2023 Paper-1

1(a): What is the distinctiveness of the feminist method of social

research?Comment.(10 Marks)

Approach:
 Introduce with feminist method
 Provide its features as distinctiveness
 A brief criticism
 Conclude with relevance
Feminist method sees gender as a primary organizing category and provides a lens to seeing
and knowing social
world and its realities. This approach to research helps to examine how women understand
their gender.

Distinctiveness of feminist method of social research:

 Gender as a central category: Feminist method keeps gender at centre while conducting
its research work and theories. E.g. Ann Oakley's 'The Sociology of Housework' led to
understanding of gender as social construct.
 Understanding the Patriarchal nature of various social institution: Feminist method has
been instrumental in laying out the patriarchy emanating from prevailing social
structures. Eg. Sylvia Walby provided 6 sources of patriarchal control- Paid work,
Domestic work, Culture,Sexuality, Violence and The State.
 Formulating new concepts: Feminist method, through its focus on gender as a social
dimension, led to various new concepts and theories. E.g. Leela Dubey's concept of
'Seed and Earth'
 Critique of the traditional sociological understanding: Feminist has been at forefront of
criticizing the classical sociologists for ignoring the gender dimension in their
explanation of social phenomena. E.g. The socio-cultural theorists criticised biological
theorists on sexual division of labour.
 Challenging the common sensical understanding of various social phenomenon built
around gender through empirical studies and research work. E.g. Margaret Mead's
research 'Sex and Temperament'
 Intersectional studies: Feminist method recognizes that social behaviour is influenced
by multiple factors such as gender, race, class, caste and ethnicity. E.g. Kimberlé
Crenshaw described how race, class, gender, and other individual characteristics
“intersect” with one another and overlap.
 Focus on subjectivity and reflexivity: While the traditional methods focuses on
complete objectivity, feminists give due importance to subjectivity in social reality.
Feminist researchers also practice reflexivity, meaning they continuously reflect on their
own role in the research process.
  Aiming reforms and emancipation: Feminist method believes that research is not just
about understanding the reality but also change it. It aims to understand gender
inequality in its multiple forms and to reduce it.
Criticism of Feminist Method:
 Feminist method is criticized for being subjective in nature. It also involves personal
biasness of researcher in research work which can lead to compromise over empiricism.
 Some critics argue that certain feminist research approaches inadvertently reinforce
essentialist views by emphasizing the experiences of women as a homogenous group,
overlooking the diversity within genders.
 Feminists tends to overemphasise on qualitative methods and may ignore the
quantitative or mixed method approaches.
By challenging traditional concepts and methodologies and offering new insights into the study
of gender and
inequality feminist method has paved the way for more inclusive and comprehensive
sociological analyses,
ultimately contributing to the pursuit of social justice and equality.

1(b): Discuss the relationship between sociology and political science.(10 Marks)

Approach:
 Introduce by defining the disciplines.
 Briefly explain the evolution of relationship
 Explain the relation through convergence between the two.
 Provide the divergences
 Conclude with need of interdisciplinary approach.
Political Science studies the political institutions and processes whereas Sociology is the
systematic
and scientific study of social structures and institutions including values and norms.

The two discipline often converge as the subject matter is 'human' and the convergence is on
increase. The convergence started with work of Karl Marx who showed close link between
political
institutions and behaviour on one hand and economic system and social classes on the other.
The convergence was studied in detail with rise of new politico-administrative institutions like
political parties, elites, bureaucracy etc. The Chicago school had been instrumental in
developing
the relation between the two disciplines by applying the behavioural approach to political
phenomena.

The contemporary relationship between sociology and political science can be seen in
following
way:
  Political developments are having unprecedented impact on social norms and
institutions. The spread of democracy in political arena has led to democratisation of
social institutions.E.g. Democratisation of polity trickling down in form of
democratisation of family.
 The Social background is also impacting the political institutions. E.g. M.N. Srinivas
showed how dominant castes have been important in understanding the politics at
grassroot.
 The policy development today requires understanding of both the disciplines. Political
Science provides laws which affect welfare of masses. Sociology on the other hand
provides the data and basis for these laws and policies.
However, there are some divergences between the two disciplines:
A B C
1 PARAMETER SOCIOLOGY POLITICAL SCIENCE
2 SCOPE Sociology has wider scope Political science confines itself to
as it studies all aspects of study of state and power.
society.
3 SUBJECT MATTER The subject matter is open The Subject matter is more
and is ever increasing. codified.
4 AIM It aims to study relation It tends to limit itself to study
between all the social process within government and
institutions. their relation with people.
5 METHODOLOGY Sociologists use a wide Political scientists use research
range of research methods such as case studies,
methods, including voting analysis, and policy analysis
surveys, interviews, to examine political systems and
observations and behaviors.
statistical analysis to study
social phenomena
6 INTERDISCIPLINARY It often overlaps with It may intersect with other fields
APPROACH other social sciences, such like international relations,
as psychology, economics and law, particularly
anthropology, and when studying global politics and
economics, to understand policy.
human behavior and
society
Despite differences, as G.E.C. Catlin identified,“Political Science and Sociology are two faces
and
aspects of same figure“. In today's interconnected world it is important to focus on
interdisciplinary
approach for holistic understanding of reality.
1(c): How does the dramaturgical perspective enable our understanding of
everyday life?(10 Marks)

Approach:
 Define the dramaturgical perspective
 Discuss its relevance in understanding daily life along its key aspects
 Briefly provide the limitations of the perspective.
 Conclusion
The dramaturgical perspective, introduced by sociologist Erving Goffman, is a sociological
theory that compares everyday life to a theatrical presentation.
The dramaturgical perspective allows us to understand everyday life by viewing individuals as
actors on a stage, performing roles in different scenes (situations). It provides a framework for
understanding how we present ourselves in various social contexts and how we manage the
impressions we give to others.
Dramaturgical perspective through following aspects help us understand everyday life:-
 ROLE PLAYING: In our everyday life we all play different roles in our lives, such as being
a student, employee, parent, or friend. These roles come with certain expectations and
norms, which we try to live up to. E.g. as an employee, one is expected to be
professional, punctual, and productive.
 IMPRESSION MANGEMENT: While performing role, individuals attempt to control the
impressions others form of them.E.g. Albas and Albas (1988) explored the strategies
students use to manage the impressions they make on others after grades are
awarded..
 FRONT STAGE AND BACK STAGE: Goffman also introduces the concepts of ‘front stage’
and ‘back stage’. The front stage is where the performance is given, i.e., where we
present ourselves according to societal expectations. The back stage is where we can be
ourselves without worrying about societal norms. E.g. a politician might be honest and
integral in the front of people (front stage) but can be corrupt while performing his/her
duty(back stage).

LIMITATIONS OF THE DRAMATURGICAL PERSPECTIVE:

 The main criticism raised against dramaturgical analysis is that it is not an explanatory
but a descriptive theory.
 Reynolds and Herman-Kinney argue that this approach cannot be used to generate
testable hypotheses or to offer comprehensive conclusions about human behavior.
 Hunt and Benford agree that a systematic rendering of a dramaturgical methodology
has not been attempted. It is said to lack a systematic method of testing propositions
about the world
 Several scholars have criticized the dramaturgical perspective for its implicitly jaded
view of human nature portraying people as self-interested manipulators, con-artists,
liars, and other disingenuous character.
Dramaturgical perspective provides a useful lens for understanding everyday life. By viewing
everyday life as a series of performances, we can gain insights into the complexities of human
behavior and social relationships.

1(d): Is the reference group theory a universally applicable model? Elucidate.(10

Marks)

Approach:
 Introduce with R.K. Merton's idea of reference group.
 Explain the theory in brief
 Discuss the applicability
 Show the various limitations
 Conclusion
R.K. Merton explained the 'Reference group' as a group, with which one always makes a
comparison in order to evaluate one's achievement, aspirations, role performance and
ambition. They act as normative standard for the individual.

