ALIGNMENTS

j) Alignment

There are two types of alignment: the vertical alignment and the horizontal alignment.

Vertical Alignment

The vertical alignment of a transportation facility consists of tangent grades (straight lines in the
vertical plane) and vertical curves.

i) Tangent grades

Tangent grades are identified by their slopes or grades which could be steep or mild. However,
the steeper and longer the slope is, the more slowly the heavier vehicles move which also has the
effect of raising or increasing operating cost.

However, the choice of grade for a given facility is a matter of judgment based mainly on choice
of construction and speed.

Table 2.4 Recommended standards for maximum grades (%)

Type of terrain Freeways Rural highways Urban Highways

Level 3-4 3-5 5-8

Rolling 4-5 5-6 6-9

Mountainous 5-6 5-8 8 - 11

ii) Vertical curves

Vertical curves are provided between points of change of grade so as to prevent an abrupt
transition from one grade to another for the vehicle. They are normally parabolic or circular arcs
centered about the point of intersection of the vertical tangents they join.

1
There are two types of vertical curves namely summit curves and valley curves.

a) Summit curves

These can be grouped into three categories. The first category consists of curves in which an
ascending gradient meets with a descending gradient. The second category consists of curves in
which a descending gradient meets with another but larger descending gradient. The third
category consists of curves in which an ascending gradient meets with a horizontal path.

-g1%

-g2%
+g1%
b) -g2%

a)
g2% = 0

+g1%
c)

Figure 2.12 Summit curves

The minimum lengths of vertical curves can be calculated based on sight distances. The
equations used for this depend on whether the sight distance is greater than or less than the
vertical curve length. For crest vertical curves, the minimum length depends on the sight
distance, the height of the driver’s eye and the height of the object to be seen over the crest of the
curve.

The minimum length of vertical curve is given by:

AS2/[200(√h1 + √h2)2] when S < L

2
L=

2S – [200(√h1 + √h2)2]/A when S > L

where S – stopping sight distance

L – vertical curve length

A – absolute value of the algebraic difference in grades in percent

h1 – height of eye (normally taken as 1.2m)

h2 – height of object (normally taken as 0.15m)

Example

Determine the minimum length of crest vertical curve between a +0.5 percent and -1.0 percent
grade for a road with 100km/hr design speed. The vertical curve must provide 190m stopping
sight distance.

Stopping sight distance criterion:

First assume S < L ;

L = AS2/[200(√h1 + √h2)2] = [0.5-(-1.0)]1902/[200(√1.2 + √0.15)2]

= 123.15m (< 190m)

this means that S > L;

: . L = 2S – [200(√h1 + √h2)2]/A = 2 x 190 – [200(√1.2 + √0.15)2]/ [0.5-(-1.0)]

= 86.86m

b) Valley curves

These can also be grouped into three categories. The first category consists of curves in which a
descending gradient meets with an ascending gradient. The second category consists of curves in

3
which an ascending gradient meets with another but larger ascending gradient. The third
category consists of curves in which a descending gradient meets with a horizontal path.

+g2% +g2%

-g1%

a) b) +g1%

-g1%

g2% = 0
c)

Figure 2.13 Valley curves

For sag vertical curves, the stopping sight distance is based on the distance illuminated by the
headlights at night. Design standards are based on an assumed headlight height of 0.6m and an
upward divergence of the headlight beam of 1 degree. The minimum length of sag vertical curve
depends on whether the length of the curve is greater or less than the sight distance.

For sag vertical curves, the formula is:

AS2/200[0.6 + S (tan1°)] = AS2/(120 + 3.5S) when S < L

L=

2S – [200(0.6 + S (tan1°))/A] = 2S – (120 + 3.5S/A) when S > L

4
Example

Design a valley curve at the junction of a downward gradient of 2.5 percent (-2.5%) and an
upward gradient of 1.0 percent (+1.0%) from headlight consideration. The vertical curve is to
provide a stopping sight distance of 180m.

Solution:

A = 1.0 – (-2.5) = 3.5%

First assume S < L;

L = AS2/ (120 + 3.5S) = 3.5(1802)/[120 + (3.5 x 180)] = 151.20m

This means that S > L;

: . L = 2S – (120 + 3.5S/A) = (2 x 180) – [(120 + 3.5(180))/3.5] = 145.71m

Horizontal Alignment

This consists of horizontal tangents and horizontal curves.

i) Horizontal curves

There are two major types of horizontal curves namely circular curves and transition curves.

a) Circular curves

Circular curves are divided into the following three groups:

 Simple curves
 Compound curves
 Reverse or serpentine curves

5
 Simple curves: These are curves of single radius connecting two straights called the tangents.
The sharpness of these curves is determined by the radius of curvature. Simple curves are
provided at places where there is more slow movement of traffic.
 Compound curves: A compound curve is defined as a combination of two simple circular
curves of different radii turning in the same direction and joining at a common junction.
 Reverse or serpentine curves: This is defined as a compound curve having two circular arcs
of the same or different radii but curving in opposite directions and with a common tangent.

