

Q1 2.54 2.46 2.64 2.40
Q2 2.62 2.62 2.72 2.52
Q3 2.71 2.74 2.81 2.59
Q4 2.92 3.15 2.89 3.29
Average (all) 2.59 2.54 2.69 2.50
Weighted average (all) 2.56 2.55 – 2.50
Central tendency weighted average (75% samples) 2.56 2.59 – 2.51
Q2-4 weighted average 2.59 2.64 – 2.55
Total number of samples 161 469 35 1868
6
(caption on next page)
7
Fig. 4. A, C-F. Interpreted fault architecture shown on the reduced to pole magnetic grid overlain on the first-vertical derivative of the same data. B) First vertical
derivative of the Bouguer gravity anomaly (upward continued by 500 m to reduce noise). Labels 1–7 on A and B describe the following geophysical features (further
discussed in the text): 1) Highly magnetic and stippled texture of volcanics in the Tawallah Group. 2) Broad, high magnetic and gravity anomaly arising from
volcanics in the Tawallah Group. 3) Low magnetic anomaly correlating to thick sequences of the non-magnetic McArthur Group. 4) Low magnetic and gravity
anomaly interpreted as felsic volcanics within the basement. 5) Northwest-trending gravity lows possibly indicating graben development prior to emplacement of
volcanics in the Tawallah Group. 6) High gravity anomaly interpreted as thicker volcanic successions. 7) High magnetic and low gravity anomaly over the Broadmere
sub-basin. Labels 1–5 and coloured faults on C-F highlight overprinting relationships discussed in the text.
Fig. 5. Structural and lithological interpretation of the A) southern McArthur Basin showing distribution of sub-groups and major faults. B) the Batten Fault Zone,
showing distribution of different formations (patterns added for ease of identification and are not diagnostic of lithology).
8
intervals of the Barney Creek Formation accumulated. Several parallel, Fig. 5b. These interpretations represent a map of the Palaeo-Mesopro-
east–west-trending gravity and magnetic anomalies can be identified, terozoic stratigraphy that is immediately underlying Phanerozoic cover
and are interpreted as normal faults that influenced deposition of the sequences and volcanics.
McArthur Group (Fig. 4d-label: 2). Within this region, northwest and The Tawallah Group is exposed in the north of the Batten Fault Zone
northeast-trending faults cross-cut east–west-trending structures or are in the uplifted regions adjacent to the Tawallah and Scrutton faults, and
confined between them, and likely contributed to sub-basin develop- in the southeast of the McArthur Basin (Fig. 5a). It is defined in the
ment (Fig. 4d-label: 5). These faults can be mapped as very subtle linear geophysical data by a low gravity and high magnetic response where
anomalies in vertical and tilt-derivatives of the magnetic data, but are volcanic units are preserved in the stratigraphy (Fig. 4a-Label 1); and
best mapped off AEM data where they appear as linear contrasts in by a low gravity and magnetic response where volcanic units have been
conductivity. eroded. In the AEM data, the Tawallah Group stands out as a non-
In the southeast of the Batten Fault Zone (e.g., region around Glyde conductive unit surrounded by the more conductive McArthur Group.
sub-basin), the fault architecture is comprised of the north-northwest- Volcanic units (e.g., Settlement Creek and Gold Creek Volcanics) can be
trending Emu Fault Zone and a series of smaller parallel structures differentiated in the AEM and magnetic data based on a more con-
(Fig. 4f). The Emu Fault Zone is characterised by a relative sharp, ductive and magnetic response. In the radiometric data, volcanics show
linear-trending contrast between a high gravity and low magnetic re- a K-enriched signal while sandstones are Th-enriched.
sponse west of the main fault segment, and low gravity and high Southeast of the Batten Fault Zone, the extent and architecture of
magnetic response to the east. This is consistent with volcanics of the the Tawallah Group can be mapped based on subtle differences in the
Tawallah Group being uplifted east of the fault zone, and a thick suc- magnetic response of the different sedimentary and volcanic rocks. The
cession of McArthur Group strata being preserved to the west. In this Westmoreland Conglomerate forms the basal unit of the southern
area, the Emu Fault Zone and parallel structures have overprinted, and McArthur Basin and is characterised by a smooth, non-magnetic re-
caused up 20 km of apparent lateral offset of a magnetic marker unit in sponse that suppresses the magnetic signal of the underlying basement
the Tawallah Group (interpreted as faulted contact of Settlement Creek (Fig. 4f-Label 5). The Seigal Volcanics are characterised by a magnetic
Dolerite), and several 10 s to 100 s of metres of vertical offset (de- low suggesting they may be reversely magnetised. They display a dis-
termined from modelling) (Fig. 4f-label: 1). The Emu Fault Zone shows tinctive cross-hatched to stippled magnetic texture in the first vertical
a sinistral sense of movement, while other north-northwest-trending derivative grid, and are often highly faulted (Fig. 4f-Label: 3). Sedi-
faults display either sinistral or dextral movements. This however is mentary rocks overlying the Seigal Volcanics, which encompass the Sly
likely to be an apparent sense of movement caused by both vertical and Creek Sandstone, Rosie Creek Sandstone, McDermott Formation and
lateral offset of variably dipping Tawallah Group stratigraphy. With the Wununmantyala Sandstone are non-magnetic. Their combined extent
exception of the Emu Fault Zone, which has a longer history, these can be mapped based on a smooth, low magnetic response where re-
north-northwest-trending faults appear to have little or no influence on latively thick, or suppression of the cross-hatched magnetic signal from
sedimentary rocks of the Roper Group, which constrains the latest the underlying Seigal Volcanics where only thinly preserved (Fig. 4f-
timing of movement to be during deposition of the McArthur Group and Label: 5). The southern margin of the Settlement Creek Dolerite is de-
the Isan Orogeny. fined by a sharp linear contrast between the non-magnetic response of
The southwest of the Batten Fault Zone marks the transition into the underlying sediments and the highly magnetic, stippled texture of the
Beetaloo Sub-basin, with the region defined predominantly by north- volcanics. The abrupt contrast between these different signals is con-
west and northeast-trending faults (Fig. 4e-label: 2). The northeast- sistent with a faulted contact. The stippled texture of the Settlement
trending faults have been intruded by dykes, likely related to the Creek Dolerite transitions into, and is otherwise undistinguishable
1313 Ma Derim Derim Dolerite sills (Collins et al., 2018), and are re- from, the Gold Creek Volcanics. Together, these two units cause a
solvable in the data as linear gravity and magnetic highs. These faults stippled magnetic response that is pervasive across the south-eastern
truncate against northwest-trending structures such as the Mallapunyah McArthur Basin, and is consistent with an extensive, relatively flat-lying
Fault Zone (Fig. 4e-label: 2). The Mallapunyah Fault Zone is definable unit (Fig. 4a-Label: 1, Fig. 4f-Label: 4). Its signal becomes slightly su-
based on offset and truncation of gravity and magnetic anomalies. Its pressed approaching the Batten Fault Zone as it is increasingly overlain
surface trace terminates against the Mallapunyah Dome; however, by younger, non-magnetic strata.
