Early Child Development and Care

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Theorists and their developmental theories

Olivia N. Saracho & Roy Evans

To cite this article: Olivia N. Saracho & Roy Evans (2021) Theorists and their
developmental theories, Early Child Development and Care, 191:7-8, 993-1001, DOI:
10.1080/03004430.2021.1917266

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EARLY CHILD DEVELOPMENT AND CARE
2021, VOL. 191, NOS. 7–8, 993–1001
https://doi.org/10.1080/03004430.2021.1917266

Theorists and their developmental theories

a
Olivia N. Saracho and Roy Evansb
a
University of Maryland, College Park, MD, USA; bBrunel University, College Park, MD, USA

ABSTRACT
Major developmental theories been a resource to early childhood
education researchers and educators. They help to explain how child
development unfolds, sources of vulnerability and protection that
influences child development, and how the course of development may
be altered by prevention and intervention efforts. Understanding factors
which may support or compromise development and integrating this
knowledge into their work with children and their families are key to
supporting healthy developmental outcomes and creating trusting
partnerships with caregivers.

Theories of development
Theories of development offer a structure for considering how individuals develop and learn from
birth to adulthood. Knowledge of these theories can offer a valuable understanding of child devel-
opment including the children’s cognitive, emotional, physical, social, and educational development
from birth to adulthood. Many scientists, philosophers, and theorists consider that theories create
everlasting certainties about individuals when they are used to guide reasonable methods of teach-
ing and inquiry.
Valid and reliable forms of inquiry rely on theories that integrate the researchers’ empirical work
to existing knowledge about how to describe, explain, and enhance inter- and intra-individual differ-
ences (Lerner & Callina, 2013). Thus, theory guides the researchers’ methodological preferences,
which can include quantitative, qualitative, or mixed methods. These forms of inquiry contribute
to knowledge involving three realms: theory, research, and practice. According to Saracho
(2020b), ‘although these spheres often seem independent of one another, they are interrelated.
The process of knowledge generation is cyclical, rather than being deductive (top down) or linear
(one step always follows another). The forms all overlap. The process usually begins with a
problem or issue that needs to be studied through research; this research is driven by theory and
practice. The results also contribute to theory and practice, which then provide directions for
future research studies. This cyclical process is presented in Figure 1 (Saracho (2020b, p. 2).
Saracho (2020b) adds that, ‘By using knowledge generated in the past along with knowledge that
is being generated in the contemporary scene, we can best understand early childhood education
and serve the teachers and children who engage in it’ (p. 2). Recognizably really ‘stand on the
shoulders of giants’ (Spodek & Saracho, 2003), that is the theorists. For the purpose of this issue
only the theorists who are described in the issue will be discussed.
The developmental theorists discussed in this issue are Jean Piaget, Lev S. Vygotsky, Lawrence
Kohlberg, Urie Bronfenbrenner, Burrhus Frederic Skinner, Erik Homburger Erikson, Bruno Bettelheim,
and Alfred Adler. Therefore, this section provides an overview of theories.

CONTACT Olivia N. Saracho ons@umd.edu Teaching and Learning, Policy and Leadership, University of Maryland, 2311
Benjamin, College Park, MD 20742, USA
© 2021 Informa UK Limited, trading as Taylor & Francis Group
994 O. N. SARACHO AND R. EVANS

Figure 1. Interaction Process (Saracho, 2020, p. 2).

Each theory provides interpretations on the meaning of children’s development and behaviour.
While the theories are grouped together into schools of thought, there are variations within each
school. All of the above theorists have valid views that can be useful to consider. Many professionals
in children’s services believe in taking an eclectic approach to theory. By understanding each theor-
etical approach, researchers and educators can use parts of the theory, such as the context and the
situation need to be appropriate to provide further understanding.