O2
Compound
Reverse curve

R2

R1
R1
R2
O1 O1

O2

a) Compound curve b) Reverse curve

Figure 2.14 Horizontal curves

b) Transition curves

This is a curve introduced between a straight and a circular curve or between two branches of
a compound curve or reverse curve. It is a curve with varying radius and is sometimes called the
spiral or easement curve. It is provided on either side of a circular curve to form a composite
curve.

6
In order to fit the transition curve, the main circular curve is to be moved inwards by a certain
distance. This distance is called the shift and is given by the formula:

Shift = Ls2/ 24R where Ls – length of transition curve; R – radius of circular curve

Circular
curve

Transition curve Transition curve

Shift Shift
R
Tangent line R Tangent line

Figure 2.15 Transition curve

The length of transition curve can be determined by using the rate of change of radial
acceleration. At the tangent point, the radial acceleration v 2/R is zero as the radius R is infinite
but at the end of the transition curve, the radius R is minimum. Therefore, the centrifugal
acceleration is distributed over the transition length L s. The centrifugal acceleration should
develop at such a rate that it will not cause discomfort to the passengers of a vehicle traveling at
the design speed v m/sec. Hence, the larger the length of transition curve, the lower the rate of
centrifugal acceleration introduced.

Let t – time in seconds taken to traverse the transition length

v – design speed in m/sec

c – rate of change of centrifugal acceleration

: . t = Ls/v ……………………….. (1)

The maximum centrifugal acceleration is given by v2/R

7
: . c = (v2/R) x 1/t = v2/Rt …………………….(2)

Substituting equation (1) in (2):

c = v3/ LsR in m/sec3

: . Ls = v3/ cR

If the design speed is in km/hr, then

: . Ls = V3/ 46.65cR

Example

Calculate the length of transition curve and shift given the following data:

Design speed, V – 70 km/hr

Radius of circular curve – 230m

Allowable rate of change of centrifugal acceleration – 0.6 m/sec3

Solution

Length of transition curve, Ls = V3/ 46.5cR = (70)3/ (46.5 x 0.6 x 230)

= 53.45m

Shift = Ls2/ 24R = (53.5)2/ (24 x 230) = 0.519m

= 0.52m (approx.)

k) Super-elevation

This is the process in which the outer edge of the pavement surface in a horizontal curve is raised
at an inclination relative to the inner edge. This is to reduce or eliminate the centrifugal force

8
acting on a fast moving vehicle negotiating the curve. The force has the ability of affecting the
side sway stability of the vehicle.

Derivation of the equation for super-elevation

For a vehicle negotiating a curve, the forces acting on it are as shown below:

P B
Vehicle

AB
W
Ө
A
O
OA
Figure 2.16 Vehicle negotiating an elevated horizontal curve

Let B, Ө, W, P, g and f be the width of road, angle of inclination of the pavement surface,
weight of vehicle, centrifugal force, acceleration due to gravity and coefficient of friction. The
components of the weight and centrifugal forces acting on the vehicle are as shown below in
figure 10:
P cos Ө

P sin Ө
B
Vehicle P

AB
W cos Ө
Ө W
A
O
OA
W sin Ө
Figure 2.17 Component of forces acting on vehicle negotiating an elevated
horizontal curve
Let RA, RB - normal reactions at the wheels A and B

FA, FB - frictional force between the wheels and road surface

P = Wv2/Rg

9
RA = W cos Ө

RB = P sin Ө

FA = f W cos Ө

FB = f P sin Ө

Based on the equilibrium of forces:

Pcos Ө = Wsin Ө + FA + FB

: . Pcos Ө - Wsin Ө = f Wcos Ө + f P sin Ө

Dividing through by Wcos Ө:

: . Pcos Ө/ Wcos Ө - Wsin Ө/ Wcos Ө = f Wcos Ө/ Wcos Ө + f P sin Ө/ Wcos Ө

: . Wv2/RgW - tan Ө = f + f P/W tan Ө

ef is considered to be very small compared to e and f so it is neglected:

