Elecronics Workshop Manual

DEPARTMENT OF ELECTRONICS & COMMUNICATION ENGINEERING
SREE CHITRA THIRUNAL COLLEGE OF ENGINEERING, PAPPANAMCODE, TVM-18
EC110 ELECTRONICS ENGINEERING

WORKSHOP
MANUAL
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CONTENTS
Topic Page No.

1. Syllabus...........................................................3
2. Experiment-1..................................................4
3. Experiment-2..................................................33
4. Experiment-3..................................................43
5. Experiment-4..................................................53
6. Experiment-5..................................................56
7. Experiment-6..................................................67
8. Experiment-7..................................................86
9. Experiment-8..................................................95
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SYLLABUS
1. Familiarization/Identification of electronic components with specification
(Functionality, type, size, colour coding, package, symbol, cost etc. [Active, Passive,
Electrical, Electronic, Electro-mechanical, Wires, Cables, Connectors, Fuses,
Switches, Relays, Crystals, Displays, Fasteners, Heat sink etc.)
2. Drawing of electronic circuit diagrams using BIS/IEEE symbols and introduction to
EDA tools, Interpret data sheets of discrete components and IC’s, Estimation and
costing.
3. Familiarization/Application of testing instruments and commonly used tools.
[Multimeter, Function generator, Power supply, CRO etc.] [Soldering iron, De-
soldering pump, Pliers, Cutters, Wire strippers, Screw drivers, Tweezers, Crimping
tool, Hot air soldering and desoldering station etc.]
4. Testing of electronic components [Resistor, Capacitor, Diode, Transistor, UJT and
JFET using multimeter.]
5. Inter-connection methods and soldering practice. [Bread board, Wrapping, Crimping,
Soldering - types - selection of materials and safety precautions, soldering practice in
connectors and general purpose PCB, Crimping.]
6. Printed circuit boards (PCB) [Types, Single sided, Double sided, PTH, Processing
methods, Design and fabrication of a single sided PCB for a simple circuit with manual
etching (Ferric chloride) and drilling.]
7. Assembling of electronic circuit/system on general purpose PCB, test and show the
functioning(Any Four circuits)
o Fixed voltage power supply with transformer, rectifier diode, capacitor filter,
zener/IC regulator.
o LED blinking circuit using a stable multi-vibrator with transistor BC 107.
o Square wave generation using IC 555 timer in IC base.
o Sine wave generation using IC 741 OP-AMP in IC base.
o RC coupled amplifier with transistor BC 107. 6. AND and NAND gates in
diode transistor logic.
8. Familiarization of electronic systems ( Any three systems)
o Setting up of a PA system with different microphones, loud speakers, mixer
etc.
o Assembling and dismantling of desktop computer/laptop/mobile phones.
o Coil/Transformer winding.
o Identify the subsystems of TV, DTH, CCTV, Cable TV, CRO, Function
generator etc.
o Screen printing and PCB pattern transfer
o Soldering & de-soldering of SMD using hot air soldering station.
o Introduction to robotics- Familiarization of components (motor, sensors,
battery etc.) used in robotics and assembling of simple robotic configurations.
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Exercise/Experiment No 1
Familiarization/Identification of electronic components with specification (Functionality,

type, size, colour coding, package, symbol, cost etc. [Active, Passive, Electrical,
Electronic, Electro-mechanical, Wires, Cables, Connectors, Fuses, Switches, Relays,
Crystals, Displays, Fasteners, Heat sink etc.)
Aim:
To familiarize with various active and passive components used in electronics

laboratories.
Theory
All electrical components can be divided into two main categories as active and passive
devices. The categorization is based on components’ capability to produce energy to the circuit.
If any component delivers the power to the circuit, it belongs to the active components
category. If the component utilizes energy, it is called a passive element.
Active Components
Any component that is capable of providing a power gain is called an active component.
They inject power to the circuit, and can control the current (or energy) flow within the circuit.
Some examples for active devices are battery, vacuum tubes, transistor and SCR (silicon
controlled rectifier / thyristor).
Passive Components
Components that cannot provide any power gain to the circuit are called passive
devices. These devices are incapable of controlling the current (energy) flow in the circuit and
need the help of active devices to operate. Some examples for passive devices are resistors,
inductors and capacitors.
Although passive components cannot amplify a signal with a gain more than one, they
can multiply a signal by a value less than one. They also can oscillate, phase shift and filter
signals. Some passive components also have the capability to store energy (drawn from an
active element) and release later. Example: capacitors and inductors.
Passive Components
a) Resistors
The resistor is a passive component that opposes the flow of electrical current through
it. The amount of opposition to the flow of current is called the resistance of the resistor and is
denoted by the symbol “R“. Resistance is a measure of how easily or how difficult electrons
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can flow through a particular path in an electrical circuit and is expressed as a value in units
called Ohms.
One Ohm is the value of resistance that arises when a current of one ampere flows
through a resistor that has one volt across its terminals. Then the resistance of a resistor can be
defined in terms of the voltage drop across the resistor and the current flowing through the
resistor as related by Ohm’s law:
Where: R is the resistance, V is the voltage across the resistor, and I is the current flowing
through the resistor. This relationship between the voltage and current called the V-I
relationship in a resistor is linear in both DC and AC circuits.
The power absorbed by a resistor is represented by:
An ideal resistor will dissipate electrical energy without storing it as electric charge or as
magnetic energy.
Types of Resistors
There are two basic types of resistors.
1) Linear Resistors
2) Non Linear Resistors
1. Linear Resistors:
Those resistors, which values change with the applied voltage and temperature, are
called linear resistors. In other words, a resistor, which current value is directly proportional to
the applied voltage is known as linear resistors.
Generally, there are two types of resistors which have linear properties.
1. 1. Fixed Resistors
1. 2. Variable Resistors
1. 1. Fixed Resistors
Fixed resistor is a resistor which has a specific value and we can’t change the value of
fixed resistors.
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Types of Fixed resistors.
a) Carbon Composition Resistors
b) Wire Wound Resistors
c) Thin Film Resistors
d) Thick Film Resistors
1. 1. a) Carbon Composition Resistors
A typical fixed resistor is made from the mixture of granulated or powdered carbon or
graphite, insulation filler, or a resin binder. The ratio of the insulation material determines the
actual resistance of the resistor. The insulating powder (binder) made in the shape of rods and
there are two metal caps on the both ends of the rod.
There are two conductor wires on the both ends of the resistor for easy connectivity in
the circuit via soldering. A plastic coat covers the rods with different color codes (printed)
which denote the resistance value. They are available in 1 ohm to 25 mega ohms and in power
rating from ¼ watt to up to 5 Watts.
1. 1. b) Wire wound Resistors
Wire wound resistor is made from the insulating core or rod by wrapping around a
resistive wire. The resistance wire is generally Tungsten, manganin, Nichrome or nickel or
nickel chromium alloy and the insulating core is made of porcelain, Bakelite, press bond paper
or ceramic clay material.
The manganin wire wound resistors are very costly and used with the sensitive test
equipments e.g. Wheatstone bridge, etc. They are available in the range of 2 watts up to 100
watt power rating or more. The ohmic value of these types of resistors is 1 ohm up to 200k
ohms or more and can be operated safely up to 350°C.
In addition, the power rating of a high power wire wound resistor is 500 Watts and the
available resistance value of these resistors are is 0.1 ohm – 100k Ohms.
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1. 1. c) Thin Film Resistors
Basically, all thin film resistors are made of from high grid ceramic rod and a resistive
material. A very thin conducting material layer overlaid on insulating rod, plate or tube which
is made from high quality ceramic material or glass. There are two further types of thin film
resistors.
● Carbon Film Resistors

● Metal Film Resistors
Carbon Film Resistors
Carbon Film resistors contains on an insulating material rod or core made of high grade
ceramic material which is called the substrate. A very thin resistive carbon layer or film
overlaid around the rod. These kinds of resistors are widely used in electronic circuits because
of negligible noise and wide operating range and the stability as compared to solid carbon
resistors.
Metal Film Resistors
Metal film resistors are same in construction like Carbon film resistors, but the main
difference is that there is metal (or a mixture of the metal oxides, Nickel Chromium or mixture
of metals and glass which is called metal glaze which is used as resistive film) instead of
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carbon. Metal film resistors are very tiny, cheap and reliable in operation. Their temperature
coefficient is very low (±2 ppm/°C) and used where stability and low noise level is important.
1.1.d) Thick Film Resistors
The production method of Thick film resistors is same like thin film resistors, but the
difference is that there is a thick film instead of a thin film or layer of resistive material around.
That’s why it is called Thick film resistors. There are two additional types of thick film
resistors.
Metal Oxide Resistors