gravity and magnetic data suggest its northern segment continues to the The McArthur Group is largely confined to the Batten Fault Zone
southeast. and coincides with a prominent north–south trending gravity high in
The southeast McArthur Basin shows similar fault orientations to the regional gravity data (Figs. 4b, 5). We suggest this is caused largely
those observed in the Batten Fault Zone although the degree of faulting by the higher carbonate content, and therefore higher relative density
is significantly less. This area is defined predominantly by northwest- of this group compared to the overlying Roper Group and underlying
trending faults which are evident in both gravity and magnetic data Tawallah Group. The McArthur Group has a very low magnetic sus-
(Fig. 4f-label: 2). Vertical offset along these faults appears greatest in ceptibility, and consequently is largely transparent in the magnetic data
proximity to the Batten Fault Zone and appears to decrease towards the (Fig. 4a-Label 3). Although this makes it difficult to map structure and
east. This is indicated by smoothing of the stippled magnetic response, stratigraphy of the group, interpretation of the amplitude of the mag-
and suppression of the intensity of the anomaly. Broad, northwest- netic response provides some constraint on the preserved thickness of
trending gravity lows and highs are evident between the interpreted sedimentary rocks and the location of sub-basins. This is because the
fault trace and may indicate the presence of grabens that predate em- McArthur Group overlies highly magnetic volcanic units of the Ta-
placement of the Gold Creek Volcanics (Fig. 4a-b-label: 5). Approaching wallah Group. Thick and non-magnetic stratigraphy supresses the signal
the eastern margin of the Batten Fault Zone, north-northwest strike-slip of underlying volcanic units and a low magnetic anomaly is observed,
faults, running approximately parallel to the Emu Fault Zone become while thinner stratigraphy results in smooth, longer-wavelength mag-
more common, with displacement along these structures increasing in netic highs. In the radiometric data, the McArthur Group exhibits a
proximity to the Emu Fault Zone (Fig. 4f-label: 1). relatively uniform K-enriched signal across the fault zone, however, in
some well exposed areas, subtle differences in the radiometric response
4.2. Geological interpretation of key litho-packages allows differentiation of stratigraphic units. In some high quality AEM
surveys, and high-resolution gravity (minimum of 500 m spacing)
The solid geological interpretation of the southern McArthur Basin subtle conductivity and density contrasts allow mapping of strati-
at the sub-group level is shown in Fig. 5a, and a high-resolution in- graphy. Mapping this stratigraphy, however, usually requires at least
terpretation of the Batten Fault Zone at the formation level is shown in some constraints from outcrop to correlate to a geophysical response.
9
Fig. 6. a) Location of the forward modelled cross-sections shown on a geological map of the outcrop extent of each group. Available seismic data and deep petroleum
wells are also shown with those used to constrain nearby sections marked in bold. b) Legend for each of the models shown in Fig. 6–9 and Supplementary Figs. 1-3. c)
Geological interpretation along modelled profile. Red line corresponds to the cross-section (legend same as Fig. 5). d) Observed and calculated magnetic data, e)
Observed and calculated gravity data, f) modelled geological cross-section with density (g cm−3) and magnetic susceptibility (SI) parameters labelled. (For inter-
pretation of the references to colour in this figure legend, the reader is referred to the web version of this article.)
In the Batten Fault Zone, the Roper Group is preserved east of the magnetic response depending on the degree in which the succession has
Emu Fault Zone, within and to the north of the Broadmere sub-basin, been intruded by dykes and sills (Fig. 4a-b–Label: 7). Individual for-
and within large synclines in the central Batten Fault Zone (Fig. 5a). mations within the Roper Group can sometimes be resolved through
The group is typically characterised by a low gravity and variable enhancement of short-wavelength features, such as through vertical
10
Fig. 7. Forward modelled section B-B′. a) Geological interpretation along modelled profile. Red line corresponds to the cross-section (legend same as Fig. 5). b)
Observed and calculated magnetic data, c) observed and calculated gravity data, d) modelled geological cross-section with density (g cm−3) and magnetic sus-
ceptibility (SI) parameters labelled. Location map and legend for the section are shown in Fig. 6b. e) Comparison of this section with seismic line 02GA-BT1. Dashed
lines show approximate projection of the seismic line onto the forward model. The seismic line lies to the north of section B-B’ (location shown on Fig. 6a), therefore,
faults and horizons do not exactly correlate, however the overall architecture is consistent. f) View of part of section B-B' showing seismic data (Line 83–120: Amoco
Australia Petroleum (1983)) used to constrain modelling overlain on the interpretation. Location of the Broadmere 1 well is also shown. The well did not penetrate
the entire sequence of the Roper Group. g) Legend for seismic interpretation shown in e). (For interpretation of the references to colour in this figure legend, the
reader is referred to the web version of this article.)
and tilt derivatives of the magnetic data, and interpretation of the 4.3. Forward modelling results
radiometric data, but this requires initial correlation with outcrop. In
the radiometric data, the lower units of the group (Mantungula to 4.3.1. Profile A–A′
Crawford formation) have a K-enriched signal, similar to that observed Profile A–A′ is located in the north of the Batten Fault Zone (Fig. 6).
for the McArthur Group. Formations above the Abner Sandstone and its The profile is constrained by an 10.9 km long, east-northeast oriented
equivalents have a more Th-enriched signal, with some shale units seismic line located across the Emu Fault Zone and slightly to the north
exhibiting more of a U-enriched response. Roper Group stratigraphy is of the section (Seismic Line 2; Teck, 2015).
generally conductive in the AEM data. The eastern section of the profile is defined by a low gravity and
11
magnetic anomaly. The low gravity anomaly coincides with up to 4 km seismic line 83–120 from the Broadmere survey (Amoco Australia
of Tawallah Group strata. Overall, thickness of the Tawallah Group Petroleum, 1983). These seismic lines are shown for comparison with
increases towards the east of the profile, whereas the McArthur Group the modelled profile in Fig. 7e-f. The horizons for the base of each
gradually thins until absent. We interpret the Tawallah Group to be group shown on line 02GA-BT1 follow Rawlings et al. (2004), however
thickening within a graben, which is defined by a low gravity anomaly our interpretation of the fault architecture differs slightly in the west of
bound by northwest-trending faults (southern-most normal fault is the fault zone where we interpret the Tawallah and Scrutton faults to
imaged obliquely to section, northern fault is not imaged). The negative penetrate to a greater depth. The depth to the base of the Tawallah
magnetic anomaly is consistent with a remanently magnetised body, Group east of the Tawallah Fault is unclear from the seismic data, and
which we have modelled in the basement (magnetisation assumed to be without a constraining well intersection is subject to a higher level of
90°, that is opposite to the earth’s field for reduced to pole data). uncertainty.
A high gravity anomaly located over and extending approximately The geophysical response of the western end of the profile is defined
30 km either side of the Emu Fault Zone is attributed to a 2.5–3 km- by a broad magnetic high located over the Broadmere sub-basin. The
thick interval of McArthur Group stratigraphy. In contrast to sections in gravity responses comprise a low gravity anomaly located over the sub-
the central and southern regions of the fault zone, this profile shows basin, with high gravity anomalies located either side of it. The gravity
that the McArthur Group is thicker on the eastern side of the Emu Fault low is the result of up to 3.5 km of Roper Group strata, which have a
Zone. The McArthur Group is preserved within the hinge of a long- lower density compared to units of the McArthur and Tawallah groups.
wavelength (60 km) syncline. Underlying the McArthur Group, the The adjacent high gravity anomalies coincide with exposures of the
Tawallah Group appears to thin slightly from the east, but contains a McArthur and Nathan groups. The source of the magnetic anomaly over
greater volume of volcanics. the Broadmere sub-basin is interpreted as intrusive rocks within the
The Tawallah Group is exposed at the surface approximately 10 km Roper Group (Derim Derim Dolerite), and volcanic units within the
west of the Emu Fault Zone, and although significantly faulted, this area underlying Tawallah Group.
