Q1) Explain Pre consolidation pressure with appropriate figure.

⮚ Pre-consolidation or over consolidation. i) Clay is pre-consolidated when it is subjected to pressure in excess of its
present over-burden pressure (in the past). ii) A soil that is pre-consolidated during the geological past by weight of an ice
sheet or glacier that has melted away or by other geologic overburden and structural load which no longer exist now. iii)
Pre-consolidated clays are relatively less compressible, stiff and hard, Natural water content for pre-consolidated soil is <
NC soil, 11 for OC soil. - Where NC = normally consolidated & OC = Over consolidated soil.⮚ Causes of pre-
consolidation of soil. ⮚ Following are the various causes of the pre-consolidation of soil: i) Because of overburden
load which is subsequently removed or vanished. ii) Because of the melting of glaciers. iii) Because of
capillary rise which is destroyed later on due to water fluctuation. iv) Because of loads of buildings and other
structures which is demolished. v) Because of sustained downward seepage.

Q2) Compare Rankine’s & Coulombs lateral earth pressure theory.

Rankine’s theory Coulombs theory
i) In this, Rankine’s considered real, frictionless face of i) In this, Coulomb considered a retaining wall with friction.
retaining wall which is in contact with backfill. ii) Here retaining ii) It may be vertical, or inclined or both. iii) Here wedge
wall is only vertical. iii) In this theory, elemental failure is failure is considered. iv) It is not suitable for passive
considered. iv) We can find both active and passive earth pressure. stage. v) This is related to elastic equilibrium. vi)
v) This is related to plastic equilibrium. vi) In practice Rankine’s Coulomb’s theory of earth pressure is quite effective in
theory of earth pressure is too ideal condition in most retaining wall practice. vii) Back of the wall is not smooth but
problems. vii) Back of the wall is smooth. viii) Rankine’s theory possesses friction. viii) Coulomb’s theory does not satisfy
satisfy the static equilibrium condition that occurs in nature. ix) the static equilibrium that occurs in nature. ix) Coulomb’s
Rankine’s theory of earth pressure is only applied to uniform theory earth pressure can be applied to cohesive soils
choesionless soils. x) Commonly used for analyzing the active and choesionless soils. x) Useful for analyzing both
earth pressure (pressure acting towards the wall). active and passive earth pressure.

Q6) Differentiate between Compaction & Consolidation.

Compaction Consolidation
i) Instant compression of soil under dynamic load is i) Gradual compression under a steady load is called
called compaction. ii) Takes place before building Consolidation. ii) Takes place after building of structure. iii)
of structure. iii) Fast process. iv) Carried out for Very slow process. iv) Occurs naturally due to load of
improving soil property. v) Settlement is prevented structure. Does not improve soil property. v) Settlement
due to compaction. vi) Artificial Process. vii) Pour takes place due to consolidation. vi) Natural process. vii)
water pressure not very important. viii) Does not Pour water pressure very important. viii) Goes on
go indefinitely. ix) Decrease in volume of soil is indefinitely. ix) Decrease in volume of soil is caused by
caused by removal of air from voids. x) The load is removal of water from voids. x) The load is static.
dynamic.
Q3) Define Initial, Primary, Secondary Consolidation.

⮚ Initial consolidation - i) The reduction of the volume of a partially saturated soil due to the compression and expulsion
of air in void just after the application of load is known as initial consolidation or initial compression.
ii) In saturated soil, the initial consolidation is mainly happened by compression of solid particles.
⮚ Primary Consolidation - i) After initial consolidation, the second stage is primary consolidation. In
primary consolidation or primary compression, the reduction of the volume of soil due to the
expulsion of water from the voids. ii) For fine-grained soils, the primary consolidation occurs over a
long time whereas, for coarse-grained soil, the primary consolidation occurs quickly, because the permeability of coarse
aggregates is higher than the fine aggregates. ⮚ Secondary Consolidation - i) The reduction in volume continues at a
very slow rate even after primary consolidation due to the expulsion of adsorbed water and plastic readjustment of solid
particles and this stage is called as secondary consolidation. ii) The secondary consolidation is also known as
secondary compression or creep. This the last soil stabilization stage of consolidation of soil.

Q4) State assumptions in Terzaghi’s bearing capacity analysis. Explain effect of water table on the bearing
capacity of soil.
⮚ Terzaghi’s theory is based on the following assumptions: i) The soil is homogeneous and isotropic. ii) The
soil is entirely saturated. iii) Vertical compression and flow are one-dimensional (1 - D). iv) Darcy's law is
valid for various conditions. v) The coefficient of permeability (K) of the soil remains constant during
consolidation. vi) Water and soil particles will not undergo any compression. vii) The relationship between void
ratio and effective stress remains unique and remains constant during the rise of load. In short coefficient of compressibility
and coefficient of volume, charge are constant. viii) Consolidation takes place only in the vertical direction. ix)
The soil is laterally confined.
⮚ Effect of water table on the bearing capacity of soil.⮚ Case 1:If the water table is located so that 0 ≤ D1 ≤ Df (water table
above the footing level), the factor q in the bearing capacity equations takes the form; q = effective surcharge = D1y + D2
(Ysat - Yw)⮚ Case 2:If the water table is located so that 0 ≤ d < B (water table at footing level or within the depth d), the
factor q in the bearing capacity equations takes the form; q = effective surcharge = yD; The factor y in the last term of the
bearing capacity equation will have to be replaced by the factor; ŷ = y' + d/B(y - y)⮚ Case 3:When the water table is
located such that d > B, the water table will have no effect on the bearing capacity.

Q5) Factors affecting the rate of settlement.

⮚Following are the various factors on which the rate of settlement depends. ⮚ Permeability - When there is more
permeability rate of the settlement of soil is faster because the pore water dissipates faster. Permeability of clay soil is very
low and hence more times is required for settlement. ⮚ Magnitude of applied load - When the magnitude of applied load
is more, then in such case there is faster rate of settlement of soil. ⮚ Thickness of clay layer - The rate of settlement also
depends on the thickness of impermeable clay lever. If there is more thickness of clay layer, then there will be more
distance though which water in the soil voids should travel of escape out. ⮚ Number of drainage faces - If there are
number of drainage faces surrounding the clay layer, then in such case it affects the rate of settlements. – In case of
double drainage the maximum distance traveled by the particle of water of escape is 0.5 times the thickness of soil layer. -
h = 0.5 d Where, h = Maximum distance travelled by the particle of water of escape
d = Thickness of soil layer

Q7) Define Consolidation & Reasons causing the consolidation.