Cermet Oxide Resistors
Fusible Resistors
Metal Oxide Resistors
By oxidizing a thick film of Tin Chloride on a heated glass rod (substrate) is the simple
method to make a Metal oxide Resistor. These resistors are available in a wide range of
resistance with high temperature stability. In addition, the level of operating noise is very low
and can be used at high voltages.
Cermet Oxide Resistors
In the cermet oxide resistors, the internal area contains on ceramic insulation materials.
And then a carbon or metal alloy film or layer wrapped around the resistor and then fix it in a
ceramic metal (which is known as Cermet). They are made in the square or rectangular shape
and leads and pins are under the resistors for easy installation in printed circuit boards. They
provide a stable operation in high temperature because their values do not change with change
in temperature.
Fusible Resistors
These kinds of resistors are same like a wire wound resistor. When a circuit power
rating increased than the specified value, then this resistor is fused, i.e. it breaks or open the
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circuit. That’s why it is called Fusible resistors. Fusible restores perform double jobs means
they limit the current as well as it can be used as a fuse.
They used widely in TV Sets, Amplifiers, and other expensive electronic circuits. Generally,
the ohmic value of fusible resistors is less than 10 Ohms.
COLOUR CODE FOR RESISTORS
It is not practical to print the resistance values on the resistors due to its small size. Hence a
method called colour coding is adopted. Resistor values are generally printed on the body of
bigger resistors like wire wound and metal film type resistors.
A1. Determining Resistor values
Resistor Colour Codes
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1. 2. Variable Resistors
As the name indicates, those resistors which values can be changed through a dial, knob,
and screw or manually by a proper method. In these types of resistors, there is a sliding arm,
which is connected to the shaft and the value of resistance can be changed by rotating the arm.
They are used in the radio receiver for volume control and tone control resistance.
Following are the further types of Variable Resistors
1. Potentiometers
2. Rheostats
3.Trimmers
1.2.1) Potentiometers
Potentiometer is a three terminal device which is used for controlling the level of
voltage in the circuit. The resistance between two external terminals is constant while the third
terminal is connected with moving contact (Wiper) which is variable. The value of resistance
can be changed by rotating the wiper which is connected to the control shaft.
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1.2.2) Rheostats
Rheostats are a two or three terminal device which is used for the current limiting
purpose by hand or manual operation. Rheostats are also known as tapped resistors or variable
wire wound resistors.
To make a rheostats, they wire wind the Nichrome resistance around a ceramic core
and then assembled in a protective shell. A metal band is wrapped around the resistor element
and it can be used as a Potentiometer or Rheostats
Variable wire wound resistors are available in the range of 1 ohm up to 150 Ohms. The
available power rating of these resistors is 3 to 200 Watts. While the most used Rheostats
according to power rating is between 5 to 50 Watts.
1.2.3) Trimmers
There is an additional screw with Potentiometer or variable resistors for better

efficiency and operation and they are known as Trimmers. The value of resistance can be
changed by changing the position of screw to rotate by a small screwdriver. They are made
from carbon composition, carbon film, cermet and wire materials and available in the range of
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50 Ohms up to 5 mega ohms. The power rating of Trimmers potentiometers are from 1/3 to ¾
Watts.
2. Non Linear Resistors
Nonlinear resistors are those resistors, where the current flowing through it does not
change according to Ohm’s Law but, changes with change in
temperature or applied voltage.
In addition, if the flowing current through a resistor

changes with change in body temperature, then these kinds of
resistors are called Thermisters. If the flowing current through a
resistor change with the applied voltages, then it is called a Varistors
or VDR (Voltage Dependent Resistors).
Following are the additional types of Non Linear Resistors.
1. Thermisters
2. Varisters (VDR)
3. Photo Resistor or Photo Conductive Cell or LDR
2.1) Thermistors
Thermistors aretwo terminal devices which is very sensitive to temperature. In other

words, Thermistors is a type of variable resistor which notices the change in temperature.
Thermistors are made from the cobalt, Nickel, Strontium and the metal oxides of Manganese.
The Resistance of a Thermistor is inversely proportional to the temperature, i.e. resistance
increases when temperature decrease and vice versa.
It means, Thermistors has a negative temperature coefficient (NTC) but there is also a
PTC (Positive Temperature Coefficient) which a made from pid barium titanate semiconductor
materials and their resistance increases when increases in temperature.
2.2) Varistors (VDR)
Varisters are voltage dependent Resistors (VDR) which is used to eliminate the high
voltage transients. In other words, a special type of variable resistors used to protect circuits
from destructive voltage spikes is called varisters.
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When voltage increases (due to lighting or line faults) across a connected sensitive device or
system, then it reduces the level of voltage to a secure level i.e. it changes the level of voltages.
2.3) Photo Resistor or Photo Conductive Cell or LDR (Light Dependent Resistors)
Photo Resistor or LDR (Light Dependent Resistors) is a resistor which terminal value
of resistance changes with light intensity. In other words, those resistors, which resistance
values changes with the falling light on their surface is called Photo Resistor or Photo
Conductive Cell or LDR (Light Dependent Resistor). The material which is used to make these
kinds of resistors is called photo conductors, e.g. cadmium sulfide, lead sulfide etc.
When light falls on the photoconductive cells (LDR or Photo resistor), then there is an
increase in the free carriers (electron hole pairs) due to light energy, which reduce the resistance
of semiconductor material (i.e. the quantity of light energy is inversely proportional to the
semiconductor material). It means photo resistors have a negative temperature coefficient.
2.4) SMD (Surface Mount Technology) Resistors
These resistor types have been used increasingly since the introduction of surface
mount technology. Typically this type of resistor is manufactured using thin film technology.
A full range of values can be obtained.
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b) Capacitors
A capacitor (originally known as a condenser) is a passive two-terminal electrical

component used to store energy electrostatically in an electric field.
They are typically marked with a “C” on a circuit board.
The capacitance of a parallel plate capacitor is the ratio of the amount of charge, Stored
on its plates to the voltage, V across its plates and is measured in Farads, symbol (C),
ie, C=Q/V. Capacitors present a low impedance path to AC signals but will block DC. The
impedance of a capacitor called capacitive reactance varies with frequency and in an ideal
capacitor the voltage of the AC sine wave lags the current by 90 o.
Types of Capacitor
1. Ceramic capacitors
A ceramic capacitor is a non-polarized fixed capacitor made out of two or more alternating
layers of ceramic and metal in which the ceramic material acts as the dielectric and the metal
acts as the electrodes. The ceramic material is a mixture of finely ground granules
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ofparaelectric or ferroelectric materials, modified by mixed oxides that are necessary to
achieve the capacitor's desired characteristics.
2. Film capacitors
Film capacitors or plastic film capacitors are non-polarized capacitors with an insulating plastic
film as the dielectric. The dielectric films are drawn to a thin layer, provided with metallic
electrodes and wound into a cylindrical winding. The electrodes of film capacitors may be
metallized aluminum or zinc, applied on one or both sides of the plastic film, resulting in
metallized film capacitors or a separate metallic foil overlying the film, called film/foil
capacitors.
3. Electrolytic capacitors
Electrolytic capacitors have a metallic anode covered with an oxidized layer used as
dielectric. The second electrode is a non-solid (wet) or solid electrolyte. Electrolytic capacitors
are polarized.
4.Mica Capacitors
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Mica capacitors, also known as silver mica capacitors, are capacitorsthat offer high
precision, reliability and stability. They are available in small values and are generally used at
high frequencies and in situations where low losses and low capacitor change over time are
required.
5.Paper capacitor
Paper capacitor is a capacitor that uses paper as the dielectric to store electric charge. It
consists of aluminum sheets and paper sheets. The paper sheet is covered or soaked with oil or
wax to protect it from outside harmful environment.
COLOUR CODE FOR CAPACITORS
A2. Determining capacitor values
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The capacitor on the top is of a ceramic disc type capacitor that has the code 102K printed onto
its body. Then the 1 = 1st digit, the 0 = 2nd digit, the 2 is the multiplier in pico-Farads, pF and
the letter K is the tolerance and this translates to: 10 * 100pF = 1,000 pF , 1nF or 0.001 uF
and K indicates a tolerance of +/- 10%
c) Inductors
An inductor, also called a coil or reactor, is a passive two-terminal electrical component

which resists changes in electric current passing through it. It consists of a conductor such as a
wire, usually wound into a coil. When a current flows through it, energy is stored in a magnetic
field in the coil. When the current flowing through an inductor changes, the time-varying
magnetic field induces a voltage in the conductor, according to Faraday’s law of
electromagnetic induction, which by Lenz's law opposes the change in current that created it.
Inductors, also called coils, can be a bit harder to figure out their values. If they are
color coded, the resources listed for resistors can help, otherwise a good meter that can measure
inductance will be needed. They are typically marked with an “L” on a circuit board.
Active components
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I. SEMICONDUCTORS DIODES
In electronics, a diode is a two-terminal electronic component with asymmetric

conductance; it has low (ideally zero) resistance to current flow in one direction, and high
(ideally infinite) resistance in the other.
Semiconductors, such as Diodes (typically marked with a “D” on a circuit board).
i. P-N junction semiconductor diode
A p-n junction diode is two-terminal or two-electrode semiconductor device, which

allows the electric current in only one direction while blocks the electric current in opposite or
reverse direction. If the diode is forward biased, it allows the electric current flow. On the other
hand, if the diode is reverse biased, it blocks the electric current flow. P-N junction
semiconductor diode is also called as p-n junction semiconductor device.
ii. Zener diode
A zener diode is a special type of device designed to operate in the zener breakdown region.
Zener diodes acts like normal p-n junction diodes under forward biased condition. When
forward biased voltage is applied to the zener diode it allows large amount of electric current
and blocks only a small amount of electric current.
Zener diode is heavily doped than the normal p-n junction diode. Hence, it has very
thindepletion region. Therefore, zener diodes allow more electric current than the normal p-n
junction diodes.
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II. TRANSISTORS
A transistor is a semiconductor device used to amplify and switch electronic signals and
electrical power. It is composed of semiconductor material with at least three terminals for
connection to an external circuit. A voltage or current applied to one pair of the transistor's
terminals changes the current through another pair of terminals. Because the controlled (output)
power can be higher than the controlling (input) power, a transistor can amplify a signal. Today,
some transistors are packaged individually, but many more are found embedded in integrated
circuits. Transistors (typically marked with a “Q” on a circuit board).
III. TRANSFORMERS
A transformer is a static electrical device that transfers energy by inductive coupling

between its winding circuits. A varying current in the primary winding creates a varying
magnetic flux in the transformer's core and thus a varying magnetic flux through the secondary
winding. This varying magnetic flux induces a varying electromotive force (emf) or voltage in
the secondary winding. Transformers are normally pretty easy to identify by sight, and many
have their specs printed on them. They are typically marked with a “T” on a circuit board.
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IV. INTEGRATED CIRCUITS
An integrated circuit or monolithic integrated circuit (also referred to as an IC, a chip, or a