is interpreted as the hinge of the broad-scale anticline. This area is Two gravity highs coinciding with a relatively smooth and constant
defined in the geophysics as a low gravity anomaly located between the magnetic response are observed between the Broadmere sub-basin and
Four Archers and Rosie faults. A lower average density for the Tawallah east of the Tawallah Fault, and between the Hot Spring Fault and Emu
Group is applied during modelling in this region because volcanic units Fault Zone. West of the Tawallah Fault, the thickness of the McArthur
have largely been eroded from the stratigraphy. The lower density is Group is reasonably well constrained by outcrop and seismic data.
consistent with values observed for the Westmoreland Conglomerate Overall, the succession is much thinner due to post-depositional uplift
(2.21–2.58 g cm−3), which is the lateral equivalent of the Yiyinti and erosion. Reproducing the observed gravity high required a dense
Sandstone exposed at the surface in this area. A lower basement density body of rock to be closer to the surface. We interpret the basement to be
is also inferred here, which suggest some underlying compositional shallower and also slightly denser in this part of the Batten Fault Zone.
differences exist in this area. The positive magnetic anomaly observed Seismic data shows a zone of chaotic reflectors suggesting the compo-
over the Rosie Fault is related to the Scrutton Volcanics, which underlie sition of the basement in this area may be different. The Tawallah
the Tawallah Group and outcrop adjacent to the Rosie and Lorella faults Group is also thinner than modelled to the east of the Tawallah Fault.
approximately 6 km to the south of this section. The extent of the This is constrained by outcropping rocks 2.5 km south of this section
Scrutton Volcanics is not well documented or understood. We model it where the Masterton Sandstone unconformably overlies the
as a magnetic horizon here and in several other sections where it is Wununmantyala Sandstone, which indicates the upper Tawallah Group
required to reconcile the magnetic response, however it is otherwise not was eroded prior to McArthur Group deposition.
resolved based on gravity data. A long-wavelength gravity low, coincident with a magnetic low is
The lower units of the Roper Group are preserved in several fault observed between the Tawallah and Hot Spring faults. Several short-
blocks between the Lorella and Four Archers faults and are juxtaposed wavelength gravity highs are superimposed on this anomaly reflecting
against outcropping Tawallah Group. Geological mapping data from contributions to the gravity field by near surface features. Short-wa-
this area (Haines et al., 1993) suggests that prior to deposition of the velength features can be explained by alteration along the fault zone,
Roper Group, the McArthur Group was eroded down to at least the either due to fluid flow while the fault was active and sediments were
Tooganinie Formation, and as deep as the Masterton Sandstone in some deposited, or due to later alteration and weathering from meteoric
places. Thinner preserved units of the Tawallah Group in this area also water moving through the permeable fault zone. A marked decrease in
indicate this area was a site for significant erosion prior to McArthur density of McArthur Group rocks (e.g., 1.91–2.23 g cm−3 for the Hot
Group deposition. Spring Member (Lynott Formation) compared to an average of
The gravity and magnetic response increases from the Four Archers 2.59 g cm−3) is observed in drill-holes between the Tawallah and Hot
Fault towards the western edge of the model where the Roper Group is Spring faults, and coincide with increased kaolinite and Fe oxides
exposed at the surface. Modelling indicates it is approximately 1 km suggesting a zone of deep weathering (e.g., Drill-hole BJD04; Hallett,
thick and is defined by short-wavelength low gravity anomalies with 2018; Smith, 2018).
step-like changes in gradient indicating local thickening and faulting of Between the Hot Spring Fault and Emu Fault Zone, the gravity high
stratigraphy. The increasing gravity response is interpreted as thick- is attributed to a 4.3 km-thick succession of McArthur Group, and
ening of the McArthur Group towards the west, and a comparatively volcanic units preserved within the Tawallah Group. The depth and
higher-density basement. The increasing magnetic response is thought thickness of the McArthur and Tawallah groups are constrained by
to be related to intrusive Derim Derim Dolerite sills preserved within seismic line 02GA-BT1 (Rawlings et al., 2004). The additional volcanic
the succession. The outcropping geology and modelling results suggest unit modelled within the Tawallah Group is required to reproduce the
the east dipping Mantungula and Limmen faults were active as growth gravity and magnetic anomalies observed in this area. This unit is un-
faults during deposition of the Roper Group, but underwent reverse likely to represent a continuous stratigraphic unit, and more likely re-
reactivation during a later deformation event. presents a combined volume of the Seigal Volcanics, Settlement Creek
Dolerite and Gold Creek Volcanics. They are modelled as a single unit
4.3.2. Profile B–B′ for simplicity, and because there is considerable uncertainty when
Profile B–B′ is located in the centre of the Batten Fault Zone and modelling the depth and thickness of individual sub-horizontal features
extends across the Broadmere sub-basin (Figs. 6a; 7). The model ar- at this depth using potential field data. High amplitude reflectors con-
chitecture is constrained by the deep seismic line 02GA-BT1 which lies sistent with a volcanic unit (e.g., Chopping and Henson, 2009) are
to the north of the profile (Rawlings et al., 2004), and the coincident present at a comparable depth in the seismic line 02GA-BT1.
12
East of the Emu Fault Zone, a low gravity and smooth magnetic outcropping, or lies under a thin layer of McArthur Group strata in this
response is observed. The Roper Group is only thinly preserved and the region, and is relatively flat lying or shallowly dipping towards the
McArthur Group thins due to erosion towards the east. The Tawallah south. The Tawallah Group thins slightly toward the north of the profile
Group is preserved at shallow levels and is approximately 6 km thick. due to post-depositional erosion. The increasing gravity and magnetic
responses are consistent with an increased thickness of volcanic units,
4.3.3. Profile D–D′ which are modelled as an additional unit within the stratigraphy.
Profile D–D′ is located 32 km south of profile B–B’ and highlights the Modelling also suggests the basement density increases on the north-
architecture of the Emu Fault Zone, and the Tawallah and Hot Springs eastern side of a large north-west trending fault. A normal sense of
faults (Fig. 6a; 8). The western end of the profile models the Mal- movement is interpreted along this fault based on an increase in
lapunyah Fault Zone (oblique to the section) and the transition into the thickness of the Tawallah Group within the hanging wall. This fault was
Beetaloo Sub-basin. The transition into the Beetaloo Sub-basin is con- likely a major basement structure that existed prior to Tawallah Group
strained by the Broadmere (Amoco Australia Petroleum, 1983) and deposition.
McArthur 2D seismic survey (Santos and Tamboran Resources, 2014). The central to southern region of the model is defined by the
The region extending from the western margin of the model to the broadly folded, and variably thick stratigraphy of the Tawallah,
Mallapunyah Fault Zone is characterised by a low gravity and moderate McArthur, Nathan and Roper groups. The Roper and Nathan groups are
magnetic anomaly. This response is attributed to thickening of the preserved only within the hinge of the synclines, and along with the
lower density Roper Group, and intrusion of the magnetic Derim Derim Batten Subgroup have been completely eroded from the hinge of the
Dolerite sills. A high gravity anomaly observed between the anticline. The hinge of a broad-wavelength anticline has uplifted and
Mallapunyah Fault Zone and Tawallah Fault is coincident with out- exposed sedimentary rocks of the lower McArthur Group. It is defined
cropping McArthur Group stratigraphy. The McArthur and Tawallah by a high gravity anomaly superimposed on a broader gravity low. The
groups dip towards the west, and were uplifted and folded against the high gravity anomaly is related to the McArthur Group, while the broad
west-dipping Tawallah Fault. Both groups are thinner west of the low is related to the thinner preserved thickness of the McArthur Group,
Tawallah Fault, which is consistent with interpretations from profile and thicker successions of the underlying Tawallah Group. Another
B–B′, suggesting uplift along the Tawallah Fault prior to deposition of short-wavelength gravity low adjacent to an east–west trending normal
the McArthur Group. fault is interpreted as another sub-basin similar to that described above.