: . v2/Rg - tan Ө = f

: . v2/Rg = f + e

: . [R = v2/g (f + e)]

The maximum rates of superelevation recommended by AASHTO for rural roadways is 12% and
for urban roads is 6% OR 4%

Example :

1. If the maximum values of super elevation is 1 in 15 and f = 0.15, calculate the permissible
speed on a curve of radius 180m. Solution:

e + f = v2/127R

10
e = 1/15 = 0.067; f = 0.15, R = 180m

substituting;

0.067 + 0.15 = v2/127 x 180

: . v2 = 4960.62

v = √4960.62

= 70.43 say 70kmph

APPLICATION OF DEMAND AND SERVICE FUNCTION TO

TRANSPORTATION SYSTEM

Modeling Transportation Systems:

Preliminary Concepts and Application Areas

1.1 Introduction

Transportation systems consist not only of the physical and organizational elements that interact
with each other to produce transportation opportunities, but also of the demand that takes
advantage of such opportunities to travel from one place to another. This travel demand, in turn,
is the result of interactions among the various economic and social activities located in a given
area. Mathematical models of transportation systems represent, for a real or hypothetical
transportation system, the demand flows, the functioning of the physical and organizational
elements, the interactions between them, and their effects on the external world. Mathematical
models and the methods involved in their application to real, large-scale systems are thus
fundamental tools for evaluating and/or designing actions affecting the physical elements (e.g., a
new railway) and/or organizational components (e.g., a new timetable) of transportation systems.

1.2 Transportation Systems

A transportation system can be defined as a set of elements and the interactions between them
that produce both the demand for travel within a given area and the provision of transportation
services to satisfy this demand. Almost all of the components of a social and economic system in
a given geographical area interact at some level of intensity. However, in practice it is impossible
to consider every interacting element when addressing a given transportation engineering
problem.
The general approach of systems engineering is to isolate the elements most relevant to a
problem at hand, and to group these elements and the relationships be-tween them within the
analysis system. The remaining elements are assigned to the external environment; they are
considered only in terms of their interactions with the analysis system. In general, the analysis
system includes the elements and interactions that an action under consideration may
significantly affect. Hence there is a strong interdependence between the identification of the
analysis system and the problem to be solved.

11
The transportation system of a given area can also be seen as a subsystem of a wider territorial
system with which it strongly interacts. The details of the specific problem determine the extent
to which these interactions are included either in the analysis system or the external environment.
These concepts can be clarified by some examples. Consider an urban area consisting of a set of
households, workplaces, services, transportation facilities, government organizations,
regulations, and so on. This system has a hierarchical structure and, within it, several subsystems
can be identified (see Fig. 1.1).
One of the subsystems – the activity system – represents the set of individual, social, and
economic behaviors and interactions that give rise to travel demand. To describe the geographic
distribution of activity system features, the urban area is
typically subdivided into geographic units called zones. The activity system can be further
broken down into three subsystems consisting of:

• The households living in each zone, categorized by factors such as income level, life-cycle,
composition, and the like
• The economic activities located in each zone, categorized by a variety of socio-economic
indicators (e.g., sector of activity; value added; number of employees)
• The real estate system, characterized by the floor space available in each zone for various uses
(industrial production, offices, building areas, etc.) and the associated market prices The different
components of the activity system interact in many ways. For ex-ample, the number and types of
households living in the various zones depend in part on employment opportunities and their
distribution, and therefore on the eco-nomic activity subsystem. Furthermore, the location of
some types of economic activities (retail, social services such as education and welfare, etc.)
depends on the geographic distribution of the households. Finally, the number of households and
the intensity of economic activities in each zone depend on the availability of specific types of
floor space (houses, shops, etc.) and on their relative prices.
Detailed analy-sis of the mechanisms underlying each subsystem of the activity system lies
beyond the scope of this book. However, it should be noted that the relative accessibility of the
different zones is extremely relevant to many of these mechanisms. Another subsystem – the
transportation system – consists of two main compo-nents: demand and supply. Travel demand
derives from the need to access urban functions and services in different places and is
determined by the distribution of households and activities in the area.
Household members make long-term “mobility choices” (holding a driving license, owning a
car, etc.) and short-term “travel choices” (trip frequency, time, destination, mode, path,1 etc.),
and use the transportation network and services so that they can undertake different activities
(work, study, shopping, etc.) in different locations. These choices result in travel demand flows,
that is, the trips made by people between the different zones of the city, for different purposes, in
different periods of the day, by means of the different available transportation modes.
Simi-larly, economic activities require the transportation of goods that are consumed by other
activities or by households. Goods are moved between production plants, re-tail locations, and
houses or other “final consumption” sites. Their movements make
up freight travel demand and corresponding flows. Both mobility and travel choices are
influenced by the characteristics of the transportation services offered by the available travel
modes (such as private vehicles,
transit, walking). These characteristics are known as level of service or performance attributes;
they include travel times, monetary costs, service reliability, riding com-fort, and the like. For