microchip) is a set of electronic circuits on one small plate ("chip") of semiconductor material,
normally silicon. This can be made much smaller than a discrete circuit made from independent
components. Integrated circuits are used in virtually all electronic equipment today and have
revolutionized the world of electronics. Computers, mobile phones, and other digital home
appliances are now inextricable parts of the structure of modern societies, made possible by
the low cost of producing integrated circuits. Integrated Circuits (typically marked with a “U”
or “IC” on a circuit board)
V. LED
A light-emitting diode (LED) is a semiconductor light source. LEDs are used as indicator
lamps in many devices and are increasingly used for other lighting. LEDs emitted low-intensity
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red light, but modern versions are available across the visible, ultraviolet, and infrared
wavelengths, with very high brightness.
VI. WIRE
A wire is a single, usually cylindrical, flexible strand or rod of metal. Wires are used to
bear mechanical loads or electricity and telecommunications signals. Wire is commonly
formed by drawing the metal through a hole in a die or draw plate. Wire gauges come in
various standard sizes, as expressed in terms of a gauge number. The term wire is also used
more loosely to refer to a bundle of such strands, as in "multistranded wire", which is more
correctly termed a wire rope in mechanics, or a cable in electricity.
Forms of wire
Solid wire
Solid wire, also called solid-core or single-strand wire, consists of one piece of metal wire.
Solid wire is useful for wiring breadboards.
Stranded wire
Stranded wire is composed of a number of small wires bundled or wrapped together to form
a larger conductor. Stranded wire is more flexible than solid wire of the same total cross-
sectional area. Stranded wire tends to be a better conductor than solid wire because the
individual wires collectively comprise a greater surface area.
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Braided wire
A braided wire is composed of a number of small strands of wire braided together.
Similar to stranded wires, braided wires are better conductors than solid wires. Braided wires
do not break easily when flexed. Braided wires are often suitable as an electromagnetic shield
in noise-reduction cables.
VII. CABLE
An electrical cable is made of two or more wires running side by side and bonded, twisted,
or braided together to form a single assembly, the ends of which can be connected to two
devices, enabling the transfer of electrical signals from one device to the other. Cables are used
for a wide range of purposes, and each must be tailored for that purpose. Cables are used
extensively in electronic devices for power and signal circuits. Long-distance communication
takes place over undersea cables. Power cables are used for bulk transmission of alternating
and direct current power, especially using high-voltage cable. Electrical cables are extensively
used in building wiring for lighting, power and control circuits permanently installed in
buildings.
Electrical cable types
● Coaxial cable – used for radio frequency signals, for example in cable
television distribution systems.
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● Communications cable
● Direct-buried cable
● Flexible cables
● Helix cable
● Non-metallic sheathed cable (or nonmetallic building wire, NM, NM-B)[3]
● Metallic sheathed cable (or armored cable, AC, or BX)[3]
● Multicore cable (consist of more than one wire and is covered by cable jacket)
● Paired cable – Composed of two individually insulated conductors that are usually used
in DC or low-frequency AC applications
● Portable cord – Flexible cable for AC power in portable applications
● Ribbon cable – Useful when many wires are required. This type of cable can easily flex,
and It is designed to handle low-level voltages.
● Shielded cable – Used for sensitive electronic circuits or to provide protection in high-
voltage applications.
● Single cable (from time to time this name is used for wire)
● Submersible cable
● Twinax cable
● Twin-lead – This type of cable is a flat two-wire line. It is commonly called a 300 Ω
line because the line has an impedance of 300 Ω. It is often used as a transmission line
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between an antenna and a receiver (e.g., TV and radio). These cables are stranded to
lower skin effects.
● Twisted pair – Consists of two interwound insulated wires. It resembles a paired cable,
except that the paired wires are twisted
VIII. CONNECTOR
An electrical connector, is an electro-mechanical device used to join electrical

terminations and create an electrical circuit. Electrical connectors consist of plugs (male-
ended) and jacks (female-ended). The connection may be temporary, as for portable equipment,
require a tool for assembly and removal, or serve as a permanent electrical joint between two
wires or devices.An adapter can be used to effectively bring together dissimilar connectors.
Types of electrical connectors
Terminal blocks
Terminal blocks (also called terminal boards or strips) provide a convenient means of
connecting individual electrical wires without a splice or physically joining the ends. They are
usually used to connect wiring among various items of equipment within an enclosure or to
make connections among individually enclosed items
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Binding post
Plug and socket connectors
A male serial port connector
A female VGA connector
A male plug
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Detail of mating surfaces of hermaphrodite connector
8P8C connector
8P8C is short for "eight positions, eight conductors", and so an 8P8C modular
connector (plug or jack) is a modular connector with eight positions, all containing conductors.
The connector is probably most famous for its use in Ethernet and widely used
on CAT5 cables.
D-subminiature connectors
The D-subminiature electrical connector is commonly used for the RS-232 serial
port on modems and IBM compatible computers. The D-subminiature connector is used in
many different applications, for computers, telecommunications, and test and measurement
instruments.
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USB connectors
The Universal Serial Bus is a serial bus standard to interface devices, founded in 1996.
It is currently widely used among PCs, Apple Macintosh and many other devices.
Power connectors
Power connectors must protect people from accidental contact with energized
conductors. Power connectors often include a safety ground connection as well as the power
conductors.
Radio frequency connectors

Connectors used at radio frequencies must not change the impedance of
the transmission line of which they are part, otherwise signal reflection and losses will result.
A radio-frequency connector must not allow external signals into the circuit, and must prevent
leakage of energy out of the circuit.
A male 50 ohm BNC connector
Banana connector
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A banana connector (commonly banana plug for the male, banana socket or banana
jack for the female) is a single-wire (one conductor) electrical connector used for joining wires
to equipment. The term 4 mm connector is also used, especially in Europe, although not all
banana connectors will mate with 4 mm parts
IX. SWITCH
Fig: Electrical switches. Top, left to right: circuit breaker, mercury, wafer switch, DIP switch, surface
mount switch, reed switch. Bottom, left to right: wall switch (U.S. style), miniature toggle switch, in-
line switch, push-button switch, rocker switch, micro switch.
A switch is an electrical component that can break an electrical circuit, interrupting

the current or diverting it from one conductor to another. The mechanism of a switch may be
operated directly by a human operator to control a circuit (for example, a light switch or a
keyboard button), may be operated by a moving object such as a door-operated switch, or may
be operated by some sensing element for pressure, temperature or flow. Switches are made to
handle a wide range of voltages and currents; very large switches may be used to isolate high-
voltage circuits in electrical substations.
X. RELAY
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A relay is a switch that is operated by electricity. Many relays use an electromagnet to
mechanically operate a switch, but other operating principles are also used, such as solid-state
relays. Relays are used where it is necessary to control a circuit by a separate low-power signal,
or where several circuits must be controlled by one signal. The first relays were used in long
distance telegraph circuits as amplifiers: they repeated the signal coming in from one circuit
and re-transmitted it on another circuit. Relays were used extensively in telephone exchanges
and early computers to perform logical operations.
XI. HEAT SINK
A heat sink (also commonly spelled heatsink) is a passive heat exchanger that transfers the
heat generated by an electronic or a mechanical device to a fluid medium, often air or a liquid
coolant, where it is dissipated away from the device, thereby allowing regulation of the device's
temperature at optimal levels. In computers, heat sinks are used to cool central processing
units or graphics processors. Heat sinks are used with high-power semiconductor devices such
as power transistors and optoelectronics such as lasers and light emitting diodes (LEDs), where
the heat dissipation ability of the component itself is insufficient to moderate its temperature.
XII. Display devices
A display device is an output device for presentation

of information in visualor tactile form (the latter used for example in tactile electronic
displays for blind people).When the input information is supplied as an electrical signal, the
display is called an electronic display.
Segment display
Some displays can show only digits or alphanumeric characters. They are called segment
displays, because they are composed of several segments that switch on and off to give
appearance of desired glyph. The segments are usually singleLEDs or liquid crystals. They are
mostly used in digital watches and pocket calculators.
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LED display
An LED display is a flat panel display, which uses an array of light-emitting
diodes as pixels for a video display. Their brightness allows them to be used outdoors
in store signs and billboards, and in recent years they have also become commonly used
in destination signs on public transport vehicles. LED displays are capable of providing
general illumination in addition to visual display, as when used for stage lighting or other
decorative (as opposed to informational) purposes.
Liquid-crystal display
A liquid-crystal display (LCD) is a flat-panel display or other electronic visual

display that uses the light-modulating properties of liquid crystals. Liquid crystals do not emit
light directly.
XIII. FUSES
In electronics and electrical engineering, a fuse is a type of low resistance resistor that
acts as a sacrificial device to provide overcurrent protection, of either the load or source circuit.
Its essential component is a metal wire or strip that melts when too much current flows, which
interrupts the circuit in which it is connected. Short circuit, overloading, mismatched loads or
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device failure are the prime reasons for excessive current. A fuse interrupts excessive current
(blows) so that further damage by overheating or fire is prevented. Fuses can be easy to identify,
and typically have their voltage and amperage rating marked on them.
XIV. FASTENERS
Fasteners are hardware devices that mechanically joins or affixes two or more objects to
keep them in a fixed place. The two main types of fasteners are screws and bolts, which have
cylindrical threads and are attached by screwing on a nut, and nails, which are usually
hammered into a piece of wood or masonry. Fixings may refer to screws and bolts, but also to
items used to assemble or fix furniture, building material or equipment.
Symbols
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Drawing of electronic circuit diagrams using BIS/IEEE symbols and introduction to EDA
tools, Interpret data sheets of discrete components and IC’s, Estimation and costing.
● Drawing of electronic circuit diagrams using BIS/IEEE symbols
A schematic is a visual representation of a circuit. As such, its purpose is to