A gravity and magnetic low is observed between the Tawallah and The northern syncline is defined by a low magnetic, and a variable
Hot Springs faults. Consistent with interpretations from profile B–B′, a gravity response that comprises several short-wavelength high and low
lower density zone caused by alteration is modelled between the two anomalies superimposed on a gradient that decreases towards a broader
faults, however this is still unable to completely reproduce the longer low gravity anomaly centred over the anticline. The magnetic low is
wavelength of the anomaly. This required a low density, and rema- offset slightly to the north of the northern-most anticline. This anomaly
nently magnetised, presumably felsic in composition (based on density) does not correlate with a gravity anomaly of similar wavelength,
intrusion underneath the Tawallah Group. This interpretation is con- making it difficult to determine what the causative body may be. We
sistent with observations and modelling work completed by Leaman interpret this as a zone of remanent magnetization within the basement,
(1998). Processed gravity and magnetic grids emphasizing longer wa- possibly related to a volcanic intrusion at depth, similar to that mod-
velength anomalies show an oval-shaped gravity and magnetic low elled in profiles B–B′ and D–D′. The preserved thickness of the McArthur
(approximately 30 × 50 km) centred beneath the Tawallah Fault Group thickens towards an east–west trending normal fault. A short-
(Fig. 4a-b-label: 4). Shorter wavelength anomalies related to uplifted wavelength low-gravity anomaly is interpreted as a sub-basin that
and faulted stratigraphy of the Tawallah Group are superimposed on formed adjacent to this fault and contains a thicker succession of the
these longer wavelength responses, supporting interpretation of a lower-density Barney Creek Formation. Thickening of the Tawallah
deeper intrusion. Group is also modelled against this structure, suggesting it was re-
A broad, high-gravity anomaly is observed between the Tawallah activated several times during basin development. A thick layer of
Fault and the eastern extent of the model. Between the Hot Spring Fault volcanics is modelled within the Tawallah Group, and is constrained by
and the Emu Fault Zone, the gravity high coincides with outcropping intersecting sections.
McArthur Group, however this area has experienced some uplift and The southernmost syncline exposes the gently folded units of the
erosion, causing the McArthur Group to thin towards the Emu Fault Roper and Nathan groups at the surface. The Roper Group is coincident
Zone. Reproducing the observed gravity anomaly requires a thick vol- with short wavelength gravity lows superimposed on a gravity anomaly
canic unit within the Tawallah Group, similar to profile B–B’. The increasing towards the south. The McArthur Group thins towards the
volcanic horizon is also coincident with a magnetic high. Short-wave- south, where mapping data indicates it has been uplifted and eroded
length magnetic highs observed over the Emu Fault Zone coincide with adjacent to the Mallapunyah Fault Zone. The origin of the high-am-
uplifted fault blocks and shallower volcanic units. East of the Emu Fault plitude gravity anomaly located in this area is not well understood and
Zone, the McArthur Group gradually thins until it is absent. At the is modelled as a basement feature. It may represent mafic volcanics
eastern end of the profile, the Roper Group lies directly on the Tawallah within the basement, or even within the sedimentary rocks of the
Group, and correlates with a decreasing gravity and magnetic anomaly. McArthur Basin. South of the Mallapunyah Fault Zone, a decreasing
gravity and variable magnetic response is observed. The uplift and
4.3.4. Profile G–G′ thinning of the McArthur and Tawallah groups south of the
Profile G–G′ is oriented in a north–south direction and is located Mallapunyah Fault Zone, and the structural and volcanic uplift of the
between the Tawallah and the Hot Springs faults. It is constrained by Mallapunyah Dome (e.g., Keele and Wright, 1998) are modelled in this
each east–west model and the seismic line 02GA-BT1 at the point of area. The Tawallah Group is interpreted to thicken towards the south,
intersection (Figs. 6a; 9). The architecture of part of the model is also and is overlain by a thin cover of McArthur and Roper Group.
constrained by the north–south-trending seismic line 02GA-BT2, which
is located approximately 2 km east of the profile (Rawlings et al., 2004). 4.4. 3D architecture of the Batten Fault Zone
Line 02GA-BT2 is shown in Fig. 9 as a comparison to the modelled
architecture of the section. A three-dimensional representation integrating all of the forward
The geophysical response of the northern Batten Fault Zone is de- modelled 2D-sections, overlain with surfaces representing major faults
fined by a gradual increase in the gravity and magnetic response from is shown in Fig. 10a. These sections were used to build a high-resolution
the centre of the model towards the north. The Tawallah Group is 3D model (Fig. 10b) of the central Batten Fault Zone. The 3D
13
representation of the sections and the 3D model highlight long-wave- clasts is unknown, it suggests that some intrusions in the region pre-
length (50–60 km) folding of sedimentary units within the Batten Fault date deposition of the Tawallah Group.
Zone, and uplift and erosion adjacent to major fault zones (e.g., Ta-
wallah Fault, segments of the Emu Fault Zone, and the Mallapunyah 5.1.2. Tawallah Group
Fault Zone). The spatial extent of anomalously thick volcanic units in The deposition of the Tawallah Group was influenced by several
the Tawallah Group can be seen, along with their proximity to major extensional and crustal shortening events that occurred over a 100 my
deposits and structures in the region. period. Consequently, the group exhibits a complex regional tectonos-
tratigraphy with numerous depositional hiatuses and erosional un-
5. Discussion conformities (Bull and Rogers, 1996; Rawlings, 1999; Rogers, 1996).
Recognition of primary fault movements are difficult due to essentially
5.1. Tectonic synthesis and evolution of the southern McArthur Basin flat-lying stratigraphy, lack of exposure in some areas, and later in-
version and overprinting of structures (Rawlings, 1999).
5.1.1. Basement architecture The earliest stages of basin development involved deposition of up
Between ca. 1880–1850 Ma, a series of spatially and temporally to 2 km of coarse-grained siliciclastic rocks and emplacement of ex-
distinct crustal shortening, extensional and magmatic events were ob- tensive volcanic rocks. Rawlings (2007) observed lateral thickness
served across northern Australia (Betts et al., 2006; Etheridge et al., changes in the Yiyintyi Sandstone and tentatively interpreted this to
1987). This period was formerly defined as the ‘Barramundi Orogeny’, indicate growth-faulting into large-scale north-tilted sub-basins. Our
with rocks deformed and emplaced during tectonism forming the solid geology interpretation (Fig. 5b) also suggests that the Sly and
basement to McArthur Basin. Basement exposures within the McArthur Rosie Creek sandstones thicken towards the north. Forward modelling
Basin are limited, and tend to be restricted to small inliers within fault supports an overall thickening of the Tawallah Group towards the
zones (e.g., Scrutton and Urapunga Inliers; Fig. 1) or basin edges (e.g., north, which appears to be controlled by east–west and northwest-
Murphy Inlier, Arnhem Inlier, and Pine Creek Orogen). These rocks trending faults in the central and northern Batten Fault Zone. Without
comprise mafic and felsic volcanics (e.g., Scrutton Volcanics; Batten further constraint from seismic or geological data, it is difficult to de-
Fault Zone), metamorphic rocks, and granites deformed and emplaced termine if this is related to the depositional architecture of the Tawallah
during widespread tectonism (e.g., Urapunga and Murphy Inliers; Group, or is a result of later deformation (Fig. 9). However, gravity data
Wygralak and Ahmad, 1989). to the east of the Emu Fault Zone shows several northwest-trending,
The structural fabric developed during the ca. 1880–1850 Ma tec- fault-bounded gravity lows that are approximately 25–30 km wide
tonism was inherited in the McArthur Basin, and large-scale structures, (Fig. 4b-label 5). The eastern end of profile A–A′ (Fig. 6) images the
particularly the extensive northwest and northeast-trending faults edge of this gravity anomaly and indicates the Tawallah Group thickens
common across the greater McArthur Basin and Lawn Hill Platform, on the northern side of a northwest-trending fault. Magnetic data sug-
were periodically reactivated and controlled ongoing basin develop- gests only minor vertical offset along this northwest-trending fault
ment (Betts et al., 2015; Etheridge et al., 1987; Plumb, 1979; Rogers following emplacement of the Settlement Creek Dolerite and Gold
and Bull, 1994). These faults have typically acted as major transfer Creek Volcanics. These gravity lows may therefore be depocentres for
structures during basin development, but normal and reverse compo- siliciclastic sediments deposited earlier in the basin’s history, which
nents of movement were also interpreted in this work and during pre- would suggest that there was significant compartmentalisation of the
vious geological studies. For example, the northwest-trending Mal- basin during early extensional events.