Merton distinguished between reference group and interest group which are more general part
of an individual's social environment. Reference groups can be membership group(group which
one is already part of) and non-membership group(group of which one is not part of). Further it
can be positive(one wishes to join) and negative(wishes to avoid). The process of behaving like
members of aspirational reference group is termed as anticipatory socialisation.

Applicability of Reference Group Theory in various societies:

 Across temporally different societies:
o Primitive Societies: The membership group acted as the reference group for
people, however, at few occasions the non-membership group also acted as
reference group. E.g. M.N. Srinivas' Sanskritisation shows how upper caste
acted as reference group for lower castes in village societies in India.
o Modern Societies: Both membership and non-membership group acted as
reference group. E.g. T. Veblen explains how conspicuous consumption like
buying a car is perceived as improvement in social status modern societies.
 Across Spatially different societies:
o Indian Society: The Rural to Urban migration can be attributed to better lifestyle
of urban population which acts as reference group for rural population.
o Western Societies: W.E.B. Du Bois showed how black self is imitating white self,
like obtaining a higher degree, hoping that black self will be recognized as white
self.
However, there are limitations to universal applicability of reference group theory:
 The theory of reference group cannot be applied to those who are absolutely deprived.
E.g. the isolated tribes in many areas are not even aware about the non-membership
groups due to limited or no interaction.
  The extent to which reference groups influence individuals varies based on their
personality, values, and life experiences. This diversity among individuals challenges the
universality of reference group theory.
 The process of anticipatory socialisation in case of relative deprivation is also limited in
scope. E.g. Oskar Lewis'Culture of Poverty explain such behaviour where anticipatory
socialisation is not applicable.
The theory of reference group despite limitations have helped in understanding the social
behaviour through its wide applicability across different societies.

1(e): Do you think that boundary line between ethnicity and race is blurred?
Justify your answer.(10 Marks)

Approach:
 Define Ethnicity and Race
 In brief explain the differences.
 Discuss the convergence between ethnicity and race in contemporary times
 Conclusion
Race refers to perceived social differences based on biological and geographical differences
whereas the ethnicity refers to cultural practices, perspectives, and distinctions that set apart
one group of people from another. As perceived by Jenkins “ethnicity” is about group
identification whereas “race” is about social categorisation.
PARAMETER ETHNICITY RACE
Displayability It can be displayed or hidden. It generally cannot be hidden.
Geography There can be multiple ethnic It is commonly associated with a
groups within a single particular geography. E.g. Mongoloid race
geography. E.g. Kuki, Meiti, Naga in North-East India
etc. exist as various ethnic
groups in North-East India
Subcategories Ethnic sub-groups are present. There are no subcategories. There are
E.g Indians as an ethnic group broad categories like African, Caucasian
can be divided into North Indian etc.
and South Indian.
Fluidity Dalton Conley: Ethnicity is more It cannot be changed or broadened.
fluid and cuts across racial lines
Significance Ethnicity connotes shared Race presumes shared biological or
cultural traits and a shared genetic traits, whether actual or asserted.
group history. Some ethnic In the early 19th century, racial
groups also share linguistic or differences were ascribed significance in
religious traits, while others areas of intelligence, health, and
share a common group history. personality.
However, in recent times the boundaries between the two have blurred to a certain extent.
This is agreed upon by scholar Pierre L. van den Berghe who provided following reasons:
 Cultural traits are often regarded as genetic and inherited.
 Physical appearance can be culturally changed.
  The sensory perception of physical differences is affected by cultural perception of race.
This is evident in phenomena that Indians belonging to multiple ethnic groups are seen
commonly as Ethnic-Indians in western societies with common race. Similarly, the various
ethnic groups of East Asia are seen as single ethnic group because of common race i.e.
Mongoloid.

Inter-racial and inter-ethnic unions also blur the boundary. Children born from these unions
may identify with multiple races or ethnicities, challenging the notion of distinct racial or ethnic
categories. E.g. a child with a Chinese mother and a French father may identify as both Asian
and European, racially and ethnically.

With the blurring of boundaries, it is important to recognize this complexity when studying
human societies and cultures. It also highlights the need for a more nuanced and flexible
understanding of human diversity, beyond rigid categorizations.

2(a): What, according to Robert Michels, is the iron law of oligarchy? Do lions
folly and foxes in Vilfredo Pareto’s theory, essentially differ from each other?
Substantiate. (20 Marks)

Approach:
 Introduce with Robert Michels iron law.
 Explain the concept
 Provide its criticism
 Introduce Pareto’s Elite theory
 Differentiate ‘lions’ and ‘foxes’
 Show the similarities
 Conclude with relevance of both theories
Robert Michels, in his work “Political Parties,” proposed the ‘iron law of oligarchy.’ It means
that even if organizations start as democratic in the beginning, eventually & inevitably they
develop oligarchic tendencies, making democracy practically & theoretically impossible.

Concept of iron law of oligarchy

According to the iron law of oligarchy, there are certian indicators of oligarchy , following are
some of the indicators :
 Power concentration : According to Michels, even in democratic organizations power
tend to concentrate within leadership class consisting of politicians, administrators,
executives, etc. Ex. Dynastic nepotism in political parties.
 Low Mass Participation : Masses are not actively aware of political power and hence
reduce their effective Participation. Ex. Lower voter turnout in elections
 Lack of trust in people : Elites holding power do not have trust in masses which leads to
top down approach of policy making. Ex. Farmers bill passage
  Conservative nature : To preserve the political power, leadership takes conservative
stand eschewing radical, rebellious nature. Ex. Persecution of freedom fighters in British
India
Criticism of Iron law of oligarchy
 Robert Dahl, in his book “Democracy and Its Critics,” criticized Robert Michels’ law for
generalizing the whole political system as an oligarchy.
 Critics have argued that Robert Michels’ law is not a theory but an analysis of how elites
tend to domineer all complex organizations.
Circulation of elite theory by Vilfredo Pareto
Vilfredo Pareto, in his book “Mind and Society,” introduced the dual categorization of elites as
‘lions’ and ‘foxes.’
Differences between lions and foxes:
A B C
1 Parameters Lions Foxes
2 Mode of Direct and by Force By Deceit,
Domination Manipulation and
Cunningness
3 Nature of Rule Characterized by Characterized by
Unity, Homogeneity, Pluralism,
Centralisation Decentralisation
4 Emphasis Use of force Co operation and
Alliances
5 Bureaucracy Committed to No such commitment
ideology
However, besides these differences there are certain similarities between them, which are as
follows :
 Governing Elite: Both belong to minority of Governing Elite.
 Circulation of Elite: Power is circulated between them.
 Social change: Circulation of Elites leads to social change in society.
 Essential nature: Both are essential to maintain social order and balance in society.
Thus, both theories of Michels and Pareto are quite relevant to understand the power dynamics
in today’s society. Ex. Russia – Ukraine war ( Russia aggression – Lion & EU response – Foxes )
and rising personality cult around political leaders due to cultural nationalis. Ex. Putin, Xi
Zinping ( oligarchy)

2(b): What is historical materialism? Examine its relevance in understanding

contemporary societies. (20 Marks)

Approach:
 Introduce with Karl Marx.
 Explain the concept of historical materialism.
 Provide the relevance in contemporary society.
 Also show the examples which contradicts it.
  Provide a balanced conclusions.
Karl Marx, in his seminal work “Contribution to the critique of political economy”, gave the
concept of historical materialism. He utilised dialectic idealism of Hegel and Materialism of
Ludwing Feuerbach.

Concept of Historical Materialism

It is basically materialistic understanding of evolution of society. According to Marx, dialectic of
interest between haves and have-nots is the driver of social change which leads to evolution of
society.