communicate a circuit to someone else. A schematic of electronic circuit diagram is made using
BIS (Bureau of Indian Standards) or IEEE (Institute of Electrical and Electronics
Engineers).Following are the rules for drawing electronic circuit diagrams.
1. Use component designators
While drawing circuit diagrams component designators are to be given, for example
R1,R2,C1,C2 etc. This helps to clearly understand the circuit.
2. Clearly label the components & power supply
It will be confusing to the read the diagrams if the labelling of the components &
power supply is not done correctly. Here figure-1 shows correct convention and
figure-2 shows incorrect convention.
figure-1
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figure-2
3. Basic layout and flow
In general it is good to put higher voltages towards the top, lower voltages towards the
bottom, and logical flow left to right. That's clearly not possible all the time, but at least a
general higher level effort to do this will greatly illuminate the circuit to those reading the
schematic.
One notable exception to this is feedback signals. By their very nature, they feed "back"
from downstream to upstream, so they should be shown sending information opposite of
the main flow.Power connections should go up to positive voltages and down to negative
voltages.
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figure-3 (correct form)
figure-4 ( incorrect form)
figure-5 (incorrect form)
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4. Draw pins according to function
Show pins of ICs in position relevant to their function. Try to put positive power pins
at top, negative power pins (usually grounds) at bottom, inputs at left, and outputs at right.
Note that this fits with the general schematic layout as described above. General purpose
parts like microcontrollers and FPGAs have pins that can be input and output depending
on use and can even vary at run time. Put the dedicated power and ground pins at top and
bottom, and possibly group together any closely related pins with dedicated functions, like
crystal driver connections.
5. Direct connections, within reason

Spend some time with placement reducing wire crossings and the like. There should be
clarity.
6. Keep names reasonably short
It is preferable to keep the names short. For e.g. instead of writing 8 Megahertz, write
as 8MHZ
7. Upper case symbol names
Use all caps for net names and pin names. Pin names are almost always shown upper
case in datasheets and schematics.
8. Dots & crosses
Draw a dot at every junction. That's the convention. If two lines cross, then they are
never connected.
● Introduction to EDA Tool
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Electronic design automation (EDA) is a category of software tools for
designing electronic systems such as printed circuit boards and integrated circuits. The tools
work together in a design flow that chip designers use to design and analyze entire
semiconductor chips. EDA is also referred to as Electronic Computer Aided Design (ECAD).
1981 marks the beginning of EDA as an industry. For many years, the larger electronic
companies, such as Hewlett Packard, Tektronix, and Intel, had pursued EDA internally. In
1981, managers and developers spun out of these companies to concentrate on EDA as a
business. Daisy Systems, Mentor Graphics, and Valid Logic Systems were all founded around
this time, and collectively referred to as DMV. Within a few years there were many companies
specializing in EDA, each with a slightly different emphasis. The first trade show for EDA was
held at the Design Automation Conference in 1984.
In 1981, the U.S. Department of Defense began funding of VHDL as a hardware
description language. In 1986, Verilog, another popular high-level design language, was first
introduced as a hardware description language by Gateway Design Automation. Simulators
quickly followed these introductions, permitting direct simulation of chip designs: executable
specifications. In a few more years, back-ends were developed to perform logic synthesis.
EDA for electronics has rapidly increased in importance with the continuous scaling
of semiconductor technology. Some users are foundry operators, who operate the
semiconductor fabrication facilities, or "fabs", and design-service companies who use EDA
software to evaluate an incoming design for manufacturing readiness. EDA tools are also used
for programming design functionality into FPGAs.
Eg.Orcad, PSpice, EAGLE, NI Multisim etc.
3D PCB layout
Interpret data sheets of discrete components and IC’s
Datasheets are instruction manuals for electronic components. They explain exactly what a
component does and how to use it.
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A datasheet’s contents will vary widely depending on the type of part, but they will usually
have most of the following sections:
The first page is usually a summary of the part’s function and features. This is where we can
quickly find a description of the part's functionality, the basic specifications (numbers that
describe what a part needs and can do), and sometimes a functional block diagram that shows
the internal functions of the part.
A pinout lists the part’s pins, their functions, and where they’re physically located on the part
for various packages the part might be available in. VCC is the supply voltage (commonly 5V
or 3.3V), CLK is clock, CLR is clear, OE is output enable, etc.. If a pin has a star next to it or
a line over the name, that's an indication that the pin is active low which means that you'll pull
the pin low (0V) to activate it, rather than H (VCC):
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Detailed tables of electrical specifications follow. These will often list the absolute
maximum ratings a part can withstand before being damaged.
Some parts will have one or more graphs showing the part’s performance vs. various criteria
(supply voltage, temperature, etc.) Keep an eye out for "safe zones" where reliable operation
is guaranteed:
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Truth tables show how changing the inputs to a part will affect its output. Each line has all
the part's inputs set to specific states, and the resulting output of the part. "H" means that input
is a logical high (usually VCC), "L" means a logical low (usually GND), "X" means the chip
doesn't care what the input is (could be H or L), and an arrow means to change the state of that
pin from L to H or H to L depending on the arrow direction. This is called "clocking" an input,
and many chips rely on this for proper operation:
Timing diagrams show how data should be sent to and received from the part, and what speed it should
be sent / received. These are typically laid out with various inputs and outputs as horizontal lines,
showing the logic transitions that happen to those lines over time. If the trace dips down, that's a L input
or output. If the line rises higher, that's a H input our output. Timing specifications are laid out as arrows
between transitions (names are referenced back to timing numbers in the electrical specs), and vertical
bars or arrows will link related transitions:
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Complex parts will have extensive application information. This varies depending on the part, but
may include detailed descriptions of pin functions, how to communicate with the part, lists of
commands, memory tables, etc. This is often very useful information, so read through it carefully:
Some datasheets will include example schematics for various circuits that can be built around the part.
These are often very useful building blocks for interesting projects, so be sure to look through them:
At the end of many datasheets is packaging information, which provides accurate dimensions of the
packages a part is available in.
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datasheets are subject to having errors .To reduce this possibility, be sure you have the latest version
of a datasheet before doing any serious work.
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Familiarization/Application of testing instruments and commonly used tools.

[Multimeter, Function generator, Power supply, CRO etc.] [Soldering iron, De-soldering
pump, Pliers, Cutters, Wire strippers, Screw drivers, Tweezers, Crimping tool, Hot air
soldering and desoldering station etc.]
Aim
To Study lab equipments (CRO, Multimeter, Function Generator, Power supply) and
commonly used tools.
Theory
CRO (Cathode Ray Oscilloscope)
The oscilloscope is one of the most important electronic instruments available for
making circuit measurements. It displays a curve plot of time-varying voltage on the
oscilloscope screen. A dual trace oscilloscope allows the user to display andcompare two time-
varying voltages at one time.
The controls on the oscilloscope are as follows:
1. The TIME BASE control adjusts the time scale on the horizontal axis in time per
divisionwhen Y/T is selected. When B/A is selected, the horizontal axis no longer represents
time. Thehorizontal axis now represents the voltage on the channel A input and vertical axis
represents the voltage on channel B input. When A/B is selected, the horizontal axis represents
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the voltage onthe channel B input and the vertical axis represents the voltage on the channel A
input. The X_POS control determines the horizontal position where the curve plot begins.
2. The CHANNEL A control adjusts the volts per division on the vertical axis for the channel
A curve plot. The Y-POS control determines the vertical position of the channel A curve plot
relative to the horizontal axis. Selecting AC places a capacitance between the channel A
verticalinput and the circuit testing point. Selecting “0” connects channel A vertical input to
ground.
3. The CHANNEL B control adjusts the volts per division of the vertical axis for the channel
B curve plot. The Y-POS determines the vertical position of the channel B curve plot relative
to thehorizontal axis. Selecting AC places a capacitance between the channel B vertical input
and the circuit test point. Selecting “0” connects the channel B vertical input to ground.
Procedure
1. Turn on the Oscilloscope

2. Adjust the intensity and the focus of the trace.
3. Use the X & Y knobs to centre the trace horizontally and vertically.
4. Connect the cable from Ch1 of the CRO to Function generator.
5. A signal will appear on the screen.
6. Make sure that the inner red knobs of the Volt/Div and the Time/Div are locked clockwise.
7. Set the frequency of the generator to 100 Hz.
8. Adjust the Volt/Div and the Time/Div knobs so that you get a suitable size signal
9. Count the number of vertical squares lying within the signal, then calculate the peak to peak
value .
10. Count the number of horizontal squares lying within the one Duty Cycle, then calculate
time value
Function Generator
The function generator is a voltage source that supplies different time-varying voltage
functions. It can supply sine wave, square wave, andtriangular wave voltage functions. The
wave shape, frequency, amplitude, duty cycle, and dc
offset can be easily changed
The controls on the function generator are as follows:
1. You can select a wave shape by clicking the appropriate wave shape on the top of the
function generator.
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2. The frequency control allows you adjust the frequency of the output voltage up to 999
MHz.Click up or down arrow to adjust the frequency, or click the frequency box and type the
desiredfrequency.
3. The AMPLITUDE control allows you to adjust the amplitude of the output voltage measured
from the reference level (common) to peaklevel. The peak to peak value is twice the amplitude
setting.
4. The OFFSET control adjusts the dc level of the voltage curve generated by the
functiongenerator. An offset of 0 positions the curve plot along the x-axis with an equal positive
andnegative voltage setting. A positive offset raises the curve plot above the x-axis and a
negative offset positions the curve plot below the x-axis.
Procedure
1. Turn on the oscilloscope