lapunyah Fault Zone, which bounds lower density basement to the This period of basin development has been interpreted as the onset
south from that to the north of the fault has recorded strike-slip, reverse of back-arc rifting (Rawlings, 2007; Rogers, 1996). Approximately
and a normal sense of movement (Keele and Wright, 1998). Another north–south to northeast–southwest-directed extension is inferred from
large geophysically defined northwest-trending fault in the northern ca. 1760–1740 Ma (Fig. 11a), although extensional conditions likely
Batten Fault Zone likely has an early strike-slip and later normal sense prevailed earlier than this. Extension from ca. 1760–1740 Ma is inter-
of movement (Fig. 4c-label 1). This fault separates higher density crust preted to have been driven by roll-back of a subducting slab located
towards the north to lower density crust to the south. It roughly coin- along the southern margin of the craton (Betts et al., 2006), and cor-
cides with the location of the Barramundi gravity worm, which was relates with the Wonga Event in Mount Isa and the development of the
interpreted as a deep crustal boundary between more mafic crust to the Leichhardt Superbasin (Holcombe et al., 1991). Extensional structures
north, and felsic crust to the south (Hobbs et al., 2000). We also in- are prevalent in the Mount Isa region, where initial stages of sedi-
terpret the Emu Fault Zone as a major inherited structure which ex- mentation and volcanism were focussed within a north–south-trending
hibits strike-slip, normal and reverse senses of movement. We interpret rift axis, with growth faulting occurring along east–west-trending
the Emu Fault Zone to separate basement terranes with different structures (e.g., Leichhardt River Domain; O'Dea et al. (1997)). In the
structural fabrics. East of the Emu Fault Zone, northwest-trending faults southern McArthur Basin, extension resulted in normal movement
are dominant with only a few occurrences of north-northeast-trending along northwest–southeast to east–west-trending faults, and strike-slip
faults which, west of the Emu Fault Zone are prevalent across the movement along north–south to north-northeast trending faults
McArthur Basin. (Fig. 11a; Rogers, 1996).
In addition to recognising inherited structures, our modelling results A mid-basin inversion event involving a short-lived period of
suggest a large granitic intrusion is preserved within the basement of east–west-directed crustal shortening occurred at approximately
the southern Batten Fault Zone centred under the Tawallah and Hot 1740 Ma (Bull and Rogers, 1996; Keele and Wright, 1998). This event
Springs faults (Fig. 8). The proximity of the modelled intrusion to caused uplift and erosion of Tawallah Group stratigraphy, and a re-
arcuate segments of the Tawallah and Hot Springs faults suggests gional unconformity at the base of the Wununmantyala Sandstone (Bull
rheological differences within the basement may have played a role in and Rogers, 1996; Rawlings, 2007). West of the Tawallah Fault, several
partitioning strain within the fault zone, and influenced fault devel- stratigraphic units immediately underlying the Wununmantyala Sand-
opment and reactivation within the overlying basin during later de- stone within the lower Tawallah Group are missing. This is consistent
formation. The age of the intrusion is unknown; however felsic clasts with our modelling results which indicate an overall thinning of the
have been recognised within the basal conglomerate of the Wu- group west of the Tawallah Fault in profiles B–B′, C–C′ and D–D′
nunmantyala Sandstone, which were interpreted to have been derived (Figs. 7, 8 and Supplementary Fig. 1), and also in the north of the Batten
from basement exposed during the mid-Tawallah inversion event (Bull Fault Zone in profile A-A′ (Fig. 6). Overall, it is estimated that up to
and Rogers, 1996; Jackson et al., 2000). Although the source of these 2.5 km of stratigraphy could have been eroded west of the Tawallah
14
Fig. 8. Forward modelled section D-D′. a) Geological interpretation along modelled profile. Red line corresponds to the cross-section (legend same as Fig. 5). b)
ceptibility (SI) parameters labelled. Location map and legend for the section are shown in Fig. 6a–b. (For interpretation of the references to colour in this figure
legend, the reader is referred to the web version of this article.)
Fault prior to deposition of the McArthur Group. East of the Tawallah northeast orientation of the Arnhem Dyke Swarm which was emplaced
Fault, the Tawallah Group is almost double in its modelled thickness. at 1725 Ma (Goldberg, 2010), and a similar extension direction ob-
This would imply reverse movement along the west-dipping Tawallah served in Mount Isa at this time (Jackson et al., 2000). Extension may
Fault, and likely also along north–south to north-northeast-trending have been related to far field stresses associated with rollback of a
faults in the north of the Batten Fault Zone occurred during this event subduction zone located to the south (Giles et al., 2002), rifting be-
(Fig. 11b). The comparable timing and direction of crustal shortening tween Australia and Laurentia (Betts and Armit, 2011) or related to a
suggests this event may be linked to the 1740 Ma Leichhardt Event mantle plume in Arnhem Land (Goldberg, 2010).
recorded in the Leichhardt River Fault Trough, which is tentatively
correlated with the accretion of the Numil terrane onto the eastern
margin of the Australian continent (Blaikie et al., 2017). 5.1.3. McArthur Group
Sedimentation on a broad platform continued from ca. 1730 Ma and A 30 my depositional hiatus separates the underlying Tawallah
was accompanied by the widespread emplacement of the Settlement Group from the McArthur Group. A basin wide unconformity suggests
Creek Dolerite as high level sills, and the Gold Creek Volcanics which uplift and erosion of the basin occurred at this time. Deposition of the
are thought the be their erupted equivalent (Kunzmann et al., 2020; McArthur Group commenced at ca. 1660 Ma, and was driven by
Rawlings, 2002). Large circular gravity highs located to the east of the widespread thermal subsidence, with intermittent periods of extension
Batten Fault Zone are interpreted as thicker volcanic piles, either em- and compression. Thickening of the lowermost stratigraphic units of the
placed as high-level sills or laccoliths, or subaerially. We interpret these McArthur Group against east–west normal faults is recognised in parts
features as similar to the thicker volcanic units modelled in the central of the McArthur Basin from previous work (Rogers, 1996) and our li-
region of the Batten Fault Zone, and elsewhere across northern Aus- thological interpretation (Fig. 5b), suggesting initial north–south ex-
tralian basins as previously noted by Leaman (1998). Widespread vol- tensional conditions controlled sedimentation. Following deposition of
canism suggests extensional conditions existed, which likely resulted in the basal units, thermal subsidence was the primary driver for basin
localised faulting in the Batten Fault Zone, including normal movement development and peritidal carbonate facies typical of sag-phase sedi-
along north-northeast to northeast oriented faults west of the Emu Fault mentation became prevalent across northern Australia (Betts et al.,
Zone, and strike-slip movement along northwest oriented faults 2003; Betts and Giles, 2006; Rogers, 1996).