Marx also talk of economic infrastructure shaping the societal superstructure. Thus, societal
superstructure functions in such a way that maintains hegemony of dominant class or haves.

Relevance in understanding contemporary society:

  Economic infrastructure & social superstructure: Today, economically well developed
societies shaping the world order. Ex. Developed countries determining rules of trade
 Economic determinism: GDP has become measure of development of society.
 Class struggle as engine of social change: Class struggle between haves and have nots
leads to changes in society. Ex. Trade unions have brought changes in labour laws.
 Commodity fetishism: J C Alexander has talked of global iconic objects like Apple,
Samsung gives sense of satisfaction, belongingness to the owners leading to commodity
fetishism
 Alienation: Due to advancement in technology like AI,ML leading to alienation among
employees due to fear of job loss.
Not relevant in understanding contemporary society:
 Social business: The idea of CSR, Stakeholder capitalism has led to changes in economic
infrastructure. Ex. CSR in India
 Social Security: Rise of social security measures by welfare state has reduced the
intensity of class struggle. Ex. Tripartite social security board of Rajasthan
 Flexible work culture: Hybrid working, work from home, etc has led decrease in
alienation at workplace.
 Religious revivalism: It has become influential factor in bringing social change affecting
economic determinism. Ex. Religion led tourism like Char dham Yatra
Historical materialism is still relevant as a concept and method to understand the
contemporary society as there is rise of socialist and welfaristic state like Scandinavian
countries.

2(c): What are variables? How do they facilitate research?(10 Marks)

Approach:
 Define Variables.
 Explain there role in facilitating research.
 Provide the limitations.
 Conclude with broader relevance.
Variables are properties or characteristics of some event, object, person, place or thing that are
measurable and can take on more than one value. Ex. Income of an individual

Variables → facilitating research in following ways :

 Hypothesis building: Variables help in building of hypothesis. Ex. Education can be taken
as a variable to study it’s impact on social mobility
 Quantification: Variables help in measurement of social phenomenon. Ex. Poverty can
be measured in terms of poverty rate
 Experimentation: Variables enables conduct of experiments to understand the social
phenomenon. Ex. Suicide study by E Durkheim
 Comparative analysis: Variables help to compare between different phenomenon,
social groups . Ex. Income level of middle class in North and South India
  Hypothesis testing: Variables help in testing of existing hypothesis. Ex. Sanskritisation
leads to upward social mobility was testified by D Gupta
 Causal relationship: Variables help to establish relationship between different social
phenomenon through cause and effect relationship. Ex. Education and social mobility
 Theory building: Variables help in gathering of data which helps in theory building. Ex.
Theory of conspicuous consumption by T Veblen
Limitations of variables:
 Difficult to capture the subjective behaviour.
 Oversimplification of social reality.
 Reductionist in nature as ignore qualitative aspects.
 Do not consider cultural diversity .
Despite these limitations, variables play crucial role in Sociological research to frame universal
theories to understand social phenomenon

3(a): What are the characteristics of scientific method? Do you think that
scientific method in conducting sociological research is foolproof? Elaborate.(20
Marks)

Approach:
 Define the Scientific method.
 Mention the characteristics.
 Show the significance of scientific method in sociological research.
 Discuss the limitations to show it is not foolproof.
 Conclude with idea of modified scientific method.
Scientific Method refers to any systematic, rational and objective set of steps to explore the
truth or new knowledge or for investigating phenomena or correcting and integrating previous
knowledge.

Characteristics of Scientific Method:

 Empirical understanding of reality: The empiricism is at the core of understanding
reality through scientific method.
 Hypothesis Building: While using scientific method a hypothesis is formulated initially
which is tested through various methods.
 Objectivity: A scientific method is objective i.e. it does not rely on personal feelings or
opinions.
 Cause-Effect Relationship: Scientific method aims at establishing a cause-effect
relationship between various phenomena.
 Theory-building and generalisation: Scientific method helps in generalisation of events
and phenomena.
 Replicability: It means that the experiments or observations that are part of the method
can be repeated by other scientists to verify the results.
 Predictability: The results from use of scientific method helps scientists to predict future
events or phenomena.
Significance of Scientific Method in conducting sociological research:
 Scientific method involves clear definition of problem and perspective which eventually
plays a instrumental role in trajectory of research
 The founding fathers of sociology were proponents of the scientific method in social
research for its empiricism. E.g. Emile Durkheim provided for understanding social facts
as natural facts for understanding the reality empirically.
 August Comte believed that true knowledge is based upon thinking about physical and
social world as a causal relationship between realities which we can observe either
directly or indirectly.
 Scientific method provides for causal-explanation to various phenomena by establishing
relation between them.
 The interpretation through scientific method leads to formation of typologies. E.g. Max
Weber’s Ideal Types.
Despite the above utilities, it cannot be termed as fool-proof for sociological research as it
suffers from following limitations:
 Problem of Experimentation: Experimentation is central to science which is very
difficult to perform in social contexts.
 Problem of Value-neutrality: Scientific method is objective however the impact of
value-judgements of sociologists affects the social research. E.g. Family seen as
functional by functionalists but seen as exploitative by feminist thinkers.
 Problem of Theory-building and generalisation: As Max Weber puts- “Reality is multi-
causal and multi-plural”- it is very difficult to provide generalisation which applies to all
the societies. E.g. While Karl Marx provided a general theory of Mode of Production, he
had to give a separate concept of Asiatic Mode of Production for societies like India.
 Karl Popper highlighted the problem of demarcation between the scientific and non-
scientific in sociology.
 J. F. Feyerbend believed that social research shall be liberating but use of scientific
method in social research constrains the research.
 Scientific method can explain ‘what’ of a social phenomena however for understanding
‘why’ of a phenomena, one has to rely on value-based analysis.
Due to these limitations, some sort of modified scientific method is used in Sociology. In
Sociology, Scientific Method is not bound by empirical nature of study, but is more concerned
with methodology.

3(b): How do you assess the changing patterns in kinship relations in societies
today?(20 Marks)

Approach:
 Define Kinship
 Show the traditional aspects of kinship relations
 Assess the changes in structural and functional dimensions
 Provide a summarising conclusion
The Kinship system refers to a system of persons who are recognised as relatives, either, by
virtue of a blood relationship i.e. consanguinity, or by virtue of a marriage relationship or
affinity, or by adoption.

Features of Traditional Kinship System

 Lineage and descent based on patrilineal organisation
 Joint family is located at the centre of traditional kinship system.
 The consanguine relations are more important than conjugal relations.
 Authority structure based on patriarchy and seniority in age.
 Marriage as the institution to legitimise sexual relationship and reproduction.
 The fictive relations were determined by caste and other similar traditional
considerations.
With wider changes in social, economic and political dimensions like bureaucratic organisations,
democracy, industrialisation, urbanisation etc. there have been changes in the patterns of
kinship system.
Structural Changes:
 Rise of small families. A.M. Shah in his study in Gujarat concluded that there has been
breakdown of families in contemporary times which made household dimension more
important in social research.
 There has been a wide-scale decline of patriarchy in determining authority with
democratisation of families. According to Murray Strauss, source of power has shifted
from ‘culture’ to ‘resource’.
 The choices of women have improved with economic and educational empowerment.
The rise of DINK families attests this.
 According to Kapadia and Margarate Cormack, the authority of parents over children
has been weaning.
 The affinal relations are given more importance than consanguine relations.
 Marital breakdowns are increasing in form of divorce, separation and empty-shell
marriages. According to Nicky Hart opportunities to escape marriage are more today.
Divorce is no longer a social stigma.
Functional Changes:
 The rise of functional alternatives have been seen as the structures have changed. E.g.
the economic placement now is a function of industry and market.
 The socialisation and education function has been shifted to play schools and other
educational institutions.
 The jural rights of kin groups are taken away by formal judicial institutions.
 According to Ronald Fletcher, while the manifest functions has continued, the latent
functions have shifted to alternative institutions.
While there had been substantial changes in the structure and functions of kinship, certain
aspects continues like patriarchy is still dominant in family and kinship. Parsons believed that
while today status outside is achieved, the status inside families is ascribed. The ritual functions
are also based on traditional kinship ties.
With above considerations we can conclude that the pattern of changes in kinship is a
dialectical process between traditional and modern forces.