12
instance, the choice of destination may be influenced by the travel time and cost needed to reach
each alternative destination; the choice of departure time depends on the travel time to the
destination and the desired arrival time; and the choice of transportation mode is influenced by
the time, cost and reliability of the available modes.

1.3 Transportation System Identification

Transportation system identification is the definition of the elements and relation-ships that make
up the system to be analyzed. It includes the following steps.
• Identification of relevant spatial dimensions
• Identification of relevant temporal dimensions
• Definition of relevant components of travel demand
Some comments on the different steps are given below. However, it should be stated at the outset
that system identification cannot be reduced to the mere application of a set of rigid rules.
Rather, it requires the application of professional expertise, which is acquired by combining
experience with a thorough knowledge of the methods of transportation systems engineering.

1.3.1 Relevant Spatial Dimensions

The identification of relevant spatial dimensions consists of three phases:
• Definition of the study area
• Subdivision of the area into traffic zones (zoning)
• Identification of the basic network
These three phases necessarily precede the building of any model of the transportation system
because they define the spatial extent of the system and its level of spatial aggregation.

Study Area
This phase delineates the geographical area that includes the transportation system under analysis
and encompasses most of the project effects. First, the analyst must consider the decision-making
context and the type of relevant trips: commuting, leisure, and so on (see Sect. 1.3.3). Most trips
of interest should have their origin and destination inside the study area. Similarly, the study area
should include transportation facilities and services that are likely to be affected by the
transportation
project. As one example, the study area for a new traffic scheme should include possible
alternative roads for rerouting; as another, the study area for a new infrastructure project should
include locations where the number of trips starting or ending may change due to variations in
accessibility. The limit of the study area is the area boundary. Outside this boundary is the
external area, which is only considered through its connections with the analysis system. For
instance, the study area might be a whole country if the transportation project is at a national
level; alternatively, it may be a specific urban area, or part of an urban area for a traffic
management project.

Zoning
In principle, the trips undertaken in a given area may start and end at a large number of points.
To model the system, it is necessary to subdivide the study area (and possibly portions of the
external area) into a number of discrete geographic units called traffic analysis zones (TAZs).
Trips between two different traffic zones are known as interzonal trips, whereas intrazonal trips
are those that start and end within the same zone. In most transportation models, all trips that

13
start or end within a zone are rep-resented as if their terminal points were at a single fictitious
node called the zone centroid, located in the zone near the geographic “center of gravity” of the
full set of actual trip terminal points that it represents. In this representation, intrazonal trips both
start and end at the same centroid location, so their effects on the network cannot be modeled.
Zoning can have different levels of detail, that is, a coarser or finer grain. For example, traffic
zones may consist of entire cities or groups of cities in a regional or national model, or of one or
a few blocks in urban traffic model.
For a given model, the density of zoning should approximately correspond to the density of the
relevant network elements: a denser set of network elements corresponds to a finer zoning and
vice versa (see Fig. 1.2). For example, if the urban system includes public transportation, it is
common practice to consider smaller traffic zones than for a system including only individual
cars. This allows walking access to transit stops and/or stations to be realistically represented in
terms of the distance from the zone centroid.
The external area is usually subdivided into larger traffic zones. External zones represent trips
that use the study area’s transportation system but start or end outside of the study area itself.
External zones are also represented by zone centroids sometimes called stations.
For a given study area and analysis problem, there may be several possible zoning systems.
However, some general guidelines are usually followed.
• Physical geographic separators (e.g., rivers, railway lines, etc.) are convention- ally used as
zone boundaries because they prevent “diffuse” connections between portation facilities and
services.
• Traffic zones are often defined as aggregations of official administrative areas (e.g., census
geographic units, municipalities, or provinces). This allows each zone to be associated with the
statistical data (population, employment, etc.) usually available for such areas.
• A different level of zoning detail may be adopted for different parts of the study area depending
on the precision needed. For example, smaller zones may be used in the vicinity of a specific
facility (e.g., a new road, railway, etc.) for which traffic flows and impacts must be predicted
more precisely.
• A traffic zone should group connected portions of the study area that are relatively
homogeneous with respect both to their land use (e.g., residential or commercial uses in urban
areas; industrial or rural uses in outlying areas) and to their acces- sibility to transportation
facilities and services.