⮚ Definition: The process in which gradual compression is held simultaneously with a flow of water out of the soil
mass and with a gradual transfer of pore water pressure to the soil skeleton is termed as consolidation. ⮚ Reasons
causing the consolidation: i) Consolidation can occur because of lowering of the ground water table. ii)
Consolidation can occur due to external static loads from the structure. iii) Consolidation can be caused
because of self-weight of recently placed soils. iv) Consolidation can be caused by desiccation (i.e. removal
of moisture from soil skeleton)
⮚ Types of Consolidation –
i) Initial Consolidation or Immediate settlement. ii) Primary Consolidation. iii) Secondary Consolidation.
Q8) Factors Affecting Shear Strength

⮚ Cohesive Soils: i) Plasticity index –The value of cohesion (Φ) decreases with an increase in plasticity index of clay.ii)
Clay content – When there is increase of clay content, then Cohesion increases & corresponding angle of shearing
resistance (Φ) decreases. iii) Drainage condition – When there exists the undrained conditions, then soils have very low
strength just after applying the load. iv) Rate of strain – Effects of rate of strain on angle shearing resistance is very small
in case of normally consolidated clays. v) Disturbance – Shear strength of undisturbed samples is more than the shear
strength of disturbed sample.

⮚ Cohesion less soil Or Non Cohesive soils: i) Denseness – Density of soil affect the shear strength hence increase in
density then there is increase in shear strength of soil. ii) Loading – The angle of shearing resistance does not depend
upon loading. iii) Shape of particles – The shear strength of sand with angular shape particles with sharp edges is more
than that of rounded particles. iv) Capillary Moisture – The sand can have apparent Cohesion because of Capillary
moisture. As soon as the sand becomes saturated, the apparent Cohesion is vanished. v) Gradation – Well graded sand
possesses higher shear strength than a uniform sand. vi) Confining pressure – When there is increase in confining
pressure, then there is increase in shear strength.

Q9) Assumptions made by Rankine for earth pressure.

⮚Following are the various assumption made by Rankine for earth pressure: i) the soil mass or earth is assumed to
be homogeneous, dry, and cohesion less. ii) The back of the structural wall is assumed to be vertical and
smooth. iii) The ground level or surface is a plane that can be horizontal or inclined. iv) Rankine considered a
semi-infinite mass of soil by a horizontal surface and a vertical boundary formed by the vertical back of a smooth wall
surface. v) The entire mass of soil comes under plastic equilibrium, and the various soil elements are in a state of plastic
equilibrium. vi) Rankine's theory considers the stress in a soil mass. vii) The back of the wall is assumed to
be smooth.

Q15) Explain step wise construction of Rehbann’s Graphical method for determination of earth
pressure of soil.
⮚Procedure of graphical method
⮚Following is the procedure of construction to find out the active earth pressure by graphical method
i) Draw a retaining wall to a suitable scale and measure the backfill surface angle for required position. ii)
Draw a Φ-line EG such that it intersect the backfill surface at G. iii) Draw a semi-circle EQG by taking
diameter as EG. iv) Draw the pressure line 'EO' at an angle of (α – δ) with respect to Φ-line. v) Draw FI
parallel to pressure line 'EO'. vi) Draw a perpendicular to EG at I such that it cut the semi- circle at T. vii)
With center E and radius ET, draw an arc such that it cut EG at J.
viii) Draw JM parallel to FI. ix)Now EM is a rupture line.
x) Taking J as a center and JM as the radius draw an arc such that EG at L.
xi) After this construction from step 1 to 10; it shows the Δ LJM. Area of ALJM in its natural units
multiplied by the unit weight of the soil (r) gives the active earth pressure (Pa) as follows:
Pa = Area of triangle LJM = r × JM × MN - Where, r = unit wt of the soil, JM = length of a triangle LJM,
MN = height of Δ LJM, Pa = Active earth pressure
Q11) Different types of lateral earth pressure

⮚ Lateral Earth pressure – It is defined as the soil or earth which is in contact with any vertical or inclined face of
structure apply the pressure on structure.
⮚ Active Earth pressure – Active earth pressure is pressure exerted on retaining wall resulting from slight movement of
wall away from filling.

⮚ Passive Earth pressure – When the movement of the retaining wall is such that the soil tends to compress horizontally.

⮚ Back fill – The material retained by retaining wall or supported structure is called back fill

⮚ Surcharge – This back fill lying above horizontal plane at elevation at top of wall is called as surcharge
Q12) Types of Slope failure or Modes of Failure of slopes
⮚ Rotational Failure occurs in the finite slopes and the failure occurs by rotation along a slip surface and
the shape thus obtained in the slip surface is curved. In the case of homogeneous soils, the shape is
circular while in the case of non-homogeneous soils, it is non-circular. ⮚ It has three types: i) Face failure
or slope failure. ii) Toe failure. iii) Base failure. A) Face or Slope Failure – i) When the failure occurs
along a surface of sliding interests the slope above the toe, then slide is termed as slope failure or face
failure. ii) Face Failure or Slope Failure occurs when soil above the toe contains a weak stratum. In this
case, the failure plane intersects the slope above the toe. B) Toe failure – i) When the failure surface
passes through the toe of slope, then it is termed as toe failure. ii) Toe failure occurs when the failure
plane passes through the toe of the slope. For toe failure, depth of foundation, Df = 1. C) Base failure –
i) When the failure passes below the toe of slope, then it is termed as base failure. ii) Base Failure occurs
when there is a weak soil stratum under the toe and the failure plane passes through the base of the
slope. For base failure, depth of foundation, Df > 1.

Q13) Selection of Piles

⮚ Selection of piles depend upon the various ground condition and its nature.
⮚ The nature and condition of ground where piling operation is to be done decides the choice of type of pile to be used.
⮚ Other than nature and ground conditions, the following are the various factors to be considered while selection of piles:
⮚ Various loading condition – Consider the different types of loads the foundation will encounter,
including vertical, lateral, and axial loads. The pile type should be selected based on its ability to
support the specific loading conditions. ⮚ Nature of the building – The characteristics of the
structure, such as its weight, geometry, and intended use, influence the selection of piles.
Heavy or tall structures may require a different pile type than lighter or shorter buildings.
⮚ Availability of equipment and materials – Assess the availability of construction equipment and
materials suitable for installing and constructing the selected pile type. Ensure that the chosen pile
method aligns with the equipment and materials accessible for the project.
⮚ Ground water level – The groundwater level affects the choice of pile foundation. Consideration must
be given to the water table's depth and fluctuations, as this can impact construction methods and the
long-term performance of the foundation. ⮚ Various factor causing deterioration of pile – Identify
potential environmental factors, such as corrosion, soil aggressiveness, or exposure to chemicals that
may lead to the deterioration of piles. Choose materials and protection measures accordingly.
⮚ Length of pile required – Evaluate the soil profile and determine the depth at which the load-bearing
stratum is present. Select a pile length that ensures proper transfer of loads to the stable soil layer,
considering factors like settlement and bearing capacity. ⮚ Cost of Pile – Compare the costs associated
with different pile types, considering not only the initial construction expenses but also maintenance and
potential future repairs. Opt for an economically viable solution that meets project requirements.