3(c): Is Weber’s idea of bureaucracy a product of the historical experiences of

Europe? Comment.(10 Marks)

Approach:
 Introduce with Weber’s definition of bureaucracy
 Relate the historical experiences of Europe with rise of Weberian bureaucracy.
 Conclusion
Max Weber defined bureaucracy as the purest type of legal-rational authority with a hierarchy
of paid, full time officials who form a chain of command.

Weberian bureaucracy as a result of historical experiences of Europe:

 Decline of Traditional Authority: The French revolution and subsequent revolutions in
1830s and 1848 prepared ground for decline of traditional authority of monarch and
church. The need for a legal-rational authority led to shift of power to bureaucracy.
 Industrialisation and Capitalism: The capitalist and industrial economy required an
efficient and specialised chain of command. The Weberian bureaucracy fulfilled this
requirement. According to Martin Harris, all the organised structures rely on
bureaucratic structures for management of complex systems.
 Ascendancy of Democracy: The bureaucracy upholds the ideals of equality and
secularism which were at the core of democratic movements of 18th and 19th
 centuries. According to Paul Du Gay, Bureaucracy has unmatched ethos which include
equal treatment of all despite different race, colour or caste.
 New social challenges: The new economic and political structures presented challenges
coordination and administration in urban areas. Bureaucracy presented itself as answer
to these problems.
 Rise of Nation-states: The new nation-states required an efficient administrative system
to govern vast territories and diverse populations.
 Shift from Ascribed to Achieved Status: Bureaucracy marks the shift to meritocracy
which had elective affinity with modernity in Europe.
Various bureaucratic structures existed across different societies, however, Weberian
bureaucracy as a pure legal rational authority arose in 19th century Europe due to needs of
modernity and its challenges.

4(a): Do you think that common sense is the starting point of social research?
What are its advantages and limitations? Explain. (20 Marks)

Approach:
 Define Common Sense.
 Explain how it is a starting point of social research.
 Provide the advantages and limitations.
 Conclude with perspective of non-positivists.
Alfred Schutz, in his phenomenological sociology, defines Common Sense as an “organized and
‘typified’ stocks of taken-for-granted knowledge upon which activities are based and which, in
the ‘natural attitude’, is not questioned.”

Common Sense : Starting point of social research:

 Hypothesis formation: Common sense helps in hypothesis formation in deductive social
research which is first step in theory building. Ex. Emile Durkheim is his ‘Le suicide’,
used common sense observations as basis for his research.
 Quick availability of research topic: Common sense behaviour in daily interaction
provide easy availability of research topics. Ex. Gender socialization in family promotes
feminist approach
 Qualitative research: Common sense helps non-positivist scholars to conduct deductive
social research. Ex. Ethnography aims to study daily activities of people
 Subjective understanding of social life: Common sense helps sociologists to understand
the subjectivity involved in social interactions. Ex. Skegg’s study of sexual behaviour of
middle class people
 Cultural understanding: Common sense helps to understand the cultural values,
ethnodiversity. Ex. Tribal life is studied by sociologists like S Sinha.
Advantages of common sense:
1. It helps to collect primary data for the social research.
2. It provides in-depth understanding of social interactions.
3. It is helpful in debunking irrelevant, frivolous social assumptions.(P Berger)
 4. It provides first hand and fresh insights into social life.
5. It provides hypothesis to sociology.

Limitations of common sense :

1. It is highly individualistic and subjective reducing its utility in social research.
2. Due to its qualitative nature, it’s difficult to quantify and measure it.
3. It involves temporal limitedness due to geographical distance.
4. Cultural diversity limits it’s use in framing universal theories.
5. Relying on it, may lead to stereo-typification .
Despite these limitations, non positivist thinkers like A Schutz, H Garfinkel emphasize upon
study of common sense in their research.

4(b): How is poverty a form of social exclusion? Illustrate in this connection the
different dimensions of poverty and social exclusion. (20 Marks)

Approach:
 Define Poverty and Social Exclusion.
 Establish relation between them
 Summarise in conclusion
Ruth Lister in her book “Poverty” defines Poverty as not just the material but also the
interaction of social and psychological elements rooted in social relationships. While Social
exclusion refers to the ways in which individuals may become cut off from full involvement in
the wider community.
Social exclusion leads to lack of access to various aspects as shown in above diagram. Poverty
and social exclusion has various common dimensions, which can be discussed as below:
1. Economic deprivation: Poverty and social exclusion leads to economic deprivation of an
individual or social groups. Ex. SC,ST forms major chunk of extreme poor and
marginalized sections of Indian society
2. Social deprivation: Poor and socially excluded sections of society lack meaningful
participation in society. Ex. Ghettoisation of SC’s in rural areas (Sukhdev Thorat study)
3. Political deprivation: Both leads to systematic alienation from political sphere. Ex.
Illegal slum residents in urban areas
4. Cultural deprivation: Both develop culture of poverty among poors. Ex. Culture of
Poverty (Oscar Lewis)
5. Lack of social capital: According to P Bourdieau, both phenomenon leads to lack of
access to social capital to poors.
6. Labelling theory: Both leads to labelling and stigmatization among affected
communities. Ex. LGBTQ
7. Life chances: Both leads to poor quality of life as it restricts acces to great life chances.
(Max Weber)
8. Human rights deprivation: Both leads to deprivation of fundamental human rights to
the affected communities. Ex. Denial of right to self identity to transgenders
9. Lack of capacity development: As per Amartya Sen, both actively promote poor access
to means of development, improve quality of life, etc.
Thus, poverty and social exclusion dysfunctional social facts reducing the organic solidarity of
the society weakening its value consensus.
4(c): Highlight the differences and similarities between totemism and
animism. (10 Marks)

Approach:
 Start with theories of ‘totemism’ and ‘animism’.
 Differentiate between them.
 Also provide the similarities.
 Conclude of relevance.
Emile Durkheim, in his seminal work “The Elementary Forms of the Religious Life,” based on
study of Arunta tribe, talk of totemism, considering it as the original form of religious life.
Similarly, E. B. Tylor, in “Primitive Culture,” theorised animism as the foundational form of
religious belief.

Differences between Totemism and Animism:

A B C
1 Parameter Totemism Animism
2 Meaning Worship of Totem Belief in spirits in inanimate
objects
3 Representation Symbol of society Doesn’t represent society
4 Rituals Worship through rituals Worship as member of
like Milk over totem family. Ex. Wild animals
among tribes
5 Origin Specific to tribal groups It is general and widespread
6 Sacred Totems are specific No object is special or sacred
objects
Similarities between Totemism and Animism :
1. Both talks of primitive nature of religion.
2. Both theories talks about origin of religion.
3. Both promotes solidarity in society.
4. Both have belief in supernatural entity.
5. Both have deep connections with Nature.
6. Both have rituals and practices related to sacred.
Theories of Animism and Totemism have contributed significantly to understand the Sociology
of origin and broadened the horizon of Sociological epistemology.

5(a): Examine the relevance of corporate social responsibilty in a world marked

by increasing environmental crises.(10 Marks)

Approach:
 Define the corporate social responsibility(CSR)
 Discuss its sociological relevance for environment related crises
 Conclusion
Corporate Social Responsibility(CSR) refers to conduct of corporate which aims at the welfare of
society. In India, it is mandated by Section-135 of Companies Act, 2013.