Jean Piaget’s theory of cognitive development theory

Cognitive development refers to the children’s development in the way they process information
and acquire their intelligence, perception, and language abilities, which foster the children’s well-
being throughout the lifespan and cultivate their cognitive abilities (Tana, Gongb, & Tsang, 2021).
It is characterized as the development of the ability to be aware to know, understand, and commu-
nicate their understanding. Thus, cognitive development describes the way individuals understand
and think about their world. They use their reasoning, intelligence, language, and memory. The Swiss
psychologist Jean Piaget reinforced the present knowledge on cognition and had a leading influence
in establishing the theory of cognitive development.
During the twentieth century, Jean Piaget’s theory had an impact on the individuals’ cognitive
development. In the first part of the twenty-first century, Piaget continues to be a source for most
studies in cognitive development. His concepts continue to initiate innovative perspectives. In ‘Revi-
siting Piaget, His Contribution to South African Early Childhood Education,’ Ina Joubert and Giulietta
Domenica Harrison discussed the importance of a Piagetian theory in South African early childhood
and teacher education practices although their implementation of teaching and learning challenged
Piaget’s theory. However, they stated that there is some relevant and current literature within the
South African context that pertains to Piaget and his theories of learning. They go through the
South African perspectives and implementation of his theories. The authors reported that recently
 EARLY CHILD DEVELOPMENT AND CARE 995

Piaget has received much less attention in the South African because Vygotsky’s (1978) work has
been preferred (West, Joubert, & Du Preez, 2020).

Vygotsky’s sociocultural theory of cognitive development

Sociocultural theory focuses on the interaction between the individuals and the culture in their
environment. It indicates that human learning is mainly a social process. In the early twentieth
century, Lev Semenovich Vygotsky, a Russian psychologist, developed this theory that claimed
that cognitive development in early childhood is enhanced through social interaction with others.
He has been a groundbreaking theorist in establishing concepts concerning the children’s cognitive
development, interactionism, and sociocultural theory, among others. That is, children become
social learners before becoming cognitive thinkers who construct knowledge.
Vygotsky’s greatest contribution is his concept of Zone of Proximal Development (ZPD) relating to
the children’s cognitive development when they are able to perform by themselves. In this zone,
children can perform with the help of more developed thinkers. These are a type of scaffolding
that permit children to function and learn new proficiencies, which become part of the children’s
repertoires. Therefore, learning guides development instead of following it. He has influenced edu-
cational theories, specifically language and literacy education.
Although less known, Vygotsky has influenced the complexity theory. Jörg (2011) describes in his
book, New Thinking in Complexity for the Social Sciences and Humanities, how Vygotsky influenced his
writing and stated that Vygotsky may be considered ‘one of the first thinkers in complexity’ (p. 14).
Vygotsky (1986) believed that there was a methodological crisis in psychology; therefore, he stressed
the need for a ‘new science’, similar to the Kuhnian paradigm shift which Kuhn (1962) described in
his well-known book, The Structure of Scientific Revolutions, to establish a new theory or paradigm.
Even though Vygotsky was interested in the development of consciousness, self-regulation, and
abstract thought among children (Kirshner & Kellogg, 2009), he challenged linear causality, and
defended the idea of the transcendence of individual learning to focus on the generative possi-
bility of learning through social interactions. In this sense, learning and development was a func-
tion of interaction, emergence, and self-organization, which are dominant ideas of complexity in a
context of epistemological crisis in language studies (Robillard, 2008). In ‘Continuing the Heritage
of Vygotsky as a Complexivist: Insights from a Research Project Among Pre-primary Learners in
Mauritius,’ Shameem Oozeerally and Helina Hookoomsing present the findings of a research
project, that was conducted in 2016-2017, which explored and modelled the language ‘experien-
ciations’ (Engel, 2013) of early childhood learners in 13 pre-primary schools in the multilingual
island of Mauritius. A complexity case-study research design (Hetherington, 2013) was used to
approach the field. The findings of the project present the ways in which the young learners inte-
grate environmental, contextual and linguistic complexity in their own personal, yet socio-collec-
tive trajectories of learning. The results showed that they were able to navigate linguistic
complexities of their multilingual education systems, to construct their own learning. The
project put forward recommendations for the consideration of the complex linguistic multiplicity
of children and their settings in the early childhood curriculum and teacher-education courses
of Mauritius.
Societies have become more conscious of the importance of early socio-emotional skills for chil-
dren’s later success. In ‘Vygotsky’s Contributions to Understandings of Emotional Development
through Early Childhood Play,’ Yeshe Colliver and Nikolay Veraksa discussed the contributions
that Vygotsky and his advocates have made to provide an understanding of the young children’s
emotional development. They described how Vygotsky’s developmental theory is formed through
play and then proposed an extra social – individual dialectical relationship to explain emotional
development. The authors’ model presumed a special role that practitioners need to undertake to
enhance the children’s emotional development through play to allow children to understand and
experience their perezhivanie1 at an individual’s level that it goes beyond social to include many
996 O. N. SARACHO AND R. EVANS