Q14) Explain with a Neat diagram plate load test.

⮚ Plate Load Test: Procedure as Per IS: 1888
i) The site where testing is to be done is selected. ii) A test pit, at least 5 times the diameter or width of
the plate, and up to the depth of proposed foundation level, is dug. iii) The plate is seated firmly at the
center of the pit. iv) The dead load of all the equipment ball and socket, steel plate, loading column,
jackets - is recorded before applying the load increments. v) A minimum seating pressure of 70 gm/cm² is
applied and removed before starting the load test. vi) A minimum load is applied to soil, in cumulative
increment up to 1kg/cm² ог of capacity, whichever is lower. the estimated ultimate bearing.
vii)The settlement is observed after each load increment at 1, 2.25, 4, 6.25, 9, 16, 30 minutes and
thereafter at hourly intervals, and it is recorded. ix) The recording is stopped when the increase in
settlement is only 0.02 mm. x) The procedure is repeated after every increment in load.
xi) The observation are plotted on X-axis and load in kg/m2 is plotted on Y-axis.
Q15) Explain step wise construction of Rehbann’s Graphical method for determination of earth
pressure of soil.
⮚ Procedure of graphical method
⮚ Following is the procedure of construction to find out the active earth pressure by graphical method
i) Draw a retaining wall to a suitable scale and measure the backfill surface angle for required position.
ii) Draw a Φ-line EG such that it intersect the backfill surface at G. iii) Draw a semi-circle EQG by taking
diameter as EG. iv) Draw the pressure line 'EO' at an angle of (α – δ) with respect to Φ-line.
v) Draw FI parallel to pressure line 'EO'. vi) Draw a perpendicular to EG at I such that it cut the semi-
circle at T. vii) With center E and radius ET, draw an arc such that it cut EG at J.
viii) Draw JM parallel to FI. ix)Now EM is a rupture line.
x) Taking J as a center and JM as the radius draw an arc such that EG at L.
xi) After this construction from step 1 to 10; it shows the Δ LJM. Area of ALJM in its natural units
multiplied by the unit weight of the soil (r) gives the active earth pressure (Pa) as follows:
𝟏
Pa = Area of triangle LJM = 𝟐r × JM × MN - Where, r = unit wt of the soil, JM = length of a triangle
LJM, MN = height of Δ LJM, Pa = Active earth pressure

Q16) What are the Types of Slopes.

⮚ Slopes can be a natural slopes or man-made slopes. ⮚ Natural Slopes – i) When the slope is formed
with a continuous process of erosion and deposition of soil caused by natural agencies, then it is called
as Natural slopes. ii) Examples of Natural slopes: River banks, hill sides or mountain sides are the
examples of natural slopes. ⮚ Man–made slopes – i) When the slope of earth structures is made by or
constructed by human, then it is called as Man-made slopes. ii) Example of man-made slopes: Slopes of
embankment of dam, canals, roads, highways, railways, cutting for roads and rails, filling for reclamation
trench excavations etc. are the examples of man-made slopes. ⮚ Types of Slopes – ⮚ Infinite Slopes –
i) The boundary surface of a semi-infinite soil mass having the constant soil properties for all identical
depths below the surface is called as Infinite slope. ⮚ Finite Slopes – i) When the slope is having the
limited extent, then it is called as finite slopes. Most man-made embankments and road or railway, cuts
etc. are finite in extent. ii) Examples of finite slopes – Inclined faces of earth dam, embankments, cuts
etc. are the examples of finite slopes. ⮚ Homogeneous Slopes – i) When the slopes are made up of
same material more or less within the failure zone, then it is termed as homogeneous slopes.
⮚ Non–Homogeneous Slopes – i) When the slopes are made up of different earth material or when the
failure surface goes through two or more zones of different soil properties, then it is termed as non-
homogenous slopes.

Q17) Difference between General, Local and Punching Shear Failure

General Shear Failure (GSF) Local Shear Failure (LSF) Punching Shear Failure (PSF)
i) GSF occurs in dense, stiff & i) LSF occurs in loose, medium i) PSF occurs in very loose &
hard clay. ii) Load settlement sands; medium to soft clay. ii) soft saturated clays. ii) Load
curve shows well defined failure Load settlement curve shows first settlement curve shows failure at
load. The peak load is the the large indication of failure. iii) very small loads & excessive
ultimate load. iii) Failure zone is Failure is due to sinking & there is settlements. iii) Sinking may
well defined & sinking of base is no slip planes, sinking may range range from 15-20% of base
less than 7% at base width. iv) from more than 20% of base width. iv) There is failure at small
There is failure with heavy width. iv)It is difficult to define strains.
compression. failure zone.
Q18) Discuss the effect of water table on the bearing capacity of soil.
i) The effect of an increase of water table on bearing capacity of a footing
can be understood from the bearing capacity equation, i.e. qu = c NC + qNq
+ 0.5 r B Nr’ ii) When there is rise of water table from below the foundation,
then it has been observed that there is decrease in the bearing capacity in
granular soil due to the decrease in effective unit weight of soil under
submerged condition. iii) When the water table reaches the ground level,
rising from a depth equal to or greater than the width of footing, then in such
case, the bearing capacity can be decreased by 50% or more. iv) For free-draining soils like sands, the
bearing capacity analysis is carried out in term of effective stresses.
v) If D’w is the depth of water table measured from the base of W footing, for D’w ≥ B, r = rt in both the
terms where rt, is the unit weight of the soil.

Q19) What is negative skin friction (NSF)? What is its effect on the pile?