In the contemporary world, where environmental issues presenting themselves as a global

challenge, CSR can play a vital role in following way:
 Appropriate Technology School(Gadgil and Guha): This school of thought believes that
climate issues can be countered by use of technology, E.g. Use of Electric vehicles. CSR
can be vital in making the new age technology affordable and viable for masses.
 Scientific Management School(Gadgil and Guha): This school of thought promotes the
idea of efficient management of nature and biodiversity, E.g. Biosphere Reserves. CSR
can help reduce the resource constraint in research work for better management of
such areas.
 Environmental justice for marginalized: The environmental crisis affects the
marginalised, like Vandana Shiva believed that environmental crisis led to
marginalisation, devaluation and displacement of women. The impact on them can be
reduced through CSR activities. E.g. Vedanta Resources implemented a CSR strategy
focused on community development.
 Rehabilitation of Climate Refugees: The industrial and developmental activities have
exhausted natural resources leading to mass displacement. Arundhati Roy considers
them as victims of unacknowledged war. There rehabilitation can be ensured by CSR
funds.
 Resource Mobilisation: The contemporary world is characterised by being resource
constrained which can be reduced through mobilisation of CSR funds.
Environment is a global challenge and all sections of society, including corporates, shall play a
positive role in countering the menace of environmental crisis.

5(b): How is civil society useful in deepening the roots of democracy?(10 Marks)

Approach:
 Define Civil Societies
 Discuss the usefulness in deepening the democratic roots
 Briefly give the limitations
 Conclusion
Civil Society was term coined by Hegel, referring to space between family, market and state in
which individuals get together voluntarily to create institutions and organisations.

Civil Societies deepening roots of democracy:

 According to Locke, civil societies secures rights which were already available in the
state of nature.
 Civil society acts as check on the state.
 Civil societies provides leadership to the democratic protests and movements. Gramsci
considered them as people’s war against state hegemony.
 They play an instrumental role in showing the alienation faced by marginalised sections
of society.
  Civil societies takes up diverse issues spanning across health, education, environment,
marginalised sections etc. They provide sector specific expertise to government
authorities.
 They act as complementary to state institution as they aid the efforts of government in
development sector. E.g. Civil societies conducting the social audit. According to De
Tocqueville, Democracy was present in US but not in France due to presence of civil
society.
While they help in deepening democracy, they have limitations in promoting democracy:
 Civil society organisation may not necessarily pursue democratic aim and may promote
narrow interests of caste, race, religion etc.
 Civil society may lack internal democracy which can be used to promote individual
control over organisation.
 The dependency on state for funds and resources may could corrupt the volunteers of
the civil society.
 The concern of civil societies for global democracy may come at the cost of local
cultures.
Though there are limitations, civil societies provides for greater civic engagement of the citizens
in democratic politics through increased participation, enhanced accountability of the state

5(c): What functions does religion perform in a pluralistic society?(10 Marks)

Approach:
 Start with definition of Religion
 Provide the manifest and latent functions of Religion
 Briefly give the dysfunctions
 Provide a balanced conclusion
Emile Durkheim defined religion as a unified system of beliefs and practices related to the
sacred things which combines people into a single moral community.

In a pluralistic society like India, where multiple religions coexist, religion has both manifest and
latent functions:
Manifest Functions of Religion:
 According to Talcott Parsons, Religion is a part of cultural system which performs the
functional prerequisite of latency.
 Religion act as an avenue for social control and socialisation in society. According to
Malinowski, Religion reinforces social norms and values at the time of anxiety and
tension.
 The sects and cults provide for solace and comfort to people who suffers from anomie
and alienation in modern societies.
 Religious sects and cults address the issues of marginalised sections of society.
According to Weber, sects are most likely to arise from the groups which are
marginalised in the society. He termed it as ‘Theodicy of Disprivilaged“
Latent Functions of Religion:
  Multiple religions plays an important role in bringing social change. Max Weber
explained how Protestant Ethic was crucial in rise of capitalism in Europe.
 Religion act as an integrative force in difficult times. E.g. Corona devi worship in Kerela
during pandemic.
 Religious institutions in plural societies are also playing crucial role in sectors like
education, health etc.
 Multiple religions in plural societies are crucial aspect of soft power in globalised world.
E.g. India’s ‘Buddhist Circuit’ promotion in South-East Asia.
However, religion also have certain dysfunctions for the plural societies. Religion has been used
as a tool for divisive politics in plural societies. Communal violence and fundamentalism also
have religion at there core. The separatist movements like recent surge of Khalistan movement
have also been based on religion.

Though Religion has certain dysfunctions, religion is still is a very powerful force in
contemporary societies, both at the level of social structure and at level of individual.

5(d): Analyse critically David Morgan’s views on family practices.(10 Marks)

Approach:
 Introduce with defining Family.
 Explain David Morgan’s idea of family practices
 Elaborate the critical views on his idea
 Conclude with need of comprehensive approach.
Family is defined by G.P. Murdock as a social group which is characterised by common
residence, economic cooperation and reproduction.

David Morgan, a renowned sociologist, has contributed significantly to our understanding of

family practices and their broader implications for society.
According to David Morgan, family practices encompass the everyday actions that family
members undertake with the intention of affecting one another. These practices can range
from simple conversations to more complex interactions.
Family practices in shapes the gendered individuals and societies. He emphasises the reciprocal
relationship between family life and the social context of the time and place.
Essentially, family practices and family relationships engage in a complex, improvised dance,
where actions speak louder than words.
Morgan argues that family life is not a static entity but a set of ongoing processes and practices.
It includes everyday activities like cooking, cleaning, caring for children, and even less tangible
aspects like maintaining emotional bonds, communication, and shared values.

Criticism of David Morgan’s views:

 Roseneil argues that referring to family practices as such can be limiting. She believes
that this approach reproduces heteronormative models of human relationships and fails
to account for the diverse ways individuals live their lives.
  The focus on practices is just a functional view and Morgan neglected the structural
aspects of family as done by likes of A.M. Shah.
 Morgan’s approach tends to downplay factors like social class, gender, and ethnicity
that significantly shape family practices.
 Morgan neglected the impact that socio-economic conditions have on family practices.
 The power dynamics within the family, like patriarchy, are also not considered in
Morgan’s understanding of family practices.
While David Morgan’s views on family practices provide a dynamic and inclusive understanding
of family life, it is crucial to balance it with structural factors and power dynamics that shape
these practices.

5(e): Does women’s education help to eradicate patriarchal discrimination?

Reflect with illustrations.(10 Marks)

Approach:
 Define patriarchy
 Explain how education can help eradication of patriarchal discrimination
 Discuss the limitations of education in eradication of patriarchal discrimination.
 Conclude with need of a comprehensive solution.
Sylvia Walby defines patriarchy a system of social structure and practices where men dominate
and oppress women. She provided for six patriarchal structures which undermines women’s
position- paid work, household, culture, sexuality, violence and the state.

Education as a means to eradicate patriarchal discrimination:

 The cultural shifts from sex-specific roles to gender neutral roles can take place. Thus,
Education changes the societal attitudes towards gender roles. Talcott Parsons
considered education as important means for role allocation in social system.
 Education leads to better skills and human resource development which leads to better
opportunities at paid work. The economic empowerment has direct relations with
overall growth of women.
 Domestication of women in household can be challenged effectively by the means of
education as educated women has higher tendency to take job outside. Aileen Ross and
Sachidananda Sinha mention the role of education in increased parity in modern
families in India.
 Education leads to better awareness of laws and rights which can lead to reduced
violence against women. The Devi-Dasi dichotomy given by Veena Das can be
challenged by means of Education.
 Education also increases political participation, by means of civil societies, pressure
groups and elections, which will reduce the patriarchal nature of state.