cultures (e.g. when anger is admonished). This concept added to the literature on the adult’s active
role in educational play.
In the next article, ‘Vygotsky’s Theory In-Play: Early Childhood Education,’ Larry Smolucha and
Francine Smolucha discussed how Vygotsky’s theory of early childhood education is based upon
three concepts: first, the internalization of the verbal guidance of a more knowledgeable person;
second, teaching in the zone of proximal development; and third, the guided use of object substi-
tutions in pretend play. Extensive research in neurology, psychology, and education, demonstrated
the importance of interacting with infants and young children in these three ways. According to
Vygotsky, pretend play is the highest level of preschool functioning necessary for the development
of both abstract thinking and self-regulation. Vygotsky believed that the highest levels of abstract
thinking and self-regulation in preschool development are established in pretend play using
object substitutions. An extensive research literature supports Vygotsky’s empirical model of the
internalization of self-guiding speech (social speech > private speech > inner speech). Vygotsky
also introduced an entirely new way of assessing the child’s ability to learn by using the assistance
of a more knowledgeable person - the zone of proximal development. These concepts are funda-
mental to Vygotsky’s theory of how consciously directed mental functions develop as neurological
systems. The authors provided a chronology to clarify the out-of-sequence and often piecemeal pub-
lication of his writings, revealing their theoretical cohesiveness and integrity.
Many scholars are influenced by the theoretical contributions of Lev Vygotsky. Significant post-
Vygotskian scholarly writing highlights sociocultural perspectives of daily understanding, informal
learning as an important phenomenon. In ‘Contemporary principles to lead understandings of chil-
dren’s learning: Synthesizing Vygotsky, Rogoff, Wells and Lindfors,’ Helen Hedges discussed how
ideas of participatory learning, and knowledge building through participation and inquiry, are
included in the work of Barbara Rogoff, Gordon Wells and Judith Lindfors. Synthesizing their work
contributes to potential shifts in understanding the ways children learn that, in turn, might
influence early childhood education policies, practices, and outcomes. She proposed contemporary
principles reflecting current ways to understand and value young children’s learning based on the
concept of ‘working theories’. A recent construct in scholarship on children’s learning, working the-
ories recognize the fluid and changing trajectories of learning that children engage in to understand,
and participate more effectively in, their lives. In this way, shifts from traditional views of young chil-
dren’s learning to contemporary and complex understandings become a possibility.
Vygotsky has a unique disposition among the theorists of early childhood education. First, his
theory of early childhood education is a method for developing innovative creative adults who
will go on to explore new ideas in the arts, sciences, and the culture in general. His work has
guided the work of educational researchers and scholars (Smolucha & Smolucha, in this issue).

Kohlberg’s theory of moral development

Moral development refers to the progressive development of the individuals’ understanding of
wrong and right ethics, values, social attitudes and their behaviours from infancy to adulthood. A
theorist who explains the children’s moral development is Lawrence Kohlberg. Kohlberg’s theory
proposes that there are three levels of moral development: preconventional, conventional, and post-
conventional with each level splitting into two stages. Kohlberg suggested that people move
through these stages in a fixed order, and that moral understanding is linked to cognitive develop-
ment. Kohlberg agreed that a child needs to have developed cognitive strength in order to establish
an equal level of the awareness of morality.
Over several decades, Kohlberg’s theory of moral development has maintained a dominant pos-
ition in the cognitive moral development literature. This universal influence has been particularly
evident in its application to moral education and policy. This has contributed to more critical apprai-
sals of Kohlberg’s assertion relating to the universality of his model. A closer assessment of Kohl-
berg’s theoretical conceptualization suggested the application of universal assumptions masked
 EARLY CHILD DEVELOPMENT AND CARE 997

by Eurocentric values and possible unconscious bias. In ‘A Review of Kohlberg’s Theory and Its Appli-
cability in the South African Context through the Lens of Early Childhood Development and Vio-
lence,’ Lynne Goldschmidt, Malose Langa, Daleen Alexander and Hugo Canham examined the
relevance of Kohlberg’s theory of moral development in the South African context in relation to
early childhood development. In addition, through the example of violence in South Africa, they
showed how moral development occurred in ways that differed from Kohlberg’s theory. Whereas
they acknowledged the value of Kohlberg’s work, their assessment revealed a lack of support for
some areas. They found that moral reasoning is negotiated in context and thus needs to be under-
stood within the local socio-historical, cultural, and economic environment.