2. Connect the function generator to one vertical channel of the oscilloscope using BNC
Connector
3. Select the type of wave form by pressing Function control button.
4. Set the waveform at desired frequency by adjusting Frequency variable control button.
5. Now adjust the amplitude control of the function generator to establish a 4 V peak-to-peak
(p-p) sinusoidal waveform on the screen
Multimeter
A Multimeter is an electronic device that is used to make various electrical

measurements, such as AC and DC voltage, AC and DC current, and resistance. It is called a
Multimeter because it combines the functions of a voltmeter, ammeter, and ohmmeter.
Multimeter may also have other functions, such as diode test, continuity test, transistor test,
TTL logic test and frequency test.
Parts of Multimeter
A Multimeter has three parts:
● Display
● Selection Knob
● Ports
The display usually has four digits and the ability to display a negative sign. A few
Multimeter have illuminated displays for better viewing in low light situations.The selection
knob allows the user to set the Multimeter to read different things such as milliamps (mA) of
current, voltage (V) and resistance (Ω). Two probes are plugged into two of the ports on the
front of the unit. COM stands for common and is almost always connected to Ground or ‘-’ of
a circuit. The COM probe is conventionally black but there is no difference between the red
probe and black probe other than colour. 10A is the special port used when measuring large
currents (greater than 200mA). mAVΩis the port that the red probe is conventionally plugged
in to. This port allows the measurement of current (up to 200mA), voltage (V), and resistance
(Ω).
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Procedure for measurement
Voltage measurement
D.C. / A.C. Voltage Measurement

1. Connect the positive(red) test lead to the ‘V/mA’ jack socket and the negative(black) lead to
the ‘COM’ jack socket.
2. Set the selector switch to the desired mV D.C./D.C.V/A.C.V range.
3. Connect the test leads to the circuit to be measured.
4. Turn on the power to the circuit to be measured, the voltage value should appear on the
digital display along with the voltage polarity(if reversed only
Current measurement
the ‘COM’ jack socket(for measurements up to 200mA). For measurements between 200mA
and 10A connect the red test lead to the ‘10mA’ socket.
2. Set the selector switch to the desired uA/mA/A range.
3. Open the circuit to be measured and connect the test leads in SERIESwith the load in which
current is to be measured.
4. To avoid blowing an input fuse, use the 10A jack until you are sure that the current is less
than 300 mA. Turn off power to the circuit. Break the circuit. (For circuits of more than 10
amps, use a current clamp.) Put the meter in series with the circuit and turn power on.
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Resistance measurement
1.Connect the positive(red) test lead to the ‘V/mA’ jack socket and the negative(black) lead to
2. Set the selector switch to the desired ‘OHM Ω’.
3. If the resistance to be measured ia part of a circuit, turn off the power and discharge all
capacitors before measurement.
4. Connect the test leads to the circuit to be measured.
5. The resistance value should now appear on the digital display.
6. If the resistance to be measured is part of a circuit, turn off the power and discharge all
capacitors before measurement
Continuity test
This mode is used to check if two points are electrically connected. It is often used to verify
connectors. If continuity exists (resistance less than 210 ohms), the beeper sounds
continuously.
2. Set the selector switch to the position.

3. Connect the test leads to two points of the circuit to be tested. If the resistance is Ohms the
buzzer will sound.
4. If the resistance to be measured is part of a circuit, turn off the power and discharge all
capacitors before measurement
Diode test
1. Connect the positive (red) test lead to the ‘V/mA’ jack socket and the negative(black) lead
to the ‘COM’ jack socket.
2. Set the selector switch to the position.

3. Connect the test leads to be measured.
4. Turn on the power to the circuit to be measured and the voltage value should appear on the
digital display.
Connection of Probes:
All Multimeters come with two probes. They are to be connected to the terminals on
the meter itself. The Black probe is to be connected to the COM terminal. Red probe is to be
connected to terminal marked with :‘V-’ for voltage measurement, ‘mA’ or ‘20A’ for current
measurement (there are two terminals, one for 2A range and the other for 20A range)
‘V-’ for resistance measurement
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DC POWER SUPPLY
A power supply is a device that supplies electric power to an electrical load. The term
is most commonly applied to electric power converters that convert one form of electrical
energy to another, though it may also refer to devices that convert another form of energy
(mechanical, chemical, solar) to electrical energy. A regulated power supply is one that controls
the output voltage or current to a specific value; the controlled value is held nearly constant
despite variations in either load current or the voltage supplied by the power supply's energy
source.
Specification
1. Adjustable 0~30V/0~2A
2. The design is limit the voltage overload .The power supply input 220V, 230V, 240V AC
3. Output voltage: 0-30V DC
4. Work temperature: -10oC-40oC
Main function
1. Output constant current adjustable.
2. Output constant voltage adjustable.
3. LCD voltage and current display.
4. Constant voltage and current operation in individual.
5. Over current protection.
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SOLDERING IRON
A soldering iron is a hand tool used in soldering. It supplies heat to melt the solder so
that it can flow into the joint between two work pieces. A soldering iron is composed of a
heated metal tip and an insulated handle. Heating is often achieved electrically, by passing an
electric current (supplied through an electrical cord or battery cables) through a resistive
heating element.
DE-SOLDERING PUMP
A desoldering pump, colloquially known as asolder sucker, is a manually-operated device

which is used to remove solder from a printed circuit board. Desoldering requires application
of heat to the solder joint and removing the molten solder so that the joint may be separated.
Desoldering may be required to replace a defective component, to alter an existing circuit, or
to salvage components for re-use.
PLIERS & CUTTERS
Generally three types of pliers are used in the workshop. They are:-
Flat nose pliers:

Used for holding jobs or holding wires. It has got only twoslotted jaws, which are tapered. Thus
it is used for tightening or loosening smallnuts.
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Side cutting pliers:
Used for cutting of thin wires and removinginsulations from them. It has got cutting edge on
its one of its sides.
Round nose pliers:

Used only to hold or cut the wires. It has no grippingjaws. Its cutting edge is long and rounded
on the top.
WIRE STRIPPER
A wire stripper is a small, hand-held device used to strip the electrical insulation from
electric wires. A simple manual wire stripper is a pair of opposing blades much
like scissorsor wire cutters. The addition of a center notch makes it easier to cut the insulation
without cutting the wire.
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SCREW DRIVER:
It is used to loosen or tighten or to keep screws in. It is used to loosen or tighten or to

keep screws in position. It has awooden or plastic handle and a blade of high carbon steel.
TWEEZERS
Tweezers are small tools used for picking up objects too small to be easily handled with
the human hands. Common uses for tweezers are as a tool to manipulate small objects,
including for example small, particularly surface-mount, electronic parts, and small
mechanical parts for models and precision mechanisms.
CRIMPING TOOL
Crimping is joining 2 pieces of metal or other ductile material (usually a wire and a metal
plate) by deforming one or both of them to hold the other. The bend or deformity is called
the crimp.
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HOT AIR SOLDERING& DESOLDERING STATION
A hot air gun or hot air station is used to heat devices and melt solder, and specialised tools
are used to pick up and position often tiny components. In a desoldering station, desoldering
of surface mounted electronic components from printed circuit board is done.
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Testing of electronic components [Resistor, Capacitor, Diode, Transistor, UJT and

JFET using multimeter.]
Aim
To familiarize the testing of Resistor, capacitor, diode, transistor, UJT and JFET using
multimeter
Testing of Resistors
Connect the multimeter as shown in the following diagram
Turn a circuit off before measuring resistance. If any voltage is present, the value of
resistance will be incorrect. In most cases you cannot measure a component while it is in-
circuit. This is because the meter is actually measuring a voltage across a component and
calling it a "resistance." The voltage comes from the battery inside the meter. If any other
voltage is present, the meter will produce a false reading. If you are measuring the resistance
of a component while still "in circuit," (with the power off) the reading will be lower than the
true reading.
Testing of Capacitors
Use analogue multimeter to test capacitor. Firstly short the capacitor leads for
discharging it completely. Set the multimeter to high resistance mode. Connect the multimeter
terminals to the capacitor leads. For electrolytic capacitors the positive terminal of multimeter
must be connected to the positive lead of the capacitor and negative terminal of multimeter to
the negative lead of capacitor. For other capacitor types, polarity is not an issue.
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At the moment you connect the multimeter terminals to the capacitor leads, the multimeter
needle will move to zero and then slowly move towards infinity and settle there. This will
happen only if the capacitor under test is healthy.
● If the capacitor under test is short, the multimeter needle will go to zero and remain
there.
● If the capacitor under test is open, the multimeter needle will not move (will remain at
the infinity position which is the initial position for analogue multi meters).
● If the capacitor under test has leakage then the needle will first deflect to zero, and then
slowly move towards infinity and will settle at a point before infinity.
Testing of Diode
Step1: Testing a diode with a Digital Meter must be done on the "DIODE" setting. Most diodes
fail by going: SHORT-CIRCUIT. This can be detected by a low resistance (x1 or x10 Ohms
range) in both directions. A diode can also go OPEN CIRCUIT. A leaky diode can be detected
by a low reading in one direction and a slight reading the other direction.
Step2: To check an ordinary silicon diode using a digital multimeter, put the multimeter
selector switch in the diode check mode. Connect the positive lead of multimeter to the anode
and negative lead to cathode of the diode. If multimeter displays a voltage range between 0.6
to 0.7, we can assume that the diode is healthy. This is the test for checking the forward
conduction mode of diode. The displayed value is actually the potential barrier of the silicon
diode and its value ranges from 0.6 to 0.7 volts depending on the temperature.
Now connect the positive lead of multimeter to the cathode and negative lead to the
anode. If the multimeter shows an infinite reading (over range), we can assume that the diode
is healthy. This is the test for checking the reverse blocking mode of the diode.
Testing of BJT
Use analogmultimeter.
Step 1 –Finding the BASE and determining NPN or PNP
Get an unknown transistor and test it with a multimeter set to "x10". Try the 6
combinations and when you have the black probe on a pin and the red probetouches the other
pins and the meter swings nearly full scale, you have an NPNtransistor. The black probe is
base. If the red probe touches a pin and the black probe produces a swing on the other twopins,
you have a PNP transistor. The red probe is base. If the needle swings full scale or if it swings
for more than 2 readings, the transistoris faulty.
Step 2 – Finding the COLLECTOR and EMITTER
Set the meter to "x10k.". For an NPN transistor, place the leads on the transistor and
when you press hard onthe two leads the needle will swing almost full scale.For a PNP
transistor, set the meter to "x10k" place the leads on the transistor andwhen you press hard on
the two leads, the needle willswing almost full scale.
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Testing of UJT
UJT (Uni junction transistor) can be easily tested by using a digital multimeter.The
three steps for testing the health of a UJT are as follows.
Step1: Measuring the resistance between B1 and B2 terminals.