⮚ Definition – NSF Is a download drag developed on the file when the soil layer surrounding a proportion
of the pile shaft more than no pile. ⮚ NSF occurs when a loose or soft soil surrounding the pile settles
after installation of pile. ⮚ The NF produce extra downward load on the file the net ultimate load carrying
capacity of file is given by the following expression.
⮚ Qu ’ = Q u – Q nsf
⮚ Where,
⮚ Qu ’ = Net Ultimate load on pile.
⮚ Qu = Ultimate load on pile.
⮚ Qnsf = Negative Skin Friction.
⮚ Factors that cause negative skin friction on piles and pile group
i) Newly placed fill material on compressible soil before the completion of
consolidation. ii) If fill material is loose cohesion less soil iii) When fill
material is deposited over layer of soft soil or peat. iv) Lowering
groundwater which increases the effective stress causing consolidation of
soil with resultant settlement and friction force being developed on the pile.
⮚ Effect of negative skin friction on piles and pile groups
i) Negative skin friction contributes to the uneven settlement of piles or pile
group. ii) For piles in compressible soils where pile capacity is contributed
by both point resistance and shaft adhesion, the problem of NSF should be considered a settlement
problem. iii) In bearing piles where the settlement of the pile is negligible, NSF becomes a pile capacity
problem. iv) When the NSF imposes, an extra downward load on the pile.

Q20) A soil sample has a compression index of 0.3. If the Void Ration at a stress of 1.4 kg/cm2 is
0.5 Compute. i) Void Ratio if the stress is increased to 2 kg/cm2. ii) Settlement of a soil strata 4m
thick.
⮚Soln:- Given – Compressive Index = Cc = 0.3
Stress1 = δo = 1.4 kg/cm2
Void Ratio1 = eo = 0.5
Stress2 = δ1 = 2kg/cm2
Thickness = H = 4m = 400cm
⮚To Find – i) Void Ratio For Increased Stress = e1 = ?
ii) ΔH = ?
If δ1 = 2kg/cm2 (Final Stress)
 Cc = ( eo – e1 ) / log ( δ1 / δ0 )
0.3 = ( 0.5 – e1 ) / log ( 2 / 1.4 )
e1 = 0.453
Settlement = ΔH = ( H * Cc * log( δ1 / δ0 ) / (1 + 0.5) ) = 12.39cm = 0.123m
Q21) A group of 9 piles with 3piles in a row was driven into a soft clay extending from ground level
to a great depth. The Diameter & the length of the piles were 30cm & 10m respectively the
unconfined compressive strength of the clay is 70kpa. If the piles were placed 90cm c/c compute
the allowable load on the pile group on the basis of shear Failure criteria for a factor of safety of
2.5 Assume α = 1
⮚ Soln –
Given – n=9
d = 30cm = 0.3m
S = 90cm = 0.9m
R = 18Kn/m3
L = 10m
F.O.S = 2.5
α=1
qu = 70kpa = 70Kn/m2
⮚Case 1 block Failure

Qug1 = C’ Nc * Apb + c * Asb

 C’ = c = qu/2 = 70/2 = 35Kn/m2
⮚For Soft Clay Nc = 9
 Area of Block = Apb = B*B
B = 2S + d = 2*0.9 + 0.3 = 2.1m
 Apb = B*B = 2.1 * 2.1 = 4.41m2
 Asb = 4BL = 4 * 2.1* 10 = 84m2
 Qug1 = C’ * Nc * Apb + c * Asp = 35 * 9 * 4.41 * + 35 * 84 = 4329.15Kn
⮚Case 2 Individual Failure
 For Individual Failure = Qug2 = n [ C * Nc * Ap + α * C * As ]
 To find Ap – Ap = ( ∏ / 4 ) * d2 = ( ∏ / 4 ) * 0.32 = 0.07m2 --- Area of Individual Piles
Area of Surface of pile - As = ∏ * d * L = ∏ * 0.3 * 10 = 9.42m2 = As
Qug2 = 9 [ 35 * 9 * 0.07 + 1 * 35 * 9.42 ] = 3165.75Kn
⮚In This case small Value
Allowable Load is Given by
Pa = Qug2 / F.o.S = (3165.75 / 2.5) = 1266.3Kn = 1266Kn

Q22) Find time required for 50% consolidation in a soil 8m thick it coefficient consolidation 1x10-4
cm2 / min
⮚Soln – Given – Thickness = H = 8m
Cv = 1x10-4 cm2 / min
⮚To Find Time Required for 50% Consolidation = t50
⮚For 50% Consolidation - T50 = ( Cv * t50 ) / H2
T50 = (∏ / 4) * (v)2 = (∏ / 4) * (0.50)2 = 0.1963
Cv = 1x10-4 cm2 / min
= (1x10-4 * 60) / (100)2 = 6 x 10-7 m2/sec
Hence, t50 = (T50 * H2) / Cv = ( 0.1963 * 62 ) / ( 6 x 10-7 * 60 * 60 * 24 ) = 242.40 Days
Q23) A cylindrical sample of soil having a cohesion of 80Kn/m2 & an angle of internal friction of
20° is subject to a cell pressure of 100Kn/m2. Determine i) Deviator stress at which sample fails, ii)
Angle made by the failure plane with the axis of the sample.
⮚ Soln: Given – Cohesion = C = 80Kn/m2
Internal Friction = Φ = 20°
Cell Pressure = δ3 = 100Kn/m2
To Find – i) Maximum Deviator Stress = δa = ?
ii) Angle Made By Failure = α = ?

i) Maximum Deviator Stress

NΦ = tan ( 45 + Φ/2 )2 = tan ( 45 + 20/2 )2 = 2.039
δ1 = δ3 * N Φ + 2C * √NΦ = (100 * 2.039) + (2 * 80) * √(2.039) = 432.36Kn/m2
Maximum Deviator Stress
δa = δ1 – δ3 = 432.36 – 100 = 332.36Kn/m2
ii) Angle Made By Failure
α = 45 + Φ/2 = 45 + 20/2 = 55°

Q24) A layer of soft clay is 7m thick & lies under a newly constructed building. The weight of sand overlying the
clayey layer produces a pressure of 240Kn/m2 & the new construction increases the pressure by 100Kn/m2. If
the compression index is 0.5, compute the settlement. Water content is 41% & specific gravity of grains is 2.65.
⮚ Soln – Given – The weight of sand overlaying clay = δ0 = 240Kn/m2
Increased Pressure = Δδ = 100Kn/m2
Compression Index = Cc = 0.45
Specific Gravity = G = 2.65
Thickness of clay = H = 6m
To Find – eo = ?
Soln -  Se = W * G
e = W * G ……….(S = 1 ….Assume)
e = 0.41 * 2.65 = 1.086
 ΔH = [ (( H * Cc) / 1 + eo ) * log (( δo * Δδ) / δo ) ]
= [ (( 6 * 0.45) / 1 + 1.08 ) * log (( 240 * 100) / 240 ) ] = 0.689m = 689mm