However, Educations as a tool of social change is limited in its impact:

 According to McRobbie and Sue Lee, schooling reproduces appropriate feminine roles
in girls therefore reproduces stereotypes.
  Ivan Illich talked about how education promotes existing social relations while Pierre
Bourdieu believed that education reproduces cultural capital. Therefore, patriarchal
inequalities are also reproduced by schooling.
 The society’s overall attitude towards female education is also not conducive to
promote female education. Feminist Jayaweera found that in Asia, education is seen as
having little or no value for the future role of girls as wives and mothers, so investment
in girls’ education is often seen as a wasted resource.
Thus, education as a means of social change shall be combined with overall structural and
attitudinal changes which will promote equality in society.

6(a): What are the different dimensions of qualitative method? Do you think that
qualitative methods helps to gain a deeper sociological insight? Give reasons for
your answer. (20 Marks)

Approach:
 Explain qualitative research method
 Provide the various dimensions
 Explain how it leads to deeper sociological insights
 Also give the limitations of this method
 Conclusion
Qualitative research method is a type of social science research that collects and works with
non-numerical data and that seeks to interpret meaning from these data that help understand
social life through the study of targeted populations or places. Ex. Participant observation

Different dimensions of qualitative method:

 In depth understanding: Methods like Participant observation helps to gain in depth
understanding of society. Ex. Village studies in India
 Active participation: It involves active participation of researcher in the life of subjects.
Ex. Outsiders study by H Becker.
 Longitudinal studies: Qualitative method sometimes involves lengthy temporal study of
targeted society. Ex. Millennium Cohort Study (MCS) in UK.
 Primary data: It helps in collection of primary data due to first hand study of society. Ex.
Chicago school study of deviance
Qualitative method → deeper Sociological insights :
 Subjective understanding: It leads to deeper subjective understanding of the society
which is not possible in quantitative research. Ex. Feminist studies by P Hill
 Valid data: The data is highly valid as it is first hand and primary in nature. Ex. Village
study by M N Srinivas
 Enriched data: Due to Participatory nature, it helps to collect enriched data about the
society. Ex. S C Dube study of Shamirpet village
 Contextual understanding: It is significant in having consideration of context of the
social interactions. Ex. Ethnomethodology considers the context of social interactions.
  Flexible: It is flexible in the sense that researcher can adapt and modify his methods
during research.
However, it faces certain limitations which reduces it’s application in quantitative research :
1. It involves subjectivity bias due to ideology, diversity,etc. Ex. Jajmani system seen as
functional while it is seens as dysfunctional by Marxists
2. It is not much reliable due to Hawthorne effect or social desirability bias.
3. Generalization is not possible, due small size of sample.
4. Quantification is difficult due to non numerical or non measurable nature of data. Ex.
Emotional work by women in family
5. It is time consuming and expensive in nature.
Although Qualitative methods have limitations, these are highly significant in deeper
understanding of society.

6(b): Explain Max Weber’s theory of social stratification. How does Weber’s idea
of class differ from that of Marx? (20 Marks)

Approach:
 Define Social Stratification
 Explain Weber’s Trinitarian view.
 Differentiate it with Marxian view.
 Conclude with how Weber’s theory broadened Marxian view.
Melvin M. Tumin defines Social stratification as arrangements of any social group or society
into a hierarchy of positions that are unequal with regard to power, property, social evaluation,
and/or social gratification.
Max Weber in his seminal work, “Economy and Society”, proposed a multidimensional
approach to social stratification. Alongwith economic criteria, he added Power and Status to
the basis of social stratification.

Max Weber’s theory of social stratification:

Class: According to him, Class is merely a group of people in the same economic or market
situation. Weber used the term ‘life chances’ which refers to the rewards and advantages
afforded by market capacity to differentiate different classes.

Status: It is the respect with which a person or status position is regarded by others – Status
Situation in society. It also determines one’s position in social hierarchy. Ex. Brahmins are at the
top while Untouchables are at the bottom.

Party: The ability of people or groups to achieve their goals despite opposition from others –
Parties. It forms the minorty group at the top which holds the power.

Differences between Weber’s and Marx’s idea of class :

A B C
1 Parameters Weber Marx
2 Definition It is the market position of an It is one’s
individual relationship with
means of
production
3 Perspective Multi-dimensional Economic
reductionist
 4 Class Consciousness Status groups are more united Class unites after
than class true consciousness
is developed
5 Middle Class Expansionist view No middle class due
to bourgeoisation
and pauperisation
6 Rigidity His idea of class is fluid due to Rigid idea of class
social mobility
7 No. of Classes Four Classes: Two classes
1. Properties Upper Class 1. Haves
2. White collar class 2. Have nots
3. Blue collar working
4. Manual working
8 Proletariate He didn’t see it’s possibility He predicted it
Revolution
In this way, Weber not only broadened the Marxian concept of social stratification but made it
comprehensive and relevant to understand today’s society. Ex. Expanding middle class and
decomposition of working class reflects on its relevance.

6(c): What are the ethical issues that a researcher faces in making use of
participant observation as a method of collecting data? Explain. (10 Marks)

Approach:
 Define Participant Observation.
 Provide ethical issues associated with it.
 Conclude with relevance of the method.
Participant observation is an qualitative research technique where the researcher immerses
themselves in the daily lives of the subjects. Ex. Malinowski’s study of Trobriand island tribes.

Ethical issues faced by researchers in use of participant observation:

 Privacy issues: Many times researcher face ethical dilemma of invasion of privacy of
subjects. Ex. B Skegg study of sex habits of middle class women.
 Hawthorne effect: Subjects feel that they might be judged by the others so they might
lie or fall prey to social desirability bias. Ex. Feminist studies of child nurturing where
women felt that they might be judged.
 Breaking of law: Sometimes researcher might break law during research. Ex. Sudhir
Venkatesh study of deviants in California (Gang leader for a day)
 Ethnocentrism: Researcher might observe through his ethnic lens. Ex. Classical indology
studies of Indian society
 Becoming non observer: Researcher might become active participant in their life
marrying the purpose of research. Ex. W Whyte became non observer during his study.
 Anonymity: Researcher also face ethical dilemma of maintaining anonymity of the
subjects while theorizing his research.
Despite these ethical issues, participant observation provides rich and in depth understanding
of society with valid, primary data.

7(a): Explain how economic globalisation has brought changes in the pattern of
employment in the 21st century.(20 Marks)