(Fig. 11c). However, a relatively uniform facies and thickness dis- Thermal subsidence was periodically interrupted by short-lived
tribution of siliciclastic units across the basin suggest faulting did not phases of tectonic activity causing reactivation of basin structures under
exhibit a strong influence on the basin architecture (Rawlings, 1999). both extensional and compressional conditions. In the Batten Fault
Extension is thought to be northwest–southeast-directed, based on the Zone, these intermittent events compartmentalised the basin into nu-
merous paleohighs and sub-basins and resulted in a complex
15
Fig. 9. Forward modelled section G-G′. a) Geological interpretation along modelled profile. Red line corresponds to the cross-section (legend same as Fig. 5). b)
ceptibility (SI) parameters labelled. Location map and legend for the section are shown in Fig. 6a–b. e) Comparison of this section with seismic line 02GA-BT2.
Dashed lines show approximate projection of the seismic line onto the forward model. The seismic line lies to the east of section B-B′ (location shown on Fig. 6a). f)
Legend for seismic interpretation shown in e). (For interpretation of the references to colour in this figure legend, the reader is referred to the web version of this
article.)
depositional architecture (Kunzmann et al., 2019). A short-lived period McGoldrick et al., 2010). It also caused uplift and erosion in parts of the
of tectonic activity occurred at ca. 1645–1640 Ma during deposition of basin, particularly east of the Emu Fault Zone (Walker et al., 1983).
the middle McArthur Group. In the Batten Fault Zone, sinistral strike- Two styles of sub-basins developed within the Batten Fault Zone
slip faulting along north-northwest-trending faults, such as the Emu during this period. Sinistral strike-slip movement along the north-
Fault Zone, Tawallah and Lorella faults is observed (McGoldrick et al., northwest-trending Emu Fault Zone caused development of elliptically
2010; Rogers, 1996). Normal faulting is observed along east- to east- shaped, transtensional sub-basins along its length. These transtensional
northeast-trending faults, which tend to terminate against the north- sub-basins preserve the thickest intervals of the Barney Creek
northwest-trending strike-slip faults. Strike-slip and normal faulting Formation, which tend to thicken towards the east against the Emu
caused local pull-apart structures to develop, which formed restricted Fault Zone (Davidson and Dashlooty, 1993; Rawlings et al., 2004). In
sub-basins where thick sections of the Barney Creek Formation were the central Batten Fault Zone, sub-basins also developed along broadly
deposited, and in some cases was mineralised (Kunzmann et al., 2019; east–west-trending normal faults located between the Tawallah Fault
16
Fig. 10. A) Three-dimensional representation of the forward modelled sections of the Batten Fault Zone, overlain with surfaces representing major faults which
shows their projection across the different models. Location of the McArthur River deposit in relation to major modelled structures is also shown. B) 3D model of the
central Batten Fault zone showing horizons and faults digitised from the 2D models and fault interpretations.
and the Emu Fault Zone (McGoldrick et al., 2010). Geophysical mod- partitioning within the fault zone may have caused localised variations
elling shows a variable thickness of the Tawallah Group across these in this direction. North-south directed extension is consistent with that
faults, suggesting they were active during the Tawallah Group, and inferred on the northern Lawn Hill Platform during the coeval River
were reactivated during deposition of the McArthur Group (Fig. 9). Event (Scott et al., 1998).
Various workers have interpreted this period of sub-basin develop- Although not imaged in our modelling as deformation is relatively
ment to be associated with east–west (Plumb and Wellman, 1987), minor compared to other events that have affected the basin, there is
northeast (Betts et al., 2015), north-northwest (Taylor and Hayward, growing structural and sedimentological evidence for a mild basin in-
2016), and north-northeast (Frogtech Geoscience, 2018) extension, version occurring towards the later stages of deposition of the Barney
while east–west shortening has also been proposed (Neudert and Creek Formation. This event resulted in the transpressive reactivation
McGeough, 1996). At a regional scale, geophysical modelling suggests of the Emu Fault Zone, folding, and syn-sedimentary inversion of ex-
thickening of the McArthur Group occurs against east–west, northwest tensional structures (Hinman, 1995). Uplift and instability related to
and northeast-trending normal faults. These faults were inherited from this mild inversion caused an influx of mass-flow breccias into the
pre-existing basement or Tawallah-aged structures, or represent sub- previously developed sub-basins, which occur at a sequence boundary
sidiary structures forming off these faults (Fig. 11d). They tend to ter- in the upper Barney Creek Formation across the basin (Kunzmann and
minate against north-northeast and north-northwest-trending strike-slip Blaikie, 2019; Kunzmann et al., 2019). Sedimentation of the Barney
faults, also reactivated during this event. Regional scale sediment Creek Formation continued during the onset of deformation, which is
thickening identified in our modelling represents the superposition of evidenced by onlap of strata of the upper Barney Creek Formation onto
the waning stages of extension during deposition of the basal McArthur reversely faulted and incised stratigraphy uplifted during inversion
Group, and the ca. 1645–1640 Ma extension event. Syn-depositional (Hinman, 1995). Deformation is consistent with northwest–southeast-
growth faulting observed along east–west, northwest and northeast shortening (Hinman, 1995; Rogers, 1996), however Hinman (1995)
normal faults during deposition of the middle McArthur Group suggests suggested that this may be locally modified by transpression on the
a roughly north–south extensional orientation, although strain Emu Fault Zone, and regional deformation could be caused by a short-
17
Fig. 11. Structural evolution of the southern McArthur Basin showing interpreted active faults overlain on the geological interpretation. a) ca. 1760–1740 Ma
deposition of the early-middle Tawallah Group during north–south to northeast-southwest-directed extension; b) ca. 1740 Ma Mid-Tawallah inversion event asso-
ciated with east–west-directed crustal shortening; c) ca. 1725–1690 Ma deposition of the upper Tawallah Group during northwest–southeast-directed extension; d)
ca. 1645–1640 Ma deposition of the middle McArthur Group (onset of Barney Creek deposition) during N-S extension; e) ca. 1610–1570 Ma early Isan Orogeny
involving north–south-directed crustal shortening; f) ca. 1570–1500 Ma middle to late Isan Orogeny involving east–west to northwest-southeast-directed crustal
shortening; g) ca. 1500–1300 Ma deposition of the Roper Group; h) Post-1313 Ma northeast–southwest-directed crustal shortening.
18
lived north–south-directed shortening event. Keele and Wright (1998) early Isan Orogeny. Previous structural studies have recognised east–-
also recognised a north–south-directed crustal shortening event within west to west-northwest folding and faulting within the Batten Fault
the north of the Batten Fault Zone, although the timing of this event Zone, and attributed deformation to this phase of the orogeny (Hinman,
remains somewhat speculative since only the lowermost units of the 1995; Keele and Wright, 1998). During this event, it is likely that some
McArthur Group were preserved in their study region. minor reverse reactivation of approximately east–west normal faults,
This deformation event was initially correlated to the early Isan and strike-slip movement along northwest, and north–south to north-
Orogeny (Hinman, 1995), however ongoing sedimentation within the northeast faults occurred (Fig. 11e).