Set digital multimeter in resistance mode.Connect the positive lead of multimeter to the
B1 terminal and negative lead to the B2 terminal.The multimeter will show a high resistance
(around 4 to 10K). Now connect the positive lead to B2 terminal and negative lead to B1
terminal.Again the multimeter will show a high resistance (around 4 to 10K).Also both the
readings will be almost same.
Step2: Reverse biasing the emitter junction.
Set the digital multimeter in resistance mode. Connect negative lead of the multimeter
to the emitter and positive lead to the B1.The multimeter will show a high resistance (around
100’s of K’s).Now connect the negative lead once again to the emitter and positive lead to
B2.Again the meter will show a high resistance.In both cases the reading will be almost
same.This test is almost like reverse biasing a diode.
Step3: Forward biasing the emitter junction.
Set the digital multimeter in resistance mode. Connect the positive lead to the emitter
and negative lead to B1.The multimeter will show a low resistance (around few 100
ohms).Now connect the positive lead once again to the emitter and negative lead to the B2
terminal.Again the multimeter will show a low resistance reading (around few 100 ohms).In
both cases the reading will be almost same.This test is almost like forward biasing a diode.
Testing of JFET
When a JFET is checked as a diode (gate-to-channel junction) multimeter should

indicate low resistance between gate and source with one polarity and very high resistance
between gate and source with meter polarity reversed.If the meter indicates high resistance with
both the polarities, it means that the gate junction is open. On the other hand, if meter indicates
low resistance with both polarities, it means that the gate junction is shorted.
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Inter-connection methods and soldering practice. [Bread board, Wrapping, Crimping,
Soldering - types - selection of materials and safety precautions, soldering practice in
connectors and general purpose PCB, Crimping.]
Breadboard
A breadboard is a solder less device for temporary prototype with electronics and test
circuit designs. Most electronic components in electronic circuits can be interconnected by
inserting their leads or terminals into the holes and then making connections through wires
where appropriate.
To interconnect the selected row (node A) and column (node B) a cable going from
any hole in the row to any hole in the column is needed.
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Soldering Practice
What is solder?
Soft solder is a filler metal made from an alloy (mixture) of tin (60%) and lead (40%)
which acts as a bonding agent during the solder process. Sometimes a little silver or antimony
is added for extra strength. It conducts electricity between component leads and conducting
wires or tracks on a printed circuit board. Metals get dirty and contaminated by reacting with
oxygen in the air to form metal oxides. Metal oxides don’t solder well, so thin coatings of metal
oxides need to be cleaned off both by rubbing with light abrasives (mechanical cleaning) and
also by chemical cleaning with methylated spirits. Final light surface oxides are cleaned by the
slightly acid flux that is found in the centre of the solder, which melts onto the joint during the
solder process. This flux is quite sticky and must regularly be cleaned from the board after
every dozen or so solder joints are completed. It hardens if left too long. It is important never
to break solder by stretching it. This thins out the flux and can make the soldering process more
difficult. Cut or nip the solder to break it.
What is wetting?
Solder can only bond with metals if they are both clean and hot enough. Transferring
heat to both the component lead and circuit board pad (or land) at the same time is achieved by
contact with a wet soldering iron tip. It is very difficult to solder if the tip is dry. You need to
add a little solder to the tip just before beginning the solder process. This is called tinning. Once
the joint is hot and wetting takes place, solder will flow easily and quickly making a strong
joint.
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Types of Soldering
Soldering is classified as shown:
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1.Soft soldering
It is a process for joining small intricate parts having low melting points which damages
when soldering process is carried out at high temperature. It uses tin-lead alloy as filler
material. The melting point of the filler material should be below 400 oC (752oF). It uses gas
torch as the heat source.
2. Hard soldering
In this process, hard solder connects two pieces of metals by expanding into the pores
of the work piece opened by high temperature. The filler material possess high temperature
above 450oC (840oF).It comprises of two parts namely silver soldering and brazing.
2.1 Silver soldering
It is a clean process useful for fabricating small fittings, doing odd repairs and making
tools. It uses an alloy containing silver as filler material. Silver provides free flowing
characteristics but silver solder is not good at gap filling hence, different fluxes are
recommended for précised silver solder.
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2.2 Brazing
Brazing is a process of joining two pieces of base metals by creating melted metallic
filler that flows by capillary attraction across the joints and cools to form a solid bond through
atomic attraction and diffusion. It creates an extremely strong joint. It uses brass alloy as filler
material.
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General Safety Precautions
1. Soldering Iron Safety
Never touch the element or tip of the soldering iron. It is very hot (about 400°C) and
will burn. Hold wires to be heated with tweezers, pliers or clamps to avoid receiving burns
from objects that are heated. Keep the cleaning sponge wet during use. To the extent possible,
conduct soldering on a solid, level surface and always return the soldering iron to its stand
when not in use. Never put it down on your workbench. Turn unit off or unplug the iron when
not in use. Soldering stations that feature an automatic shut off not only extend the life of tip,
iron and station, but provide an additional measure of fire safety.
2. Working with Solder, Flux and Cleaners
Follow manufacturer’s instructions and read and understand the Material Safety Data
Sheets for all materials before beginning work. Wear eye protection. Solder can “spit.” Use
lead free (preferable) or low lead solder whenever possible. Keep cleaning solvents in
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dispensing bottles to reduce inhalation hazards. Always wash your hands with soap and water
after soldering.
3. Reduce Risk of Personal Exposure
Avoid ingestion of lead surface contamination by keeping soldering areas clean and
properly managing lead soldering waste. Do not forget to clean your work area daily. Wiping
your desk down with a wet rag or cleaning the desk surface will go a long way in minimizing
ingestible lead contamination from your work surfaces. Do not eat or drink in soldering areas
and wash hands after completing soldering work. Use the following Personal Protective
Equipment (PPE) to prevent inadvertent contact
Protective Clothing – To prevent burns from splashes of hot solder, long sleeve shirts and pants
that are made of natural fibres (cotton) and closed‐toe shoes should be worn. Heat resistant
gloves may also be prudent.
Eye Protection – Safety glasses, goggles, or face shields should be used when soldering and
clipping wires. Hold leads when cutting, so they do not fly away. Avoid inhalation of soldering
smoke/fumes. The smoke formed during soldering is mostly from the flux. Inhalation of flux
fumes during soldering may cause irritation and damage of mucous membranes and respiratory
system. Eyes may become irritated from contact with smoke from soldering.
To reduce exposure: Conduct work in a well-ventilated area. Avoid breathing fumes/smoke by

keeping your head to the side of, not above, your work. The addition of a small fan that blows
from behind the worker across the work area can help move fumes away from the breathing
zone.
4. Reduce Risk from Electricity
Soldering units should be UL (or equivalently) listed. It is a best practice to use a

soldering iron equipped with a grounding prong to reduce the risk of electrical damage if a
short circuit occurs in the equipment.
5. Fire Prevention
Conduct work on a fire-proof or non-flammable surface that is not easily ignited. Wear
non flammable or 100% cotton clothing that covers your arms and legs to help prevent burns.
Be sure the iron is secure in its stand so it cannot inadvertently dislodge onto the work surface.
Know where your fire extinguisher is and how to use it.
6. First Aid for Burns
67
Immediately cool the affected area under cold water for 15 minutes. Do not apply any
creams or ointments on a burn. Cover with a band-aid. Seek medical attention if the burn covers
an area bigger than 3 inches across.
7. Waste Management
Lead soldering waste is considered hazardous. Discard lead solder and dross in a
container with a lid. The collection container should be metal
Storage – Only one dross container is allowed at each soldering location.

Labelling – The dross container must be properly labelled.
Closure – All dross containers must be closed at all times except when adding waste. Removal
– Full containers must be dated and promptly removed from the soldering station. To do this,
place a request for hazardous waste pick-up at the following site.
Soldering Practice in Connectors
When PCBs are manufactured they often have connectors to peripheral devices. These
connectors are like other components in how they are soldered onto the PCB. However, the
plug that matches the connector usually also requires some soldering.
Crimp Connectors and Pins
1. Strip off about 1cm of the wire insulation.