Urie Bronfenbrenner’s ecological theory

American psychologist, Urie Bronfenbrenner, developed the Ecological Systems Theory to describe
in what way the children’s inborn qualities and their environments join forces to impact their devel-
opment. He perceived that the ecology of human development showed the way the active, growing
human being interacted with the environment. He attempted to know the connection between the
children’s environment and the bigger surrounding settings. Bronfenbrenner concentrated on how
children understand their environments and their influence on the children’s development.
Urie Bronfenbrenner is best known for his theory on the ecology of human development. He was
interested in theory and the practical concerns related to early education and care of children and
the families and teachers who interacted with them. In ‘The Promise and the Practice of Early Child-
hood Educare in the Writings of Urie Bronfenbrenner,’ Jonathan R. H. Tudge, Jessica L. Navarro, and
Elisa A. Merçon-Vargas explained how his theory developed over the course of three phases and
influenced practice.

Burrhus Frederic Skinner behaviorism theory

Burrhus Frederic Skinner influence to learning psychology and developmental theory was brought
about from his proficient and debated use of learning theory to resolve applied learning, personal
adjustment, and social difficulties. He identified learning outcomes from directly observing
changes in children’s behaviour based on the modifications in the environment, which lead to
several contributions. Skinner formed his Skinnerian doctrine through his contributions from
which behaviour modification was founded. In the mid-1950s, he developed and improved learning
devices including teaching machines. In the late 1960s, he wrote programmed textbooks. In the
1970s, he proposed a plan for social control through operant conditioning (Spodek & Saracho, 1994).
Operant conditioning relies on behaviour. For example, rewards or reinforcers promote individ-
uals to replicate their actions after they run into a comparable situation. On the other hand, when
individuals encounter hurtful or merely unusable responses, the actions will reduce the repetitive
behaviour in the future. Rewards reinforce an act, while nonrewarding acts will be discontinued
or terminated entirely. Behaviourists consider a reward to be a reinforcer. A positive reinforcer
encourages the act to be repeated when a comparable circumstance takes place. Positive reinforcers
offer some amount of enjoyment to the learner. On the other hand, negative reinforcement is not
punishment instead it is the elimination of a hostile incentive from the environment to avoid a nega-
tive outcome or stimuli. Since punishment generates a hostile situation, it is usually considered to
decrease learning (Spodek & Saracho, 1994).
B. F. Skinner is considered to be one of the utmost renowned psychologist of the twentieth
century and his operant learning (conditioning) has influenced the comprehensive field of psychol-
ogy and other disciplines, such as education, neuroscience, and philosophy. Skinner’s discovery and
explanation of operant learning has provided an infinite influence on understanding behavioural
changes in infancy and childhood as well as the treatment of the children’s behavioural disorders.
In ‘The Impact of B. F. Skinner’s Science of Operant Learning on Early Childhood Research, Theory,
998 O. N. SARACHO AND R. EVANS

Treatment, and Care,’ Henry D. Schlinger described how Skinner’s discoveries and inventions have
provided a scientific understanding of the development of a typical child and how they have
influenced the significant advances in the education, treatment, and care of children. In that
regard, Skinner was one of the early childhood theorists.

Erik Erikson’s psychosocial developmental theory

Psychoanalytic theory influenced Erik Erikson who became an ego psychologist. His theory focused
on psychosocial development. He believed that the individuals’ development is based on their social
interactions with their social environment as they progress with age/stage (Erikson, 1968), which are
the following.
Stage 1: 0-1 1/2 years trust vs. mistrust
Stage 2: 1 ½-3 years autonomy vs. shame and doubt
Stage 3: 3-6 years initiative vs. guilt
Stage 4: 6 years – puberty industry vs. inferiority
Stage 5: Adolescence identity vs. role confusion
Stage 6: Young adulthood intimacy vs. isolation
Stage 7: Middle age generativity vs. stagnation
Stage 8: Old age ego identity vs. despair
Each stage describes a unique breaking point. Individuals try to resolve a problem before moving
to the following stage. They will not be able to solve the crisis in the new stage until they have
resolved the previous ones. Every single stage is connected to the ego’s proficiency that introduces
its condition at birth and accumulates throughout development (Erikson, 1963).
Erik Erikson’s work contributed to a new framework for early child development in the twentieth
century. He thought that young children’s development should include humanistic and phenomeno-
logical lens. Although many consider the influence of Erik Erikson’s contributions to education, his con-
tribution to the general theoretical concept of what it means to be a human being has been neglected.
In The Psychosocial Development Theory of Erik Erikson: Critical Overview,’ Jacobus G. Maree discusses
Erikson’s view on human and early child development. He providds a brief qualitative theoretical over-
view about Erikson’s biographical details, academic background, and work such as the emergence of
his psychosocial development theory and his unacknowledged contribution to the intertwined disci-
plines of self- and career counselling and life design-related science, practice, and profession. Jacobus
G. Maree concluded that by any standards, Erikson’s contributions to both education and psychology
were pioneering and ground-breaking, as attested to by numerous researchers and scholars.