Q25) A square footing fails by general shear in a cohesionless soil under an ultimate load of
7500Kn. The footing is placed at a depth of 2m below ground level. Given Angle of internal friction
= 35 and bulk density = 17.25Kn.m3, determine the size of the footing if the water table is at a great
depth. For Φ = 35°, Nq = 41.4 and Ny = 42.4

⮚Soln – Given – Ultimate Load = Wu = 7500Kn

Depth of Footing = Df = 2m
Unit weight of soil = r(Gamma) =17.25Kn/m2
Terzaghi’s Bearing Capacity Factors = Nc = 57.8 – Nq = 41.4 – Nr = 42.4
 CASE 1
We Know that the equation of ultimate bearing capacity given by Terzaghi’s for square footing is given as
Qu = [ ( 1.3 * C * Nc ) + ( Df * r * Nq) + ( 0.4 * r * B * Nr) ] …….(i)
The Above Equation can be also written with the water table correction factors
Qu = [ ( 1.3 * C * Nc ) + ( Df * r * Nq * Rq ) + ( 0.4 * r * B * Nr * Rr ) ] ………(ii)
Where, Rq & Rr are water table correction Factors
As in this case water table is at great depth  Rq = Rr = 1
 Using Equation (i) we have

Qu = ( Wu / B2 ) ………[Where B is the width of square footing]

 ( 7500 / B2 ) = [ ( 1.3 * 0 * 57.8 ) + ( 2 * 17.25 * 41.4 * 1 ) + ( 0.4 * 17.25 * B * 42.4 * 1 ) ]
( 7500 / B2 ) = 1428.3 + 292.56B
292.56B3 + 1428.3B2 – 7500 = 0 ………. (Dividing Both side by B2 & rearrange the equation)
B = 1.938
 Thus size of Square Footing ( 1.938 * 1.938 )
As Soil is choesionless  C = 0

 CASE 2 – As the water table in this case is at a depth of 2m from the ground level.

Thus we have to use equation (ii) in this case i.e:

Qu = [ ( 1.3 * C * Nc ) + ( Df * r * Nq * Rq ) + ( 0.4 * r * B * Nr * Rr ) ]
 Rq = ( 1 / 2 ) * ( 1 + (Zq / Df ) ) …….. [ Where Zq is the depth of water table from G.L upto Bottom of footing ]
 Rr = ( 1 / 2 ) * ( 1 + ( Zr / B ) ) …….. [ Where Zr is the depth of water table from bottom of footing ]

Here, Zq = Df & Zr = 0

 Rq = ( 1 / 2 ) * ( 1 + (Df / Df ) ) = ( 1 / 2 ) * ( 1 + (2 / 2 ) ) = ( 1 / 2 ) * ( 1 + (1 ) ) = ( 1 / 2 ) * ( 2 ) ) = 1
 Rr = ( 1 / 2 ) * ( 1 + ( 0 / B ) ) = ( 1 / 2 ) * ( 1 ) = 0.5

 Using the equation (ii) we have put C = 0 as choesionless soil

( 7500 / B2 ) = [ ( 1.3 * 0 * 57.8 ) + ( 2 * 17.25 * 41.4 * 1 ) + ( 0.4 * 17.25 * B * 42.4 * 0.5 ) ]
( 7500 / B2 ) = 1428.3 + 146.28B
146.28B3 + 1428.3B2 – 7500 = 0 ………. (Dividing Both side by B2 & rearrange the equation)
 B = 2.08m
 Thus size of Square Footing ( 2.08 * 2.08 )

Q27) Difference between Direct Shear Test & Tri-Axial shear Test of soil
Direct Shear Test (DST) Tri-Axial Shear Test (TST)
i) DST is simple & fast. Soil sample preparation is easy. i) TST is not simple & fast. Soil sample preparation is not
ii) CD & Cu test relatively small period due to quick easy. ii) TT test takes longer period in case of drained test
drainage & rapid dissipation of pore water pressure. (CD) than that in a DST. iii) The Shear test under all the
iii) The stress conditions across the soil sample are very drainage conditions can be performed with complete
complex. iv) The stress conditions are known only at control. iv) The state of stress during any stage of the test
failure. v) Control on the drainage conditions is very is known. v) There is complete control on the drainage
difficult. vi) The apparatus is relatively cheap. conditions. vi) The apparatus is costly as compared to DST
vii) The measurement of pore water pressure is not apparatus. vii) The measurement of pore water pressure is
possible. viii) This test is not suitable for accurate research possible. viii) The test is suitable for accurate work
work. ix) Only drained tests can be conducted on highly research. ix) This test can be conducted with different
permeable soils. drainage conditions i.e CU conditions, CD condition & UU
condition.

Q28) Determine the active & Passive earth pressure given the following data: height of the retaining wall =10m,
angle of internal friction of the backfill soil is 25° & dry unit weight of backfill is 17Kn/m3.ground water
table is at the top of the retaining wall.