2. Place the exposed wire into the crimp-style connector or pin. The wire should just barely
show coming out the other side. Some crimp pins have two crimping areas – one for the stripped
wire, and the other for the wire with the insulation.
3. Crimp the connector with the appropriate crimping tool. Note that the connectors are colour
coded to settings on the crimping tool, try and match the correct colour.
4. As added insurance, apply solder to the joint to solidify the connection. Before crimping all
pins destined for a connector housing, start with one and ensure that it fits successfully into the
housing. If the crimp is made too tightly, or otherwise mis-shaped, the pin may no longer fit.
68
Printed circuit boards (PCB) [Types, Single sided, Double sided, PTH, Processing
methods, Design and fabrication of a single sided PCB for a simple circuit with manual
etching (Ferric chloride) and drilling.]
PCB
PCB stands for Printed Circuit Board. An insulating material is used as a base, into
which conductive strips are printed. The base material is generally fibre glass, and the
conductive connections are generally copper and are made through an etching process.
The board is typically coated with a solder mask that is green in colour. Other colours
that are normally available are blue and red. Unwanted copper is removed from the substrate
after etching, leaving only the desired copper traces or pathways.
Parts of a PCB
● Components
● Pads
● Traces
● Vias
● Top Metal Layer
● Bottom Metal Layer
Components are the actual devices used in the circuit. This includes input/output connections.
I/O ports, including power supply connections, are also important in the PCB design.
Types of PCB
1. Single sided PCB
Copper is coated on one side of the board or laminate. So the circuitry is on only
one side of the board. It is the simplest to manufacture and thus have low production
cost. To jump over Cu-tracks jumper wires may be used.
69
2. Double Sided PCB
Used where space is more important than cost of PCB. Double sided boards are
copper coated from both sides. Circuit is etched on both sides but components are
mounted only on one side. Tracks on one side can be joined to tracks one the other side
by means of wire links.
3. Multilayered PCB
Two or more boards with circuitryformed upon them are carefully aligned, stacked up
and bonded together. It is used where a very large circuit has to be fabricated on a single
board. Components are mounted on onlyone side of the board.Electrical connections are
established from one side of the board to the other end to the inner layer circuitry by using
plated through holes
4. Flexible PCB
70
Highly flexible variant of the conventional rigid PCB.The flexible PCBs are of two
types: Static and Dynamic.Static flexible circuits can be bent in particular configuration
which remains constant throughout product life and results in space savings.Dynamic
flexible circuits can be deformed continuously during operation and are used to interconnect
devices which need to be moved relative to each other.
PCB DESIGN FLOW
PCB Manufacturing Process
i. Film Generation
Layer Films are made from photographically exposed mylar. Generate these films
from design files (Gerber files), creating an exact film representation of your design.
71
ii. Raw Material
Industry standard 0.059” thick, copper clad two sides panels will be sheared to
accommodate many boards.
iii. Drill Holes

NC machines and carbide drills are used to drill holes according to the drill spec sent to the
manufacturing house.
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iv. Electroless Copper
For holes that require a conductive copper layer inside the hole, we apply a thin copper
deposit in hole barrels.
v. Apply Dryfilm and Image

To start placing circuit board routing features on the board surface, we start by applying
photosensitive dryfilm (plate resist) to the panel, covering the entire board area. Then the film
image from step 1 is placed over the board, and a light source exposes the uncovered portion
of dryfilm. Then develop the board.
vi. Pattern Plate

Electrochemical process to build copper in the holes and on the trace areas. Apply tin to
surface.
73
vii. Strip and Etch
Remove the dryfilm and etch the exposed copper. The tin protects the copper circuitry from
being etched away. Now the fundamental circuitry of the board is completed.
viii. Solder Mask

Apply a solder mask area to the entire board with the exception of solder pads. Solder mask
prevents solder from accidentally shorting out any other parts of the PCB.
ix. Solder Coat

Apply solder to pads by immersing into tank of solder. Hot air knives level the solder when
removed from the tank.
x. Nomenclature
Apply white letter markings using screen printing process.
74
PCB Design Layers
⚫ Physical layers such as:

⚫ Signal Layer
⚫ Power plane Layer
⚫ Mechanical Layer
⚫ Special layers such as:
⚫ Solder & Paste Mask Layers
⚫ Silkscreen or Top Overlay Layers
⚫ Drill guides
⚫ Keep-out Layer
⚫ CAD specific display-only layers:
⚫ Ratsnest layer
⚫ DRC Errors
Signal Layers
Signal Layers are the tracks that represent where copper needs to be placed. They are
designed in the positive. There are no conventions for how thick signal traces can be. The width
of your signals depends on:
⚫ Electrical nature of the trace (e.g. power traces are generally thicker than signal
traces)
⚫ Routing and space constraints
⚫ Manufacturing constrains! Not all manufacturing houses/processes can handle
fine traces
⚫ For signals you can use 8 mil trace widths with 8 mil spacing
Thicker traces provide lesser resistance and inductance.
Internal Layers
Internal Layers are generally used for Power Planes. They are drawn in the negative, in
other words tracks placed on this layer represent the void. A signal name such as VCC or GND
can be assigned to an Internal Plane and the CAD tool will automatically connect pads to the
plane, greatly simplifying PCB routing. Internal planes can also be split into sub planes or split
planes.
75
Mechanical &Keepout Layers
Mechanical Layers are special in that they can be added or viewed in any layer. Used
to provide drill and cut-out guides during the manufacturing process. Keepout layers generally
follow the mechanical layer to indicate to the CAD tool an area should not be routed over. This
is useful as an auto routing constraint.
Solder Mask Layer
Solder mask is usually the green coating on a PCB board which is designed to insulate
and protect the underlying copper traces from environmental factors, and is also used to prevent
bridging (shorting) traces during wave soldering. Solder mask usually covers everything on the
PCB board except for pads and vias, though it is good practice to cover vias, especially if
dealing with BGA components. This process is called tenting the vias. Solder mask is shown
on the CAD tool as a negative image. I.e. where there is solder mask “shown” is where there
will be NO solder mask.
Other Layers
Paste Mask
Paste mask is similar to solder mask, except that it is used to create solder paste screens
which can then be used to solder SMDs in a hot re-flow soldering process
Multi-Layer
Multilayer is a simple way of adding an object such as mechanical drawing or a pad to all the
PCB layers. Any object on this layer will automatically be added to all the PCB layers
Drill Layer
There are two drill layers: The Drill Guide Layer is used for legacy equipment and is
generally not in use today. The Drill Drawing Layer provides coded plots of board hole
locations
Silkscreen Layer
The silkscreen layer is also known as Overlay. Top Overlay refers to the silkscreen on
top of the board, and Bottom Overlay refers to silkscreen on bottom. This is the layer onto
which the component designators are printed (R1, R2 …) so as to identify individual
components during component placement of the board. They are also used during the PCB
routing process to indicate the outlines of your components. This helps you in placing (or not
placing) components too close to one another, or too close to the edge of the board. Make sure
your silkscreen doesn’t run over any exposed copper (such as pads).
Multi-layer design
Multi-layer PCB boards are the norm for complex designs; in particular those which
have size constraints. The simplest of multi-layer boards is a 4 layer board which provides two
76
internal power planes and two outer signal layers. More complex multi-layer boards can reach
up to 24 layers!.Some PCB material limit the number of layers, such as flexible PCB boards,
but the advantages of using flex boards can.
Grounding and Bypassing
Providing good grounding is critical to the functionality of a PCB board. On a multi