Bruno Bettelheim theory of psychoanalytic development

Sigmund Freud’s founded psychoanalytic theory of personality development that has three distinc-
tive but essential configurations: the id, the ego, and the superego. Psychoanalytic theory focuses on
being conscious of stages merged with young children’s experiences. Freud’s psychoanalytic theory
had a wide impact on the thinking of psychologists, psychiatrist, and psychoanalysts. Although his
work was essentially with adults, he focused profoundly on reflections of childhood experiences. His
theory stressed the essential function of early childhood experiences in developing the individual’s
personality.
Freud’s knowledge of child development facilitated him to motivate various imperative fields of
child psychology (e.g. child psychiatry, counseling children and adolescents, nursery school teaching
methods, research in child development). Many psychologists, educators, and social workers have
acknowledged some concepts from Freudian theory. One of the most influential of these psychoana-
lysts was Eric Erikson and Bruno Bettelheim, a student of Freud’s psychoanalysis.
Bruno Bettelheim was an Austrian-born American psychologist recognized for his treatment and
education of emotionally disturbed children. He worked as both assistant professor of psychology at
 EARLY CHILD DEVELOPMENT AND CARE 999

the University of Chicago and head of the university’s Sonia Shankman Orthogenic School, a residen-
tial laboratory school for 6- to 14-year-old children who had severe emotional difficulties focusing on
autistic children. From 1947 until 1952, he used psychoanalytic principles to social problems, particu-
larly when rearing children. His work with children was published in books like Love Is Not Enough
(Bettelheim, 1950) and Truants from Life (Bettelheim, 1955). Bettelheim also used his research to
explore therapeutic treatments to assist emotionally disturbed children to behave appropriately
in social situations. He also provided several suggestions to use with normal children. For
example, in his book, The Uses of Enchantment, Bettelheim (1976) stated the significance of fairy
tales in child development. In ‘Bruno Bettelheim: Contradictions, Controversies and Continuities,’
Philip Garner discussed how the work of Bruno Bettelheim posed a range of challenges, in relation
to its meaning, relevance and general credibility in early childhood education. Philip Garner adopted
an English perspective to explore a thesis that Bettelheim’s work, although fragile in its scientific
grounding, had nevertheless held successive generations of educators in its thrall, allowing the
maintenance of a focus on the emotional dimension of education. Its importance in contributing
to progressing a ‘living theory’ which helped to inform the way that teachers engage with all lear-
ners, Philip Garner suggested that – in common with other historical figures in education – his
influence has gradually disintegrated, largely engrossed, demonstrating this with a set of snapshot
observations from two groups of teachers, whose initial teacher training is separated by over 40
years. Ultimately, he argued that Bettelheim’s contribution to practice should be celebrated for its
capacity to trigger a way of personalizing learning – at a time of increasing homogeneity in edu-
cation systems in England and worldwide.

Alfred Adler’s holistic theory of personality, psychopathology, and psychotherapy