Barney Creek Formation constrains timing to ca. 1640 Ma (Page et al., The middle to late phases of the Isan Orogeny involved east–west-
2000; Page and Sweet, 1998). Timing of deformation is coincident with directed crustal shortening (Betts et al., 2006; Blenkinsop et al., 2008;
the Riversleigh event on the Lawn Hill Platform, where syn-sedimen- Giles et al., 2006; O'Dea et al., 2006). In the McArthur Basin, sedi-
tary reverse reactivation of east–west-trending normal faults also oc- mentation had ceased by the onset of this phase of the orogeny, and the
curred from approximately north–south-directed crustal shortening region experienced a significant episode of inversion. Approximately
(Bradshaw et al., 2000; Scott et al., 1998). The similarity in timing and east–west to northwest-southeast-directed shortening resulted in re-
directions of crustal shortening between these events suggest a common verse reactivation of north-northwest and north-northeast trending
tectonic driver. The Riversleigh event has tentatively been linked to faults, with deformation largely localised in the northwest and south-
deformation and magmatism occurring in central Australia associated east of the Batten Fault Zone (Fig. 11f). Strike-slip motion is also in-
with the 1640–1635 Ma Liebig event and the accretion of the Warumpi terpreted along large, deep seated northwest-trending faults such as the
terrane (e.g., Hollis et al., 2013; Scrimgeour et al., 2005) onto the Mallapunyah and the Calvert fault zones. Rogers (1996) recognised
southern margin of North Australian Craton (Betts and Armit, 2011; brittle strike-slip faulting along northwest and northeast-trending con-
Betts et al., 2016). This event has also been interpreted to have played a jugate fault sets in the Batten, Tawallah and Scrutton ranges, and in-
role in mineralisation at McArthur River (Gibson et al., 2016; 2017). terpreted a northwest–southeast-directed deformation event. The
Alternatively, if collision of the Warumpi province occurred at ca timing of this event was not well constrained. It was tentatively cor-
1130 Ma as proposed by Wong et al. (2015), then the 1640 Ma de- related to mild deformation occurring during deposition of the Barney
formation recognised in the north Australian basins may be related to Creek Formation, but could also be related to the middle to late phases
intraplate instability associated with broader scale plate reorganisation, of the Isan Orogeny. The regional scale, approximately north–south-
which triggered a reversal in plate motion (Idnurm, 2000). trending folding observed across the Batten Fault Zone in the east–west-
Following this period of tectonic instability, sedimentation across trending forward models, as well as minor short-wavelength folding
the McArthur Basin continued, and the Batten subgroup was deposited. observed within the McArthur Group stratigraphy (e.g., Pietsch et al.,
Sequence stratigraphy suggests the depocenter for the group shifted 1991) are inferred to be related to this event.
towards the north of the Batten Fault Zone where thicker and deeper
marine facies of the Reward Dolostone, and potentially also the 5.1.5. Roper Group
Caranbirini Member (Lynott Formation) were deposited compared to Following a 70 my hiatus related to the Isan Orogeny, the Roper
the south (Kunzmann and Blaikie, 2019). This shift in depocenter im- Group and equivalent successions in the South Nicholson Basin were
plies a subtle change in the regional stress field that focussed extension widely deposited across the North Australian Craton. Regionally, the
and the creation of accommodation space in the north of the Batten architecture of the Roper Group and location of depocentres differ from
Fault Zone. Interpretation of aeromagnetic data suggests sub-basins that of underlying successions, and appear to be unrelated to the pre-
(defined by subdued magnetic anomalies) in this area are confined vious tectonic framework, although reactivation of major structures
between northeast-trending faults, which are more prevalent in this such as the Mallapunyah Fault continued to occur during and after
area compared to the rest of the basin. This suggests extension may deposition of Mesoproterozoic strata (Williams, 2020). In the Batten
have shifted towards a northwest-direction during deposition of the Fault Zone, the Roper Group is largely confined to the hinge zones of
Reward Dolostone and Caranbirini Member, before the basin returned synclines, and to the west of the fault zone. Growth faulting is observed
to sag-phase sedimentation. along reactivated northeast oriented structures within the northwest
and southwest of the study region, as indicated by seismic data,
5.1.4. Isan Orogeny thickening of stratigraphy and geophysical modelling (Fig. 11g). East of
Although the southern McArthur Basin was distal to regions where the Emu Fault Zone, preserved units of the Roper Group do not appear
deformation and metamorphism were most intensely focussed, the re- to be fault-controlled.
gion still experienced the effects of the Isan Orogeny which terminated A post-Roper Group deformation event has long been recognised
sedimentation and caused significant inversion across the basin. within the southern McArthur Basin, and is largely responsible for the
The earliest phase of the Isan Orogeny (ca. 1610–1585 Ma) involved current thrusted architecture of the western and central Batten Fault
north–south to northwest–southeast-directed crustal shortening driven Zone (Keele and Wright, 1998; Rawlings et al., 2004; Rogers, 1996).
by active subduction at the southern margin of the continent (Betts and This region is dominated by the north–south-trending but highly arc-
Giles, 2006; Betts et al., 2009; Giles et al., 2006; O'Dea et al., 2006). uate Hot Spring and Tawallah faults, and to a lesser extent, the Scrutton
Evidence of this phase of the orogeny affecting the southern McArthur Fault. Geophysical modelling suggests these faults had a long-lived
Basin is limited, likely due to poor preservation of structures, and the history, possibly as strike or dip-slip structures comparable to the Emu
difficulty of recognising and constraining the timing of several different Fault Zone, which was similarly suggested by Rogers (1996). This latest
superimposed deformation events that affected the region. An un- episode of thrust faulting uplifted lower McArthur and Tawallah Group
conformity between the McArthur and Nathan groups suggests a short- strata, juxtaposing them against Roper and Nathan Group sedimentary
lived depositional hiatus and erosion event occurred at ca. 1610 Ma, rocks preserved in the Abner Ranges. This event also caused northwest-
which may be related to the onset of the orogeny. Geophysical mod- trending folding of Roper Group sediments in the Abner Ranges, which
elling (Figs. 7 and 8, Supplementary Fig. 2) supports this, and indicates were superimposed on existing folds that developed during the Isan
that the McArthur Group thins overall towards the east until it is absent. Orogeny. Minor reverse reactivation of northeast-trending faults such
In this area, mapping data from Rawlings (2006) indicates the Nathan as the Mantungula and Limmen faults in the northwest of the fault zone
Group unconformably overlies the Tawallah Group. The missing is also observed (Fig. 11h).