⮚ Soln – Given – i) Height = 10m – ii) Internal friction = Φ = 25° - iii) Dry Unit Weight = r = 17Kn/m3
⮚ i) Dry Soil - Ka = [ (1 – Sin Φ) / (1 + Sin Φ) ] = [ (1 – Sin 25) / (1 + Sin 25) ] = 0.405
Kp = ( 1 / Ka ) = ( 1 / 0.405 ) = 2.46
Pa = Ka * r * H = 0.405 * 17 * 10 = 68.85 Kn/m2
 Pp = Kp * r * H = 2.46 * 17 * 10 = 418.2 Kn/m2
⮚ ii) Submerged Soil -  y’ = ysat – yw ……( yw = 9.81 Assume ysat =22 Kn/m2 )
 y’ = 22 – 9.81 = 12.91
 Pa = Ka * y’ * H + yw * H = 0.405 * 12.91 * 10 + 9.81 * 10 = 150.38 Kn/m2
 Pp = Kp * y’ * H + yw * H = 2.46 * 12.91 * 10 + 9.81 * 10 = 415.68 Kn/m2
Q26) Describe Various Types of pile Foundation
Definition - A Pile foundation, a kind of deep foundation, can be defined as a slender column or long cylinder made of
materials such as concrete or steel which are used to support the structure and transfer the load at desired depth either
by end bearing or skin friction. ⮚The followings are the types of pile foundations used in construction:
⮚A) Based on Function or Use
i) Sheet Piles – Sheet Piles is mostly used to provide lateral support. Usually, they resist lateral pressure from loose soil,
the flow of water, etc. They are usually used for cofferdams, trench sheeting, shore protection, etc.
ii) Load Bearing Piles – Load Bearing Piles foundation is mainly used to transfer the vertical loads from the structure to
the soil. These load-bearing pile foundations transmit loads through the soil with poor supporting property onto a layer
that is capable of bearing the load. iii) End bearing Piles – End Bearing Piles foundation, the loads pass through the
lower tip of the pile. The bottom end of the end-bearing piles rests on a strong layer of soil or rock. Usually, the pile rests
at a transition layer of a weak and strong slayer. iv) Friction Piles – The Friction pile transfers the load from the
structure to the soil by the frictional force between the surface of the pile and the soil surrounding the pile such as stiff
clay, sandy soil, etc. v) Soil Compactor Piles – Unlike other pile foundation types, this type of pile does not carry any
direct loads. This type of piles is driven at placed closed intervals to increase the bearing capacity of soil by compacting.
⮚B) Based on Materials and Construction Method⮚ i) Timber Piles – Timber piles are the types of piled
foundations that are placed under the water level. They last for approximately about 30 years. They can be rectangular
or circular in shape. Their diameter or size can vary from 12 to 16 inches. The length of the pile is usually 20 times the
top width. They are usually designed for 15 to 20 tons. a) Untreated – b) Treated with Preservative
⮚ii) Concrete Piles – a) Pre-cast Piles – The precast concrete pile foundation is cast in a pile bed in horizontal form if
they are rectangular in shape. Usually, circular piles are cast in vertical forms. Precast piles are usually reinforced with
steel to prevent breakage during their mobilization from the casting bed to the location of the foundation.
b) Cast-in-place Piles – This type of pile footing is constructed by boring soil up to the desired depth and then,
depositing freshly mixed concrete in that place and letting it cure there. Cast in situ concrete pile foundation is
constructed either by driving a metallic shell to the ground and filling it with concrete and leaving the shell with the
concrete or the shell is pulled out while concrete is poured. Usually, round piles are used in cast-in situ piling.
⮚iii) Steel Piles – Steel piles may be of I-section or hollow pipe. They are filled with concrete. The size may vary from
10 inches to 24 inches in diameter and the thickness is usually ¾ inches. Because of the small sectional area, the piles
are easy to drive. They are mostly used as end-bearing piles.
a) I-Section Piles – b) Hollow Piles iv) Composite Piles –

Q27) Explain the Limitations of Plate Load Test

⮚Size of Plate: The test results are influenced by the size of the loading plate. If the plate is too small, it may
not represent the actual foundation size, leading to inaccurate results.
⮚Depth of Embedment: The depth at which the plate is embedded affects the results. Shallow embedment
may not account for deeper layers of soil, while deep embedment may not consider the upper layers
adequately.
⮚Influence of Adjacent Loads: Nearby structures or loads can affect the test results. If there are existing
foundations or structures nearby, their influence on the plate load test should be considered.
⮚Time-Dependent Behavior: The test is typically conducted over a short duration (minutes to hours).
However, soil behavior can change over time due to consolidation, creep, and other factors. Long-term
behavior may differ from the test results.
⮚Homogeneity of Soil: The plate load test assumes soil homogeneity, but in reality, soil layers may vary in
composition and stiffness. Heterogeneous soil can lead to inaccurate results.
⮚Effect of Water Table: The presence of groundwater affects soil behavior. If the water table is close to the
test depth, it can significantly impact the test results.
⮚Friction Along Plate Edges: Friction between the plate and the soil along the edges can affect the load
distribution. Proper edge conditions must be maintained during testing.
⮚Plate Settlement: Settlement of the plate during loading can introduce errors. Monitoring settlement
accurately is essential for reliable results. ⮚Rate of Loading: The rate at which the load is applied affects
soil behavior. Rapid loading may not account for time-dependent effects, while slow loading may lead to
excessive settlement. ⮚Assumption of Elastic Behavior: The plate load test assumes elastic soil behavior.
However, soils can exhibit non-linear behavior, especially under high loads.
Q28) Compute the safe bearing capacity of for continuous footing 1.8m wide and located at depth of 1.2m below
ground level in a soil with unit weight 20Kn/m3, c = 20 Kn/m3 and angle of internal friction 20°. Assume a factor
of safety of 2. Terzaghi’s bearing capacity factors for angle of internal friction = 20° are Nc = 17.7, Nq = 7.4 &
Nr = 5. What is the permissible load per meter run of the footing?

⮚ Soln:
Given – i) Wide = B = 1.8m = 1800mm – ii) Depth = D = 1.2m = 1200mm –iii) Dry Unit Weight = r =20 Kn/m3
- iv) c = 20 Kn/m3 – v) Internal Friction = Φ = 20° - vi) Factor of Safety = F.o.S = 2
Nc = 17.7
Nq =7.4
Nr = 5

⮚To Find – Safe bearing Capacity (qs)

For Square Footing

Qu = 1.2 * c * Nc + r * D * Nq + 0.48 * B * Nr
= 1.2 * 20 * 17.7 + 20 * 1.2 * 7.4 + 0.48 * 1.8 * 5
 Qu = 75448.8 Kn/m2

To find Safe Bearing Capacity (qs)

qs = ( Qu / F.o.S ) + ( r * D )
= ( 75448.8 / 2 ) + ( 20 * 1.2 )
qs = 37748.4 Kn/m2

Q30) A cantilever retaining wall of 7m height retains sand. The properties of the sand are void ratio = 0.5, angle
of internal friction = 30° and specific gravity = 2.7. Using Rankine’s theory determine the active earth pressure at
the base when the backfill is i) dry ii) saturated iii) submerged and also resultant active force in each case.
⮚ Soln – Given – Height = 7m
Void Ratio = e = 0.5
Angle of Internal Friction = Φ = 30°
Specific Gravity = Gs =2.7
To Find – Active Earth Pressure
rsat = [ (Gs + e) * rw / (1 + e) ] …… (rw =9.81)
= [ (2.7 + 0.5) * 9.81 / (1 + 0.5) ] = 20.92 Kn/m3
rd = [ ( Gs * rw ) / ( 1 + e ) ] = [ ( 2.7 * 9.81 ) / ( 1 + 0.5 ) ] = 17.65 Kn/m3
⮚Find Submerged Unit Weight
rb = rsat – rw = 20.92 – 9.81 = 11.11 Kn/m3
⮚Find Ka for Φ = 30°
Ka = ( 1 - sinΦ ) / ( 1 + sin Φ ) = ( 1 – sin30 ) / ( 1 + sin30) = ( 1/3 ) or 0.33
⮚Active earth Pressure at Base is
⮚i) For Dry Backfill
Pa1 = Ka * rd * H = 0.33 * 17.65 * 7 = 41.18 Kn/m2
Pa2 = ( 1/2 ) * Ka * rd * H = ( 1/2 ) * 0.33 * 17.65 * 7 = 144.14 Kn/m2 of wall
⮚ii) For Saturated
Pa1 = Ka *rsat * H = 0.33 * 20.92 * 7 = 48.81 Kn/m2
Pa2 = ( 1/2 ) * Ka *rsat * H = ( 1/2 ) * 0.33 * 20.92 * 7 = 170.84 Kn/m2 of wall
⮚iii) For Submerged
Pa1 = Ka *rb * H = 0.33 * 11.11 * 7 = 25.92 Kn/m2
Pa2 = ( 1/2 ) * Ka *rb * H = ( 1/2 ) * 0.33 * 11.11 * 7 = 90.73 Kn/m2 of wall
⮚iv) Water Pressure
Pw1 = rw * H = 9.81 * 7 =68.67Kn/m2
Pw2 = ( 1/2 ) * rw * H 2 = ( 1/2 ) * 9.81 * 72 =68.67Kn/m2 of Wall
Q31) Briefly explain anyone of the fitting methods for finding coefficients of consolidation