layer board, one of the layers should be dedicated ground and all ground signals should have
vias into this ground plane. Avoid chaining grounds in order to prevent ground loops from
occurring. Use bypass capacitors to smooth out power spikes by components that suddenly
draw significant current. Bypass caps should be placed as close to the component’s power pins
as possible. You should use 100 nf caps as the norm, with lower capacitance for higher
frequencies, and higher capacitance for lower frequencies.
Design of Single Sided PCB using Eagle
1. First of all, run Eagle program. The Control Panel will be displayed. On the Control
Panel, select File>New>Schematic. That will open a new schematic window. On the
left of the schematic window, there is a add tool:
2. This Add tool will add elements such as resistor, capacitor and ICs, all of which are
very important in designing the PCB.
3. Once the add tool is select, it will open a window:
77
4. On this window, a proper element needs to be selected. The Add tool serves like a
library of elements. User need to find the proper library to do their project. In the
demonstration, LM324N will be used to show how a chip will be added.
To find LM324N in the library, search for “LM324N”:
78
5. To add LM324 to the schematic, press OK and place two op-amps on the schematic
6. Now, resistors need to be added. Select Add tool again and search for resistor. Use the
key word “resistor”. Then press OK and place five resistors on the schematic
79
7. Now press OK and place five resistors on the schematic. Then wires need to be added
to connect the elements. To add wires, select wire on the left of the window:
80
8. Click on any spot wished and that will be the start point of a wire. Click again will be
place a turning point of the wire. Notice that it is not the end point. To end a segment
of wire, press Esc. Then, connect the element according to the schematic:
9. To finish the schematic, a potentiometer needs to be added.
81
10. Click OK and place the potentiometer where it should be. Then connect the
potentiometer to the circuit. Then, ground needs to be added to the schematic. To add
ground, select add tool again and search for GND. Then choose either one from the two
ground symbol available and place ground where it needs to be:
82
11. Connect the ground as shown in the circuit schematic. The last task is to add two
soldering pad for input and output of the circuit. Open the add tool again and search for
“solder”.
12. connect the soldering pad to the circuit, the schematic of the circuit is finished then:
83
13. After the schematic is done, press the button shown in the picture:
14. The PCB board window will automatically open and have the elements and signal wires
in place:
84
15. Move the element to the designated board area and adjust them so that traces can be
run between elements without crossover:
16. Click the wire bottom in the picture to wire the traces according to the signal wires on
the board. Once the traces are run from a point to another, the signal wires originally
on it will be automatically removed indicates that the signal has been completed. The
finished traces should look something like this:
17. There are two things to be noticed. First, the LM324N was added without power supply
pin, the power supply of the chip needs to be added afterwards. Thus, copy and paste a
soldering pad as the VCC connector. Then connect the soldering pad to pin 5 of
LM324N. Second, the ground was automatically connected to the ground plate.
However, the purpose of this tutorial is to show how to design a single layer PCB which
doesn’t provide a ground plate. In this case, record the connections to be grounded and
85
solder the connections to the copper plate and the copper plate will serve as the ground.
The finished PCB layout will look like:
18. On the Control Panel, choose gerb274xECESHOP from the drop-down list of the CAM
Jobs:
19. A window will be open. Select File>Open>Board. Choose the board to be fabricated
and click OK. Then on the following screen, click Process Job:
86
20. Five Gerber files will be generated in the same directory in which the board file is. They
should have extensions of .bol .cmp, .gbr, .gpi and .sol. The five files are what is needed
for the PCB to be fabricated.
87
Assembling of electronic circuit/system on general purpose PCB, test and show the
functioning(Any Four circuits)
a) RC coupled amplifier with transistor BC 107
Aim
To find the voltage gain of a CE amplifier and to find its frequency response
Apparatus
Transistor BC107, Resistors, Capacitors, DC source, CRO, Signal generator
Theory
The CE amplifier is a small signal amplifier. This small signal amplifier accepts low
voltage ac inputs and produces amplified outputs. A single stage BJT circuit may be
employed as a small signal amplifier; has two cascaded stages give much more amplification.
Designing for a particular voltage gain requires the use of an ac negative feedback to stabilize
the gain. For good bias stability, the emitter resistor voltage drop should be much larger than
the base -emitter voltage. And Re resistor will provide the required negative feedback to the
circuit. CE is provided to provide necessary gain to the circuit. All bypass capacitors should
be selected to have the smallest possible capacitance value, both to minimize the physical
size of the circuit for economy. The coupling capacitors should have a negligible effect on the
frequency response of the circuit.
Procedure:
1. Connect the circuit as per the circuit diagram.
2. Give l00Hz signal and 20mv p-p as Vs from the signal generator
3. Observe the output on CRO and note down the output voltage.
4. Keeping input voltage constant and by varying the frequency in steps 100Hz-1MHz, note
down the corresponding output voltages.
5. Calculate gain in dB and plot the frequency response on semi log sheet
88
Circuit diagram
Design
Mid band voltage gain of the amplifier = 50
Vcc = 12V, Ic = 2mA, VRC = 40% of Vcc= 4.8 V, VRE = 10% of Vcc= 1.2 V and VCE = 50%
of Vcc = 6V
VRC = Ic × Rc = 4.8V
Rc= 2.4K. Use 2.2K std
VRE = IE × RE =1.2V
RE = 600Ω
IB = Ic / hFE= 2 mA/100 = 20 µA
Assume the current through R1= 10 IB and that through R2 = 9 IB to avoid loading the
potential divider network R1 and R2 by the base current.
VR2= VBE + VRE = 0.7+1.2 = 1.9V. Also VR2 = 9IBR2
R2 = 10.6 K. Select 10K std.
VR1 = Vcc-VR2 = 12V-1.9V = 10.1 V
Also VR1 = 10IBR1
R1 = 50 K. Select 47 K std.
Gain, Av = -(rc/re) = 50
rc = Rc ǁ RL and re = 25 mV/IE = 25mV/ 2 = 12.5 Ω
89
RL = 845 Ω. Use 820 Ω std.
Xc1 ≤ Rin/10.
Rin = R1 ǁ R2 ǁ hfe re = 1.1 K
Cc1 = 14µF. Use 15 µF std
Xc2 ≤ Rout/10.
Rout = Rc
Cc2 = 6.6 µF. Use 10 µF std.
XcE ≤ RE/10.
CE = 23 µF. Use 22 µF
Tabular form
Input voltage (Vi) =
Model graph
90
b) LED blinking circuit using astable multi-vibrator with transistor BC 107.
Aim
To design and setup an astablemultivibrator using transistors, study its performance

and observe the waveforms at various points of it.
Apparatus
Transistor BC107, Resistors, Capacitors, DC source, CRO
Theory
The basic transistor circuit for an AstableMultivibrator produces a square wave output
from a pair of grounded emitter cross-coupled transistors. Both transistors either NPN or
PNP, in the multivibrator are biased for linear operation and are operated as Common Emitter
Amplifiers with 100% positive feedback.
Procedure
1. Connect the circuit as per the circuit diagram.
2. Observe the collector and base waveforms of both transistors.
Circuit diagram
91
Design
Output requirement: A square wave of amplitude 9V, frequency 1 KHz and duty cycle = 1/3
Vcc = 9V
T= T1+T2 = 1 ms
Duty cycle = T1 / (T1+T2) = 1/3
T1 = 0.33 ms and T2 = 0.66 ms
Rc1 = (Vcc- VCE1sat)/ Ic1sat . Use 4.7 K std
Rc1 = Rc2 = 4.7 K
IB = 0.1 mA
R1 = (Vcc-VBEsat)/IB = 83 K. Use 82 K std. Take R1= R2
T1 = 0.33ms = 0.69 R1C1
Then C1 = 0.006µF. Use 0.01 µF std.
T2 = 0.66 ms = 0.69 R2C2
Then C2 = 0.02 µF. Use 0.022 µF std
Waveforms
92
c)Sine wave generation using IC 741 OP-AMP in IC base.
Aim
To design and set up an RC phase shift oscillator using op-amp for a frequency of 1
kHz.
Components and equipments required

DC sources, CRO, breadboard, op-amp, capacitors and resistors.
Theory
RC phase shift oscillator consists an op-amp as the amplifying stage and three RC
cascaded networks as the feedback network. The feedback network provides a fraction of the
output voltage back to the input of the amplifier. The op-amp is in the inverting mode.
Therefore any signal, which appears at the inverting terminal, is shifted by 180 degree at the
output. The cascaded RC network provides an additional 180-degree phase shift required for
oscillation as per Barkhausen criteria. Thus the total phase shift around the loop becomes 0
degree. The frequency of oscillation is given by f0 = 1/26 RC.
The gain of the inverting op-amp should be at least 29 at this frequency. The gain is
kept slightly greater than 29 to ensure that the variations in the circuit parameters will not make
the loop gain less than unity, and thus oscillations die out.
For lower frequencies (<1 kHz), op-amp 741 may be used, however for high frequencies, LM
318 or LF 351 should be used.
Procedure
1. Verify whether the op-amp is in good condition and set up the circuit.
2. Note down the amplitude and frequency of output waveform.
Circuit diagram
93
Design
fo=1/(2πRC√6)
fo=1KHz
Let C=. 01μF and R= 6.8K
For an inv amplifier
-Rf/R= -29.
⇨Rf=150K + 100K pot
Model graph
94
d) Square wave generation using IC 555 timer in IC base.
Aim
To design and setup the circuit of astablemultivibrator using 555 timer IC.
Theory
In this mode circuit is free running. The external capacitor charges through the resistors R A
and RBand discharges through RB only.Thus the duty cycle may be set precisely by the ratio of
these two resistors. The frequency is independent of the supply voltage. The charging time is
given by t1=.693(RA+RB)CT. And the discharging time is given by t2=.693RBCT.
The total period is given by
T= t1+t2
= 0.693(RA+2RB)CT
and frequency of oscillation is
f = 1/T= 1.44/(RA+2RB)CT.
Circuit Diagram
95
Model Graph
96
Familiarization of electronic systems
a) Setting up of a PA system with different microphones, loud speakers, mixer etc.

b) Assembling and dismantling of desktop computer/laptop/mobile phones.
c) Coil/Transformer winding.
97

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DEPARTMENT OF ELECTRONICS & COMMUNICATION ENGINEERING

SREE CHITRA THIRUNAL COLLEGE OF ENGINEERING, PAPPANAMCODE, TVM-18

EC110 ELECTRONICS ENGINEERING

Topic Page No.

Familiarization/Identification of electronic components with specification (Functionality,

To familiarize with various active and passive components used in electronics

There are two basic types of resistors.

2) Non Linear Resistors

a) Carbon Composition Resistors

b) Wire Wound Resistors

c) Thin Film Resistors

d) Thick Film Resistors

1. 1. a) Carbon Composition Resistors

1. 1. b) Wire wound Resistors

● Carbon Film Resistors

Carbon Film Resistors

Metal Film Resistors

1.1.d) Thick Film Resistors

Metal Oxide Resistors

Metal Oxide Resistors

Cermet Oxide Resistors

COLOUR CODE FOR RESISTORS

A1. Determining Resistor values

Resistor Colour Codes

Following are the further types of Variable Resistors

There is an additional screw with Potentiometer or variable resistors for better

2. Non Linear Resistors

In addition, if the flowing current through a resistor

Following are the additional types of Non Linear Resistors.

Thermistors aretwo terminal devices which is very sensitive to temperature. In other

2.2) Varistors (VDR)

2.4) SMD (Surface Mount Technology) Resistors

A capacitor (originally known as a condenser) is a passive two-terminal electrical

They are typically marked with a “C” on a circuit board.

COLOUR CODE FOR CAPACITORS

A2. Determining capacitor values

An inductor, also called a coil or reactor, is a passive two-terminal electrical component

In electronics, a diode is a two-terminal electronic component with asymmetric

Semiconductors, such as Diodes (typically marked with a “D” on a circuit board).

i. P-N junction semiconductor diode

A p-n junction diode is two-terminal or two-electrode semiconductor device, which

ii. Zener diode

A transformer is a static electrical device that transfers energy by inductive coupling

An integrated circuit or monolithic integrated circuit (also referred to as an IC, a chip, or a

Electrical cable types

● Non-metallic sheathed cable (or nonmetallic building wire, NM, NM-B)[3]

● Metallic sheathed cable (or armored cable, AC, or BX)[3]

● Portable cord – Flexible cable for AC power in portable applications

An electrical connector, is an electro-mechanical device used to join electrical

Types of electrical connectors

Plug and socket connectors

A male serial port connector

A female VGA connector

Radio frequency connectors

A male 50 ohm BNC connector

A switch is an electrical component that can break an electrical circuit, interrupting

XI. HEAT SINK

XII. Display devices

A display device is an output device for presentation

A liquid-crystal display (LCD) is a flat-panel display or other electronic visual