McArthur Group stratigraphy implies either non, or very thin deposi- Geophysical models and seismic data show long-wavelength
tion of the McArthur Group in the southeast of the McArthur Basin, or (50–60 km) folding within the Batten Fault Zone and across the
that the region underwent a period of uplift and erosion during the Beetaloo Sub-basin, and uplift and erosion adjacent to major fault zones
19
(e.g., Mallapunyah Fault Zone). Intense deformation appears to have Creek Dolerite and Gold Creek Volcanics in the Mallapunyah Dome, and
been focussed within structurally weak zones such as the Batten Fault suggested that metals were leached from volcanic rocks by oxidised,
Zone, whereas folding and faulting elsewhere was relatively mild. The saline brines (Cooke et al., 1998). Potassic alteration assemblages have
structural interpretation from this, and previous work, suggests broadly also been recognised in volcanic rocks within the Tawallah Ranges,
northeast–southwest-directed crustal shortening is responsible for de- Scrutton Ranges and the Bauhinia Downs 1:250 K mapsheet (Haines
formation. Timing of this event is poorly constrained, and therefore et al., 1993; Pietsch et al., 1991; Rawlings, 1993), and within the Fiery
tectonic drivers of deformation are speculative. Seismic and magnetic Creek and Peters Creek Volcanics in the Western Succession of the
data suggest the 1313 Ma Derim Derim Dolerite (Collins et al., 2018) Mount Isa Inlier (Huston et al., 2006). This widespread alteration is
was emplaced prior to this event, which indicates deformation occurred interpreted as regional fluid flow associated with Zn-Pb-Ag metallo-
after this time. Deformation could be related to the Albany-Fraser and genesis (Huston et al., 2006). In the McArthur Basin, fluid migration is
Musgrave events (1220–1140 Ma) which record the collision and su- dated between 1680 Ma and 1541 Ma (Polito et al., 2006), which
turing of the South Australian Craton with the North and West Aus- overlaps with the timing of mineralisation at McArthur River (1640 Ma;
tralian cratons (Frogtech Geoscience, 2018). Alternatively, it may be Cooke et al., 1998; Idnurm, 2000). Assuming that the mafic volcanic
related to the collision between the West and North Australian craton, units of the Tawallah Group represent the metal source, the thick vol-
which new data suggests may have occurred as late as 1300 Ma (e.g., canic pile identified within the central Batten Fault Zone may have been
Gardiner et al., 2018; Maidment, 2017). one of the key ingredients for the formation of the McArthur River and
Teena deposits. The fractured and vesicular volcanic rocks would have
5.2. Regional insights into northern Australian Zn-Pb mineral systems been ideal to facilitate fluid flow within the central Batten Fault zone
and beneath the known deposits. This potential source region is tapped
A number of factors are critical to the genesis of sediment-hosted by several deep-seated faults, which repeatedly reactivated and con-
Zn-Pb deposits. Essential factors include aquifers to circulate oxidising trolled sub-basin development during deposition of the McArthur
basinal brines, source rocks for Zn and Pb, deeply penetrating faults and Group. These faults would have provided a direct pathway for fluid
a tectonic trigger to facilitate the flow of metal-bearing fluids, and a transport from the source region to organic-rich and pyritic mudrocks
suitable geochemical trap with reduced sulfur (Huston et al., 2006; of the Barney Creek Formation as the trap. The presence of this large
Leach et al., 2010). Our geophysical modelling has provided some new volcanic pile, which is intersected by several deep-seated faults is likely
insights into regional controls on Zn-Pb-Ag mineralisation in the one reason why the central Batten Fault Zone is so well endowed with
McArthur Basin, such as potential sources of metals, and structures Zn-Pb-Ag mineralisation.
which control fluid flow and sub-basin development. Although the role of temporally coincident magmatism or pre-ex-
Several anomalously thick piles of mafic volcanics within the isting volcanic rocks in the genesis of sediment-hosted base metal de-
Tawallah Group, which are approximately 2 km thick (compared to 220 posits globally appears to differ, geophysical studies similar to the work
– 1100 m mapped elsewhere), were interpreted during modelling to completed herein can be used to delineate the presence and extent of
reconcile positive gravity anomalies observed in parts of the basin. volcanic sequences within other basins where a spatial relationship is
Although modelled as a single unit for simplicity, the modelled volca- identified or inferred. Furthermore, geophysical studies can support in
nics likely represent a combined volume of the Seigal Volcanics, mapping the extent of lithological packages hosting mineralisation and
Settlement Creek Dolerite and Gold Creek Volcanics. These units lie their spatial relationships to major structures, while linking basin de-
adjacent to, or in the case of the Gold Creek Volcanics, are intercalated velopment to the broader geodynamic setting helps determine if the
with sandstone units suggested to have been aquifers facilitating the tectonic conditions were favourable for the development of sediment-
flow of brines within the basin (Polito et al., 2006). The largest volcanic hosted mineralisation. Recognition of these relationships can then be
pile modelled has a close spatial association with known mineralisation used in a predictive manner to guide ongoing exploration.
including McArthur River and Teena (Fig. 10), and is tapped by several
deep-seated faults which were active prior to and during mineralisa- 6. Conclusions
tion.
Models for the genesis of sediment-hosted Zn-Pb mineralisation The complex architecture of the southern McArthur Basin evolved in
have typically excluded a role for older volcanic rocks or temporally response to numerous extensional and crustal shortening events that
coincident magmatism in providing metals or driving hydrothermal caused the repeated reactivation of different fault systems, particularly
systems. However spatial associations between volcanic rocks and mi- in the Batten Fault Zone which represents a structurally weak corridor
neralisation has been recognised at a number of deposits, including the within the region. Forward modelling of high-resolution gravity and
Sullivan deposit in the Belt-Purcell Basin (British Columbia; (Anderson magnetic data, coupled with interpretation of existing seismic data was
and Goodfellow, 2000)), Selwyn Basin (Goodfellow et al., 1995; used to inform on the structural architecture of the Batten Fault Zone,
Leybourne et al., 2018), the Stonepark prospect in south-central Ireland and the distribution of different stratigraphic packages within the basin.
(McCusker and Reed, 2013), and the Aravalli province (western India; Results were used to synthesise the basin’s evolution within the geo-
Porwal et al., 2006). While spatial association with volcanic rocks is dynamic framework of northern Australia during the Proterozoic and
common to all these deposits, the roles they played in mineralisation inform on regional controls on Zn-Pb-Ag mineralisation.
seems different. At the Stonepark prospect, a major fault has not been Broadly, the Tawallah Group thickens towards the east, and thins
identified proximal to mineralisation and it is hypothesised that the towards the west. Variations in thickness adjacent to northwest
fractures in the intrusive rocks provided a pathway of increased por- trending faults suggest early compartmentalisation of the basin and
osity for mineralising fluids (McCusker and Reed, 2013). Volcanic rocks thickening of sediments in northwest trending depocentres. This likely
are thought to have provided a heat source to drive hydrothermal fluid occurred at ca. 1760–1740 Ma, when the region experienced north–-
flow in the Aravalli province (Porwal et al., 2006). While in the Selwyn south-directed extension, causing reactivation and development of
Basin, ore forming magmatic hydrothermal fluids may have been de- northwest normal and northeast to north-northeast strike-slip faults.
rived from the same magmas that formed the volcanic rocks in the Thinning of stratigraphy against north–south to north-northeast faults
Selwyn Basin (Leybourne et al., 2018). indicates basin inversion prior to McArthur Group deposition, and is
In the McArthur Basin, mafic volcanics preserved within the linked to an east–west-directed crustal shortening event at ca. 1740 Ma.
Tawallah Group are thought be a source of Zn and Pb, in addition to An anomalously thick pile of mafic volcanics was modelled within the
those derived from clastic sediments. Previous work has recognised Tawallah Group in several regions of the Batten Fault Zone. The largest
potassic metasomatism and base metals depletion from the Settlement of these volcanic units has a close spatial association to known
20
mineralisation, including the McArthur River and Teena deposits, and is Appendix A. Supplementary data
tapped by deep structures that were active during mineralisation. Mafic
volcanics have previously been interpreted as the source for base metals Supplementary data to this article can be found online at https://
in the area, and the localised thick volcanic pile we modelled may be doi.org/10.1016/j.precamres.2020.105728.
the reason why this region is well endowed with respect to Zn and Pb.
Modelling indicates the ca. 1670–1600 Ma McArthur Group is References
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23

Geophysical Interpretation and Tectonic Synthesis

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Precambrian Research 343 (2020) 105728

Contents lists available at ScienceDirect

Geophysical interpretation and tectonic synthesis of the Proterozoic T

3.2. Lithostructural interpretation workﬂow

Geophysical interpretation allows regional scale recognition of li-

Minimum 1.84 1.39 2.24 1.61

(caption on next page)

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