⮚Logarithmic Time Method:

i) This method is commonly used to determine the coefficient of consolidation (Cv) from consolidation test data.
ii) It assumes that the settlement of a soil layer follows a logarithmic relationship with time.
⮚The key steps involved in this method are as follows:
i) Plot the settlement (or void ratio) versus the logarithm of time (log time) on a semi-logarithmic graph.
ii) Fit a straight line to the settlement-time curve using linear regression.
iii) The slope of the fitted line represents the coefficient of consolidation (Cv).
⮚The formula for Cv using the logarithmic time method is: Cv= (2.303S / Δt )
where: i) S is the slope of the settlement-time curve (obtained from the linear regression).
ii) Δt is the time interval between readings during the consolidation test.

Q32) Explain the Merits and Demerits of Direct Shear & Triaxial Shear Test.

⮚Direct Shear Test:

⮚Merits:
i) Sample Preparation: The direct shear test has easy sample preparation.
ii) Simplicity: It is a straightforward and convenient test.
iii) Quick Drainage: Due to the relatively small sample thickness, drainage occurs rapidly, making it suitable for both
consolidated-drained and consolidated-undrained tests.
iv) Ideal for Cohesionless Soils: Well-suited for conducting drained tests on cohesionless soils.
v) Cost-Effective: The apparatus is relatively inexpensive.
⮚Demerits:
i) Stress Condition at Failure: Stress conditions are known only at failure, and conditions prior to failure remain
indeterminate.
ii) Non-Uniform Stress Distribution: Stress distribution on the failure plane is not uniform; stresses are higher at the
edges, leading to progressive failure.
iii) Gradual Reduction in Shear Area: The area under shear decreases as the test progresses, but the corrected area
cannot be determined.
iv) Fixed Failure Plane Orientation: The orientation of the failure plane is fixed, which may not be the weakest plane.
v) Limited Drainage Control: Only drained tests can be conducted on highly permeable soils.
vi) No Pore Water Pressure Measurement: Pore water pressure cannot be measured directly.
vii) Lateral Restraint by Shear Box Walls: Side walls of the shear box restrict lateral deformation.
⮚Triaxial Shear Test:
⮚Merits:
i) Controlled Drainage: Triaxial tests allow complete control over drainage conditions, including drained, undrained, and
partially drained tests.
ii) Direct Measurement of Pore Pressure and Volumetric Changes: Pore pressure and volumetric changes can be
measured directly.
iii) Uniform Stress Distribution: Stress distribution on the failure plane is uniform.
iv) Failure on Weakest Plane: The specimen fails on its weakest plane.
v) Known Stress States: Stress states at intermediate stages up to failure are known.
vi) Suitable for Research: Suitable for accurate research work and adaptable to special requirements.
⮚Demerits:
i) Expensive Apparatus: Triaxial apparatus is costly.
ii) Time-Consuming: Drained tests take longer compared to direct shear tests.
iii) Inaccurate Cross-Sectional Area Calculation: Difficult to calculate cross-sectional area accurately at large strains.
iv) Axis-Symmetrical Assumption: The test simulates axis-symmetrical problems, while field problems are generally
three-dimensional.
v) Isotropic vs. Anisotropic Consolidation: Specimen consolidation in triaxial tests is isotropic, unlike anisotropic
consolidation in the field.
Q33) Classify the piles based on load transfer mechanism & method of installation.
⮚Load Transfer Mechanism:
⮚End-Bearing Piles (Point-Bearing Piles):
i) These piles transfer load primarily through the bottom tip (end) of the pile.
ii) Commonly used in cohesive soils or when a hard stratum (rock or stiff soil) exists below the pile.
iii) Examples: Driven concrete piles, steel H-piles, and timber piles.
⮚Friction (Skin) Piles:
i) These piles transfer load through frictional resistance along the sides of the pile shaft.
ii) Suitable for cohesive and cohesionless soils.
iii) Examples: Bored cast-in-place concrete piles, driven steel pipe piles, and composite piles.
⮚Combination Piles:
i) These piles combine both end-bearing and frictional resistance.
ii) Useful when varying soil layers exist.
iii) Examples: Pre-cast concrete piles with enlarged bases, composite piles with both steel and concrete sections.
⮚Negative Skin Friction (Dragload):
i) Occurs when the surrounding soil settles more than the pile, causing downward drag on the pile.
ii) Mitigated by using pile sleeves or greased surfaces.
iii) Common in soft clayey soils.
⮚Method of Installation:
⮚Driven Piles:
i) Installed by driving them into the ground using a pile hammer.
ii) Commonly used for end-bearing piles and friction piles.
iii) Examples: Timber piles, concrete piles, and steel piles.
⮚Bored (Drilled) Piles:
i) Created by drilling a hole into the ground and then filling it with concrete or other materials.
ii) Suitable for cohesive and non-cohesive soils.
iii) Examples: Bored cast-in-place concrete piles, auger-cast piles, and drilled shafts.
⮚Jacked Piles:
i) Installed by jacking precast concrete or steel piles into the ground.
ii) Used in areas with noise or vibration restrictions.
iii) Examples: Precast concrete jacked piles.
⮚Screw Piles (Helical Piles):
i) Screwed into the ground using a rotating helical plate.
ii) Suitable for soft soils and areas with limited access.
iii) Examples: Helical steel piles.