Alfred Adler, a well-known philosopher and psychiatrist, emphasized the necessity to recognize indi-
viduals within their social setting. He thought that everybody had one basic yearning and goal: to
belong and to feel significant. Adler established the initial all-inclusive theory of personality, psycho-
pathology, and psychotherapy that related to a humanistic philosophy. His writing (books and
journal articles) support mental disorders, a profound understanding about the ability of healing,
and encouragement of optimum human development. Adler believed that individuals who feel
encouraged are able to behave accordingly. On the other hand, if they are discouraged, they may
behave in harmful manners by challenging, withdrawing, or surrendering. Individuals need to be
provided with means to communicate and receive encouragement, respect, and social interest
that support them to become fulfilled and optimistic. Adlerian theory has been useful in young chil-
dren’s development. Adlerians assumed that ‘a misbehaving child is a discouraged child’ whereas
children who sense that they are valued, important, and capable have the opposite behaviours.
Adlerians focused on understanding the individuals’ exclusive views and approaches (such as
one’s life style) that they experienced in childhood. Their cognitive schema and life style is their
source for attitudes, behaviours, and unique perception of self, others, and the world. As individuals
examine their first life experiences, behavioural patterns replicate throughout their lives, while
approaches they use to achieve worth and a sense of belonging that recovery, progress, and trans-
formation emerge. The Adlerian psychotherapist, Henry Stein, recommended that individuals need
unity, goal orientation, self-determination and uniqueness, social context, the feeling of community,
mental health, and treatment (Adler Graduate School, no date). In ‘The Contributions of Alfred Adler
(1870-1937) to the Understanding of Early Childhood Development,’ Enrique B. Arranz-Freijo and
Florencia Barreto-Zarza presented a biographical profile of Alfred Adler to show his influence on
the theoretical paradigms and research avenues of contemporary developmental psychology.
They discussed the important concepts of his theory: Feeling of Inferiority, Strive to Overcome,
Style of Life, Superiority Complex and Social Interest. The authors summarized Adler’s contributions
to humanistic psychology and neo-psychoanalysis, his influence on Vygotsky’s sociocultural theory
of cognitive development and Urie Bronfenbrenner ecological theory that are presently used in
1000 O. N. SARACHO AND R. EVANS

developmental psychology and his educational and public health-oriented approach, which focuses
on how social context influences childhood development. The authors also suggest avenues of
research for developmental psychology, including the impact of sibling relations on childhood
development, the importance of self-esteem and altruistic behaviour. Finally, Enrique B. Arranz-
Freijo and Florencia Barreto-Zarza proposed the use of a holistic model to advance the study of
human psychological development.

Summary
The theories discussed in this section draw upon the theorists’ perceptions on child development.
Developmental theories provide early childhood education researchers and educators with infor-
mation concerning the children’s interests and abilities at different age levels. This information
guides researchers and educators in knowing about the children’s potentials and ability levels
based on their age. They also identify developmental norms, which are comprehensive statements
about the children’s development. A norm is only an average of the individuals’ traits, but it does not
be accurately describe every child. Although children are similar in numerous ways, they differ from
each other in important ways. Therefore, children need to viewed individually and compare them to
the developmental norms prior to implementing a research or educational programme and setting
up expectations (Saracho, 2020a).

Note
1. The Russian word, perezhivanie, is derived from two root components pere, meaning ‘through’, and zhivat and
zhiv, meaning ‘to live’. Perezhivanie therefore expresses an idea of ‘lived through’ experience. (Michel, 2016, p. 6).

Disclosure statement
No potential conflict of interest was reported by the author(s).

Notes on contributors
Olivia N. Saracho is Professor of Education in the Department of Curriculum and Instruction at the University of Mary-
land. She has conducted many studies in the area of play focusing on areas such as literacy, cognitive style and many
others. She is widely published in the field of early childhood education. She is editor of the Handbook of Research on
the Education of Young Children, 4th ed. (2021, Routledge) and the series on Contemporary Perspectives in Early Child-
hood Education (Information Age). She is the author of An integrated play-based curriculum for young children (2021,
Routledge).
Roy Evans is Editor in Chief of Early Child Development and Care, a position he has held since 1977. He is Visiting Pro-
fessor of Early Childhood Education in the School of Education at the University of Northampton. Prior to his retirement
from full time work, Roy was Professor of Education and Head of the School of Education at Brunel University, London.
Since the late 1960s, he has authored numerous books in the field of early childhood and special education, published
regularly in various scholarly journals, and lectured internationally on the social integration of young children and fea-
tures of the environment which represent risks to children's normal development. In 1999, the Royal Society of Arts
recognized Roy for his scholarly research and publications; therefore, the Society elected him to be a Fellow of the
Royal Society for the Encouragement of Arts, Manufactures and Commerce (FRSA), which is awarded to scholars in
the world that the Royal Society of Arts (RSA) identifies and determines to have made important achievements to
social progress and development. He is also Chief International Editor of the International Journal of Adolescence
and Youth, a journal that publishes research on adolescents and youth across international contexts.

ORCID
Olivia N. Saracho http://orcid.org/0000-0003-4108-7790
 EARLY CHILD DEVELOPMENT AND CARE 1001

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