Approach:
 Define Economic globalisation
 Provide for functional and dysfunctional changes it has brought to pattern of
employment
 Summarise in conclusion
Economic globalisation refers to the increasing interdependence of world economies as a
result of the growing scale of cross-border trade of commodities and services, flow of
international capital and wide and rapid spread of technologies.
Changes in the pattern of employment in the 21st century:
 Functional Changes:
o Structural Transformation: Economic globalisation often leads to the structural
transformation of societies, where traditional industries give way to newer,
more globally connected ones. This transformation can create opportunities for
employment in emerging sectors. For example, shift from agriculture to
manufacturing and services sectors.
o Global Labour Markets: As companies seek talent on a global scale, employment
opportunities extended beyond national borders. For example, rise of remote
work and freelancing platforms.
o Labour Market Flexibility: Globalisation has fostered more flexible labour
markets, where individuals have the opportunity to work in different capacities,
including part-time, work, which can be appealing to some workers seeking
work-life balance.
o Rising female labour force participation: Economic globalisation has expanded
the opportunities for women to enter the workforce, contributing to their
economic empowerment.
 Dysfunctional Changes:
o Marxist Perspective:
 Increasing Alienation: Economic globalisation has led to the proliferation
of assembly-line and repetitive work in industries such as manufacturing
and services. These jobs often offer little autonomy, creativity, or
meaningful interaction, making workers feel like cogs in a machine,
disconnected from the value and purpose of their work.
 Rising informalisation: Economic globalisation has contributed to the
growth of informal and precarious work, including temporary contracts,
part-time jobs, and the gig economy. These employment arrangements
often lack job security, benefits, and stable income, leading to financial
insecurity for workers.
  Labour market polarisation: Economic globalisation often coincides with
technological advancements that disproportionately favour skilled
workers and create hurdles for the participation of low-skilled jobs,
which are routinised and repetitive, and they become more vulnerable
to automation and offshoring.
 Rising pauperisation: In the globalised economy, there is a race to the
bottom in terms of labour standards, with workers in some countries
subjected to poor working conditions, low wages, and exploitation. For
example, increasing child and bonded labour.
o Feminist Perspective:
 Gender Pay Gap: Economic globalisation has exacerbated gendered
workforce segregation, with women concentrated in low-paid and
precarious jobs.
 Gendered Glass Ceiling: Women's access to leadership positions within
multinational corporations is often limited.
o Ulrich Beck: Ulrich Beck's concept of the risk society highlights how economic
globalisation introduces new risks and uncertainties into employment patterns.
Globalisation can result in job insecurity, precarious work, and the erosion of
traditional safety nets. Workers may face new risks associated with the global
labour market.
o Anthony Giddens: Anthony Giddens' structuration theory emphasises the
interplay between structure and agency. Economic globalization can create
structural constraints on employment, limiting individuals' agency in shaping
their work conditions. Workers may find themselves subject to global economic
forces that limit their control over their employment situation.
Thus, economic globalisation played a key role in shaping the social and structural dynamics of
the modern labour market.

7(b): Do you think that the social media has brought significant changes in the
forms of protest? Argue your case.(20 Marks)

Approach:
 Define Protests
 Provide for changes brought by social media to protests
 Give the concerns raised by social media
 Provide a balanced view in conclusion
Protests are the actions by individuals, groups, organisations, etc. against any person, group or
even wider society, seeking to change or prevent change in society. Different forms of protests
include Hunger strike, Ralley or Dharna, Arrest Movement (Jail Bharo Andolan) etc.

Following are the changes brought by social media in the forms of protests:
 Resource Mobilisation Theory: Social media platforms provide protesters with easy
access to information, including news, updates, and resources related to their cause.
 Also, Online crowd-funding and donation platforms have become essential tools for
resource mobilisation in protests.
 Amplification of Class Struggle: According to Marxists, social media has amplified the
voices of marginalised and working-class individuals, enabling them to share their
grievances, organise, and demand economic and social justice. It has provided a
platform for the working class to express their concerns and connect with like-minded
individuals globally.
o For example, Protests by Urban Company's female employees used WhatsApp
for secret meetings etc.
 Countering Structural Strain: Social media helps to reduce the strain between values
and structural means and has enabled individuals to voice their concerns, share stories
of injustice, and advocate for policy changes or societal reform. For example, Farmers
protests in India used platforms like Twitter to share real-time updates, videos, and
stories about their demands for fair agricultural policies and resistance against new farm
laws.
 Challenging status inconsistencies: Protests organised through social media often bring
together individuals from different statuses and social positions. These diverse groups
can unite in their shared goal of addressing particular social issues, effectively
addressing and challenging status inconsistencies.
 Raise Gender issues: Women have used social media to call out and challenge instances
of sexism, misogyny, and gender-based violence. For instance,
o The #MeToo movement gained significant momentum through social media,
allowing survivors to share their experiences and demand accountability.
o Indian wrestlers' protest against instance of sexual harassment.
Though the social media has played a key role in bringing positive change in the forms of
protests, it has also raised concerns like:
 Digital Divide: Access to social media and the internet is not universal, and the digital
divide can leave marginalised communities and individuals without a voice in online
activism.
 Spread of disinformation and fake news: Social media platforms have become the
fertile ground for the spread of disinformation and fake news, which can mislead the
public, undermine the credibility of protest movements, and create confusion.
 Online radicalisation: Social media facilitates the radicalisation of individuals, pushing
them toward extremist ideologies and violent actions. Online echo chambers and
extremist content often contribute to the radicalization process, affecting protest
movements.
 Polarisation: Social media can intensify political and ideological polarisation, with
individuals and groups retreating into their respective corners, making it challenging to
find common ground or engage in constructive dialogue.
 Creating filter bubbles and echo chambers: Algorithms used by social media platforms
tend to show users content that aligns with their existing beliefs, creating filter bubbles
and echo chambers. This can limit exposure to diverse perspectives and polarise public
opinion.
  Privacy Concerns: The use of social media for organising protests can raise concerns
about privacy. Protesters may worry about surveillance, data collection, and potential
repercussions for their online activities.
Hence, it is important that activists and organisations harness the positive power of social
media to inform, mobilise, and engage a broader audience in support of their cause while
maintaining a constructive and inclusive approach.

7(c): Assess critically A.G. Frank’s “theory of development of

underdevelopment”.(10 Marks)

Approach:
 Explain A. G. Frank’s Theory
 Provide criticism of the theory
 Conclude with relevance of the theory
A.G Frank is best known today for his work on what he called ‘the development of
underdevelopment’ or ‘dependency theory’. Frank’s main argument was that in our
interconnected, globalised world, some countries are winners, whilst others are losers.
According to dependency theory, the people of less-developed countries are not to blame for
the failure of their societies to develop. Instead, he suggested that Western nations deliberately
failed to develop these countries. He argued that historically, ‘core’ nations such as the USA
and UK, who made up the elite ‘metropolis’, exploited ‘peripheral’ nations by keeping them as
satellites in a state of dependency and under-development.
Developed nations become wealthy by exploiting the poorest nations and using them as a
source of cheap raw materials and labour. He claimed that this exploitative relationship was
evident throughout the course of history (e.g. in the practice of slavery and in Western
colonisation of other parts of the world) and was maintained into the twentieth century
through Western countries’ domination of international trade, the emergence of large
multinational companies and the reliance of less-developed countries on Western aid.
According to Frank, Underdevelopment is not due to the survival of archaic institutions and the
existence of capital shortage in regions that have remained isolated from the stream of world
history. On the contrary, underdevelopment was and still is generated by the very same
historical process which also generated economic development: the development of capitalism
itself.
Critique:
 Critics of the dependency theory argue that this dependency is exaggerated.
 This theory focuses too much on economic factors and does not take into consideration
the country’s political, social, cultural and environmental factors that might be
contributing to underdevelopment.
 Critics also argue that dependency theory is very pessimistic and unrealistic.
 Critics say that the suggestion that a developing country can disconnect from capitalism
and go its own way is impossible in our globalised economy.
However, Frank’s ideas and the huge volume of writing that he completed continue to be
debated.
8(a): What is Taylorism? Analyze its merits and demerits.(20 Marks)