Q34) Explain the assumptions & failure zones described by Terzaghi for shallow foundations.
⮚Assumptions:
i) The soil is homogeneous and isotropic. ii) The shear strength of soil follows Mohr-Coulomb’s criteria.
iii) The foundation is shallow (depth ≤ width of the foundation). iv) The base of the footing is rough.
v) The failure occurs due to general shear. vi) The load is vertical and symmetrical.
vii) The ground surface is horizontal. viii) The overburden pressure at foundation level is equivalent to a surcharge load.
ix) The principle of superposition is valid. x) Coulomb’s law strictly applies.
⮚Failure Zones:
⮚Zone I (Elastic Equilibrium):
i) Soil immediately beneath the base remains in a permanently elastic equilibrium.
ii) Friction and adhesion between soil and base counteract lateral spreading.
⮚Zone II (Radial Shear State):
i) Represents the area where radial shear occurs.
ii) Soil behaves plastically due to lateral movement.
⮚Zone III (Rankine Passive State):
i) Soil experiences passive resistance against lateral movement.
ii)This zone contributes to overall stability.
Q35) Culmann's method for determination of active earth pressure

⮚Procedure of Culmann’s Method:

i) Draw the retaining wall AB to scale.
ii) BD represents the φ-line (angle of internal friction).
iii) Draw a line BL at an angle of 0 with BD (resulting in Ψ = α – δ, where α is the backfill slope angle and δ is the wall
friction angle).
iv) Calculate the weight (W) of the assumed failure wedge ABF (using a failure surface BF).
v) Plot the weight (W) along BD (point P).
vi) Draw a line PQ from point P parallel to BL. The length PQ represents the magnitude of the active pressure (Pa)
needed to maintain equilibrium for the presumed failure plane.
vii) Repeat the process for different failure planes (BF₂, BF₁, BF₃, etc.) to obtain points Q², Q¹, Q³, and so on.
viii) Join these points with a smooth curve called Culmann’s Line.
ix) Draw a line XY (dotted) tangential to the Culmann line and parallel to BD. The point of tangency (T) corresponds to
the largest value of Pa (similar to Coulomb’s pressure).
x) The actual failure plane passes through point T (dotted).

Q36) Derive an expression for factor of safety of a slope of infinite extent made up of cohesionless soil when (i)
The soil is dry (ii) When the slope is submerged (iii) when there is steady seepage parallel to the surface of the
slope.

⮚Dry Cohesionless Soil:

i) For a dry slope, the factor of safety (FS) is independent of the slope depth (h) and depends only on the angle of
internal friction (φ) and the slope angle (β).
ii) The FS is defined as the ratio of available shear strength to the strength required to maintain stability.
iii) The expression for FS in dry cohesionless soil is:
𝐭𝐚𝐧(𝝓)
𝑭𝑺 =
𝐭𝐚𝐧(𝜷)
⮚Submerged Cohesionless Soil:
i) When the slope is submerged (saturated), the FS remains the same as for dry cohesionless soil.
ii) The factor of safety is still given by:
𝐭𝐚𝐧(𝝓)
𝑭𝑺 =
𝐭𝐚𝐧(𝜷)
⮚Steady Seepage Parallel to the Surface:
i) If there is steady seepage parallel to the slope surface, the FS depends on the effective normal force (N’).
ii) Effective shear strength parameters, c’ and φ’, are used.
iii) The expression for FS with parallel seepage is:
𝜸 − 𝜸𝒘 𝐭𝐚𝐧(𝝓 )
𝑭𝑺 = ⋅
𝜸sat − 𝜸𝒘 𝐭𝐚𝐧(𝜷)
⮚Where:
𝜸 Is the effective unit weight of the saturated soil.
𝜸𝒘 Is the unit weight of water.
𝐭𝐚𝐧(𝜷) Is the saturated unit weight of the soil.
𝐭𝐚𝐧(𝝓 ) Is the effective angle of internal friction.
Q37) Write Short note on Factors influencing bearing capacity.

⮚Factors Influencing bearing capacity:

⮚Soil Strength:
i) The composition of the soil significantly affects bearing capacity.
ii) For cohesionless soils (e.g., granular sand), bearing capacity increases disproportionately with the effective friction
angle.
iii) For cohesive soils, bearing capacity varies linearly with soil cohesion when the effective friction angle is zero.
⮚Foundation Width:
i) In cohesionless soils, the bearing capacity of a footing at the surface (where shear strength depends on internal
friction) is proportional to the foundation width.
ii) For cohesive soils with constant shear strength and infinite depth, bearing capacity remains independent of foundation
width.
⮚Foundation Depth:
i) Deeper foundations generally have greater bearing capacity, especially in uniform cohesionless soils.
ii) However, if the foundation extends into a weak soil layer, bearing capacity decreases.
⮚Soil Weight and Surcharge:
i) Subsurface and surcharge loads (influenced by the water table) contribute to bearing capacity.
ii) The water table should not be above the foundation base to avoid construction issues.
iii) If the water table is below the failure surface depth, it doesn’t affect bearing capacity.
⮚Spacing Between Foundations:
i) Minimum spacing between footings (1.5 times foundation width) prevents a reduction in bearing capacity.
⮚Earthquake and Dynamic Motion:
i) Repeated movements (e.g., earthquakes, machinery vibrations) can increase pore pressure, reducing bearing
capacity.

Q38) What is a Stability No? What is its utility in the analysis of stability of slopes?

⮚Stability Number (c/gH):

i) The Stability Number (also known as the Critical Stability Number) is a dimensionless parameter used to assess the
stability of slopes.
ii) It quantifies the balance between resisting forces (shear strength) and driving forces (gravity) acting on a slope.
iii) The formula for the Stability Number is:
𝐜 𝐜
𝐒𝐭𝐚𝐛𝐢𝐥𝐢𝐭𝐲 𝐍𝐨 =
𝐠𝐇 𝐠𝐇
⮚where:
i) (c) represents the cohesion of the soil.
ii) (g) is the acceleration due to gravity.
iii) (H) denotes the height of the slope.

⮚Utility in Slope Stability Analysis:

i) The Stability Number provides a convenient way to evaluate slope stability without directly considering specific units or
dimensions.
ii) It allows engineers to compare the stability of different slopes regardless of their actual sizes or material properties.
iii) When the Stability Number is less than 1.0, the slope is theoretically in a critical state of instability.

⮚By analyzing the Stability Number, engineers can:

i) Determine whether a slope is prone to failure.
ii) Assess the impact of soil cohesion, slope height, and gravitational forces.
iii) Make informed decisions during slope design and construction.