Basic Network
The set of physical elements represented for a given application is called the basic network. For
example, in urban road systems, the road sections and their main traffic regulations such as one-
way, no turn, and the like are indicated (see Fig. 1.3).
For scheduled service systems, the infrastructure over which the service is operated (road
sections, railways, etc.) will be indicated, together with the main stops or stations, the lines
operating along the physical sections, and so on.
The facilities and services included in the network might relate to one or to several transportation
modes. The former is referred to as a single mode system and the latter as a multimodal system.

Relevant facilities and services are identified based on their role in connecting the traffic zones
in the study area and the external zones. This implies a close interdependence between the
identification of the basic network and zone systems. Facilities and services may also be

14
included according to their relationship to the transportation alternatives under consideration.
Because the flows on network elements resulting from intrazonal trips are not modeled, very fine
zoning with a coarse basic network will probably cause overestimation of the traffic flows on the
included network elements. Conversely, a very detailed basic network with coarse zoning may
lead to underestimation of some traffic flows. Identification of the relevant elements is obviously
easier when all the services and facilities play a role in connecting traffic zones, as may be the
case, for example, for a national airways network. In the case of road networks, only a subset of
roads is relevant in connecting the different zones. In urban areas, for example, local roads are
usually excluded from the basic network of the whole area, although they may be included in the
basic networks of spatially limited subsystems (a neighborhood or part of it). Similarly, when
dealing with a whole region, most of the roads within each city will not be included in the basic
network.

1.4 Modeling Transportation Systems

Design and evaluation require the quantification of interactions among the elements of existing
and potential future transportation systems. Values of some elements of existing transportation
systems may be obtained from direct measurement, however, it is usually very costly to extend
such measurements to all the elements involved.
Moreover, proposed future transportation systems obviously cannot be measured. Hence
modeling plays a central role in the design and evaluation of transportation systems. The
mathematical models that are described in the following chapters allow representation and
analysis of the interactions among the various elements of a transportation system. It is worth
giving an overview here of the various classes of models that make up the system of models used
to analyze an actual transportation system.
Supply models, described in Chap. 2, represent the transportation service pro-vided to travel
between the different zones; network flow models are frequently used for this purpose. More
specifically, supply models represent the performance of transportation facilities and services for
the users, and also determine the external impacts (pollution, energy consumption, accidents) of
this use (these are sometimes called impact models). The resulting level of service attributes,
such as travel time and cost, are input variables for demand models. To predict the performance
of single elements (facilities) and the effects of congestion, especially for road systems, supply
models often use the results of traffic flow theory, which is briefly described in Chap. 2.
Moreover, network models are used to represent the travel opportunities between different
locations, and/or the relationships between different trip phases.
Demand models predict the relevant aspects of travel demand as a function of the activity system
and of the level of service provided by the supply system. Demand characteristics typically
predicted include the number of trips in the reference period (demand level) and their distribution
between different time intervals within the reference period, among different points, different
transportation modes, and possible paths. Demand models, described in Chap. 4, can be applied
to passenger as well as to freight demand. Travel demand models are usually derived from
random utility theory, described in Chap. 3. Analysis and design of transportation systems
require the estimation of present demand and the forecasting of future demand. These estimates
and forecasts can be obtained using different sources of information and statistical procedures.
To estimate present demand, surveys can be conducted, typically by interviewing a sample of
users. From such surveys, direct estimates of the demand can be derived using results from
sampling theory. Alternatively, the demand (present or future) can be estimated using models

15
similar to those that are described in Chap. 4. Model-based estimates require that models be
specified (i.e., the functional form and the variables are defined), calibrated (i.e., the unknown
model coefficients are determined), and validated (i.e., the ability to reproduce available data is
verified). Model estimation procedures are presented in Chap. 8.
Assignment models (or network demand–supply interaction models), studied in Chaps. 5 and 6,
predict how O-D demand and path flows will use the various elements of the supply system.
Assignment models allow the calculation of link flows, that is, the number of users using each
link of the network that represents transportation supply in the reference period. Furthermore,
link flows may affect the performance of particular transportation facilities through congestion,
and therefore may affect the input to demand models. The mutual interdependencies of demand,
flows, and costs are captured by assignment models and are addressed in Chaps. 5, 6 and 7. The
models described in this book are based on general assumptions already introduced in the
previous sections of this chapter. They are summarized below.

16