𝑑𝑦 2y2 – 2x = 4 – 4y.

Then find an equation of the tangent

Eg 1.1a) Find for x
𝑑𝑥
line at the point (2, – 2).

dx
( x y − 2 x ) = (4 − 4 y )
d 2 2 d
dx
Equation of straight line:
𝑦 = 𝑚𝑥 + 𝑐
𝑑𝑦 𝑑𝑦
𝑥 2 2𝑦 + 𝑦 2 2𝑥 − 2 = 0 − 4
𝑑𝑥 𝑑𝑥
𝑑𝑦 𝑑𝑦
𝑥 2 2𝑦 +4 2
= 2 − 2𝑥𝑦EQ
𝑑𝑥 𝑑𝑥
𝑑𝑦 2 − 2𝑥𝑦 2
= 2
𝑑𝑥 2𝑥 𝑦 + 4
𝑑𝑦 2 − 2 2 −2 2 7
Slope at point (2,-2): 𝑑𝑥 = 2 2 2 (−2) + 4 = 6
7 7 13
The tangent line is: −2 = 2 + 𝑐 𝑜𝑟 𝑦 = 𝑥 −
6 6 3

MTH107 T02
Eg 1.1b) Find 𝑑𝑦 for x2 + y3 – 2y = 3. Then find the equation of the tangent line
𝑑𝑥
at the point where y=1, given that 𝑥 ≥ 0.
At the point (2, 1)
𝑑 2 3
𝑑
𝑥 + 𝑦 − 2𝑦 = (3) 𝑑𝑦 (−2 2 )
𝑑𝑥 𝑑𝑥 = = −4
𝑑𝑥 3 12 − 2
𝑑𝑦 𝑑𝑦
2𝑥 + 3𝑦 2 −2 =0
𝑑𝑥 𝑑𝑥 The equation of the tangent line is:

𝑑𝑦 −2𝑥 1 = −4 ⋅ 2 + 𝑐, 𝑐 = 9+c
=
𝑑𝑥 3𝑦 2 – 2
𝑦 = −4𝑥 + 9

When y = 1, 𝑥 2 + 13 -2(1) = 3

𝑥 2 = 4, thus 𝑥 = 2 since 𝑥 ≥ 0

MTH107 T02
1.2 Parametric Functions

Please correct function definition

Eg 𝑥 = 𝑡 𝑐𝑜𝑠𝑡 2𝜋𝑡 , 𝑦 = 𝑡(sin 2𝜋𝑡 ).

𝑎𝑡 𝑡 = 0, 𝑥 = 0 𝑐𝑜𝑠𝑡 0 = 0, 𝑦 = 0 sin 0 =0
𝑎𝑡 𝑡 = 1, 𝑥 = 1 𝑐𝑜𝑠𝑡 2𝜋 = 1, 𝑦 = 1 sin 2𝜋 =0

So (0,0) and (1,0) are points on the curve.

MTH107 T02
Eg 1.2b) Find the equation of the tangent line to the curve at 𝑡 = 2 where 𝑥(𝑡) =
4𝑡 2 and 𝑦 𝑡 = 3𝑡.

𝑑𝑦
𝑑𝑥 𝑑𝑦 𝑑𝑦 𝑑𝑡 3
= 8𝑡 and = 3, so = 𝑑𝑥 =
𝑑𝑡 𝑑𝑡 𝑑𝑥 8𝑡
𝑑𝑡

𝑑𝑦 3 3
At 𝑡 = 2, 𝑥 𝑡 = 4 22 = 16, 𝑦 𝑡 = 3 2 = 6, 𝑑𝑥 = =
8 2 16

Equation of the tangent line is given by 𝑦 = 𝑚𝑥 + 𝑐

3
6 = 16(16) +𝑐, so 𝑐 = 3.

3
𝑦 = 16 𝑥 + 3 is the equation of the tangent line.

MTH107 T02
 6 3
Eg 2.1a) 𝑓 𝑥 = 𝑥 − 𝑥 . What is the 3rd degree Taylor polynomial, centred at 𝑥 = -2?

𝑓′′ −2 2
𝑓′′′ −2
𝑃3 𝑥 = 𝑓(−2) + 𝑓′ −2 (𝑥 − (−2)) + (𝑥 − (−2)) + (𝑥 − (−2))3
2! 3!
𝑓′′ −2 𝑓′′′ −2
= 𝑓(−2) + 𝑓′ −2 (𝑥 + 2) + (𝑥 + 2)2 + (𝑥 + 2)3
2! 3!

𝑓 ′ 𝑥 = 6𝑥 5 − 3𝑥 2
𝑓 ′′ 𝑥 = 30𝑥 4 − 6𝑥
𝑓 ′′ ′ 𝑥 = 120𝑥 3 − 6
𝑓(−2) = (−2)6 −(−2)3 = 72
The 3rd degree Taylor polynomial of 𝑓,
𝑓′ −2 =6(−2)5 −3(−2)2 = −204 centred at -2 is
𝑃3 𝑥
𝑓 ′′ −2 30(−2)4 −6(−2)
2!
=
(2)(1)
= 246 = 72 − 204 𝑥 + 2 + 246 𝑥 + 2 2
− 161(𝑥 + 2)3
𝑓 ′′′ −2 120(−2)3 −6
= = −161
3! (3)(2)(1)

MTH107 T02
Comments:

1. Use of the Taylor’s Theorem:

This theorem can be used to approximate functions like sine, exponential
and log using polynomials (which are easy to compute) and provides an
estimate of the error involved in the approximations).