Approach:
 Introduce with Taylorism and its aim.
 Provide it’s basic principles
 Give it’‘s merits and demerits
 Conclude by showing how it’s principles are combined with other ideas for better
efficiency.
Taylorism is a management theory first advocated by Federick W. Taylor. It aimed to improve
efficiency and productivity in industrial and manufacturing settings by applying scientific
principles to work processes. It uses scientific methods to analyse the most efficient production
process in order to increase productivity. Taylor’s scientific management theory argued it was
the job of workplace managers to develop the proper production system for achieving
economic efficiency.
Frederick Taylor devised the following scientific management principles:
 Select methods based on science, not “rule of thumb”.
 Assign workers jobs based on their aptitudes.
 Monitor worker performance.
 Properly divide the workload between managers and workers.
 Rigid hierarchy and strict surveillance of employees.
 Clear division of responsibilities.
 Performance-based pay.
Merits:
 Improving the productivity: This approach typically leads to increased productivity, as
workers are trained to perform their tasks with precision and speed, resulting in higher
output.
 Optimum utilisation of resources: By analysing each task and breaking it down into its
simplest elements, it eliminates waste and reduces the time required to complete a
task.
 Cost of production is reduced: It aims to always find the best technology and most
efficient ways in which tasks can be performed leading to reduction in the overall cost of
production.
 Optimum work-force: By optimising work processes, Taylorism reduces the need for a
large and costly workforce leading to reduction in labour costs, as fewer workers are
needed to accomplish the same amount of work.
 Standardisation of work: Taylorism emphasises the creation of standardised procedures
and best practices, ensuring that tasks are performed uniformly and consistently by all
workers.
 Avenues for skill development: Taylorism can lead to improved skill development as
workers become proficient in their specific tasks through repetitive practice.
Demerits:
  Alienation: Taylorism breaks down jobs into highly specialised and repetitive tasks, with
workers often performing the same motions over and over. This can lead to a sense of
monotony and boredom, contributing to alienation as workers feel disconnected from
the meaningfulness of their work.
 Costly method: Establishing a scientific management theory requires a lot of investment
from the organisation. The procedure of scientifically testing each method, planning and
training staff requires a lot of funds.
 Unemployment: One of the key principles of Taylorism is the elimination of unnecessary
labour and the reduction of manual tasks. This often involves the introduction of labour-
saving machinery and automation. While this can lead to increased productivity, it may
also displace some workers who were previously performing those tasks, potentially
leading to unemployment.
 Dehumanisation of Work: Increasing control of employees can also be a drawback as it
makes the work repetitive and does not allow employees to be creative and reduces
their motivation.
While Taylorism's influence is undeniable, it's important to recognise that its application and
relevance vary across different industries and organisations. Many contemporary management
practices seek to balance the principles of Taylorism with considerations for employee
engagement, job satisfaction, and human factors to create more flexible and adaptive work
environments.

8(b): What are new religious movements? Elaborate emphasising their forms and
orientations.(20 Marks)

Approach:
 Explain New Religious Movements.
 Provide the various forms and orientations.
 Conclude with essence of New Religious Movements
New religious movements (NRMs) refers to a bewildering variety of spiritual enthusiasms that
had emerged in the West after 1960s, and was later used chronologically to refer to all religions
that had established themselves in Western Europe, North America, India and Japan since 1945,
and in Africa since the 1890s.
What is New in NRMs:
 NRMs are said to be more specialised or esoteric than those of longer-established
religious groups'.
 NRMs tend to allow lay people to participate more fully in their activities than is
common in many older religious organisations'.
 Emphasis of NRMs is to encourage the followers to translate their spirituality into
'practical, everyday action'. This is, of course, possible in older forms of religious
organisation as well, but an emphasis on the value of practical application of faith is
much more explicit and evident in new movements.
  New religious movements often promise men more rapid spiritual mobility. "They may
legitimise short-cuts in learning, and often they encourage education for the laity in
matters that were once the specialist concern of priests'.
 New religious leaders have very clearly borrowed the essential core of various schools of
philosophy, but project the message to new members in a seemingly rational secular,
non-sectarian manner.
Forms of NRMs:
 Cult: A cult is a quasi-religious group that has different and unorthodox ideologies with
distinct rituals and practices and is headed by an authoritarian and charismatic leader.
Example: Osho cult.
 Sect: A sect is a small body or group of people who separated from a larger established
group to follow a different doctrine. It is a faction of a larger body or group, especially
religious groups, which developed their own distinct beliefs and practices. Example:
Sects in Hinduism, Vaishnavism, Shaivism, Shaktism, etc., in Christianity, Calvinist,
Protestants, Catholics, and in Islam, Shia, Sunni, etc.
 Denomination: It is what usually results when a sect becomes respectable in the eyes of
middle class society and relaxes its religious vigour.
 Institutional religion: It is a well-established religion which is institutionalised and
bureaucratic in its working.
Orientations of NRMs:
 Frederick Bird (1979) distinguishes between the various new religious movements in
terms of the orientations of followers to masters or the relationship of the religious
seekers to the sacred power they revere. Thus, adherents may become devotees of a
sacred lord or lordly truth; disciples of a revered or holy discipline; or apprentices skilled
at unlocking the mysteries a sacred, inner power'. In the first category would fall Divine
Light Mission and Krishna Consciousness. In the disciple category fall some of the
smaller groups such as Integral Yoga. In apprenticeship group comes Transcendental
Meditation or Scientology etc. Bird seeks to show that these different types of
movements provide different ways of coping with the problem of 'moral accountability'
which he believes to be one of the factors in their appeal.
 According to Roy Wallis,
o World-Accommodating Movements: World-accommodating NRMs are
characterized by a high level of accommodation with the dominant society. They
typically accept the values, norms, and social structures of the surrounding
culture and often seek to harmonize their beliefs and practices with those of
mainstream society. For example, Neo-Pentecostalism.
o World-Rejecting Movements: They are like a closed group of followers who
believe that the outside world is impure; therefore, minimum contact needs to
be maintained with outside world. For example, Krishna consciousness.
o World-Affirming Movements: World-affirming NRMs do not necessarily
challenge or reject the values and structures of mainstream society. Instead,
they offer alternative or complementary belief systems, practices, or spiritual
 experiences that are often marketed to improve personal well-being and
happiness. For example, Transcendental meditation.
Thus, NRMs are essentially highly individualised, reflecting the beliefs and goals of their
founders and followers.

8(c): Examine the role of science and technology in addressing age-old taboos
and superstitions. (10 Marks)

Approach:
 Define Science.
 Provide the role it has in addressing age-old taboos and superstitions.
 Also provide how it reinforce traditional rationality.
 Conclude with need for overall structural changes.
Science is systemic method of investigation of material things and their analysis for universal
theorisation. It has been tool of Social Change by debunking the traditional age old taboos and
superstitions.

Role of Science and Technology in addressing the age-old taboos and superstitions:
 Questioning the age-old taboos by rational thinking and critical analysis to find out the
hidden truth. E.g. Andhashraddha Nirmulan Samiti in Maharashtra showed science
behind Snake shaped roots that were portrayed as God.
 Social Media and other technological tools of communication are being used as a tool of
information control in various sub systems of social systems. E.g. Fact check by PIB
(social system) against forwarding superstitions and fake news
 Scientific education in child socialisation is helping intergenerational mass mobility out
of traditional values e.g. In Spouse selection, while parents emphasise on Kundali
(Astronomical information), youth emphasises on awareness about diseases like AIDS
 Science in Healthcare systems has been key to correct dogmas about reproduction and
menstruation e.g. Realization that Sex of child is by virtue of father not mother has
reduced the taboos around woman
 Technological innovations and their projections and visualisations has helped to erase
the oral superstitious stories e.g. Galileo’s telescope innovation helped to erase Geo-
centrism and prove Heliocentrism theory.
 Decentralisation of science and technology knowledge is facilitating challenge to
traditional authority and charismatic authority structures of Godmen . E.g. Wastage of
water by Asaram Bapu in drought prone Nasik area was questioned by his own followers
based on facts of Water shortage reports
Though Science and Technology is also being used to promote the superstitions and taboos
 Use of technology to emphasise traditional pattern variables in modern society e.g.
BrahminMatrimony.com promotes caste endogamy
 New Religious Movements with world rejecting attitude are creating fear amongst
youth based on selective facts support e.g. Heaven’s Gate website shows various natural
calamities as sign of end of world
  Technological innovations are being used to promote traditional authority structures
due to cultural lag in material and non material social change e.g. Use of X rays for
female infanticide
Thus, the deeply engrained superstitions and taboos can’t be removed by Science and
Technology alone, rather all social systems needs to work on changing the flow of information
and Energy to move towards new Universal Equilibrium .