2. If we can show that lim 𝑅𝑛 𝑥 = 0 , then we get a sequence of better and

𝑛→∞
better approximations to 𝑓, leading to the Taylor series for 𝑓. (see Section
2.3)

2. Connection with the Mean Value Theorem:

When 𝑛 = 0, Taylor’s Theorem reduces to the Mean Value Theorem.

MTH107 T02
Eg 2.2c)

MTH107 T02
Eg 2.2d) Estimating sin(0.4) using a Taylor polynomial centred at 0, what is the least
degree of the polynomial that assures an error smaller than 0.001?

Let 𝑓(𝑥) = sin 𝑥

𝑓 𝑥 = 𝑃𝑛 𝑥 + 𝑅𝑛 (𝑥)
sin(0.4) = 𝑃𝑛 0.4 + 𝑅𝑛 (0.4)
What is the smallest n such that |𝑅𝑛 (0.4)| < 0.001?

𝑓 𝑛+1 𝑐
𝑅𝑛 (𝑥) = (𝑛+1)!
(𝑥 − 0)𝑛+1 , for some 𝑐 between 0.4 and 0

𝑓𝑛+1 𝑐
𝑅𝑛 (0.4) = (0.4 − 0)𝑛+1
(𝑛+1)!

𝑓 𝑛+1 𝑐
| (𝑛+1)!
(0.4)𝑛+1 |< 0.001

MTH107 T02
 1
| (𝑛+1)! (0.4)𝑛+1 |< 0.001
since 𝑓(𝑥) = sin 𝑥 and all derivatives of 𝑠𝑖𝑛 𝑥 are between -1 and 1

0.44 0.45
By trial and error, we find that ≈0.001067, and ≈ 0.000085
4! 5!

So choose n+1 = 5. So n = 4.

So using 4th degree Taylor Polynomial centred at 0, the error of estimation for sin(0.4)
will be less than 0.001.

MTH107 T02
 Extension: How do we estimate sin(0.4)?
𝑓"(0) 𝑓 (3) (0) 𝑓 (4) (0)
𝑓(𝑥) ≈ 𝑃4 𝑥 = 𝑓 0 + 𝑓′ 0 𝑥−0 + 𝑥−0 2 + 𝑥−0 3 + 𝑥−0 4
2! 3! 4!
𝑓 𝑥 = sin 𝑥 , 𝑓 ′ 𝑥 = cos 𝑥 , 𝑓"(𝑥) = −sin(𝑥), 𝑓 (3) (𝑥) = −cos(𝑥), 𝑓 (4) (𝑥) = sin(𝑥)

𝑓 0 = sin 0 = 0 , 𝑓 ′ 0 = cos 0 = 1 , 𝑓"(0) = −sin(0) = 0, 𝑓 (3) 0 = − cos 0 = −1, 𝑓 (4) 0 = sin 0 = 0

′
𝑓"(0) 2
𝑓 (3) (0) 3+
𝑓 (4) (0)
4
𝑓(𝑥) ≈ 𝑃4 𝑥 = 𝑓 0 + 𝑓 0 𝑥 − 0 + 𝑥−0 + 𝑥−0 𝑥−0
2! 3! 4!
0 2
(−1) 3
0 4
=0 + 1 𝑥 + 𝑥 + 𝑥 + 𝑥
2! 3! 4!
𝑥3
=𝑥−
3!
sin 0.4 = 𝑓(0.4)
0.4 3
sin 0.4 ≈ 𝑃4 0.4 = 0.4 − = 0.3893 4𝑑𝑝 .
3!

Note that sin 0.4 = 0.3894 4 𝑑𝑝 on calculator

MTH107 T02
Eg 2.3b)

MTH107 T02
Eg 2.4a) Find the first three nonzero terms in the Taylor’s series about 0 for 𝑒 𝑥 ln(1 + 𝑥)

MTH107 T02
Eg 2.4b) Find the first 4 non-zero terms of the Taylor’s series for
1
𝑓(𝑥) = 4−𝑥
centred about 0, and its interval of
convergence.
1 1 1 1
𝑥 −1 1 𝑥 −1
= = = (1 − ) 2 = (1 + (− )) 2
4−𝑥 𝑥 𝑥 2 4 2 4
4 1− 4 1−
4 4
1 3 1 3 5
1 1 𝑥 − − 𝑥 2 − − − 𝑥 3
2 2 2 2 2
= [1 + − − + − + − + ⋯]
2 2 4 2! 4 3! 4

1 3 1 3 5
1 1 𝑥 −
2
−
2 𝑥 2 −
2
−
2
−
2 𝑥 3
= [1 + − − + − + − +…]
2 2 4 2! 4 3! 4

𝑥
Interval of convergence is −1 < (− 4) <1
x 𝑥
In other words, 1 > 4 ≻ −1 or − 1 < 4 < 1 or −4 < 𝑥 < 4
MTH107 T02
Eg 2.4b) Extension: Given
1
4−𝑥 ≈

1
How can we estimate using above series?
5
1 1
= so 𝑥 = −1 (which is within interval of convergence)
4−𝑥 5
1
≈
5

MTH107 T02
Eg 2.4c)

𝑥 2 +2𝑥 3 +𝑥 4 𝑥4
= 𝑥+ 𝑥2
[1 − + − ⋯]
6 120
2 𝑥 3 +3𝑥 4 2 𝑥2 𝑥4
≈ 𝑥+𝑥 − ≈𝑥+𝑥 − −
6 6 2

MTH107 T02
Eg 2.4d)

MTH107 T02