HUMA N

E V OL UT I ON
HUMA N E V O LUT I ON
P HY L OG E NET I C T R E E
Tree-like diagram representing the
evolutionary relationship between groups
of organisms
 HUMAN EVOLUTION
Like all other living organisms, humankind are
said to have evolved over time from early species
and share a genetic relationship to all other forms
of life on earth

Hominid: Hominin:
Refers to humans, Refers to humans
their fossil and their fossil
ancestors and all ancestors ONLY
the great apes Homo
chimpanzees Austalopithecus
gorillas Paranthropus
orangutans Ardipethicus
All members of
family Hominidae.

F a mi l y H o mi n i d a e
includes 4 living genera:
Pongo : orangutan
Gorilla
P a n : C h i mp s a n d
Bonobos
H o mo s a p i e n s
 EVIDENCE OF COMMON ANCESTORS
FOR LIVING HOMINIDS
Structural similarities that we share with
African apes: Orangutan, Gorilla, Bonobo and
Chimpanzee

Upper limbs
Strong upper arms which can rotate Brain
freely Large brain compared to body mass
shallow glenoid cavity can make sense of a large
scapulae aren't attached to the amount of information
vertebral column Parts of brain that interpret
Rotate forearm freely at the elbow information from hands and eyes
joint are enlarged
Flat nails instead of claws which Olfactory centre (smell) is reduced
allows for bare fingertips
rich in nerve endings -->
sensitive --> allows for
precision grip Vision
Five fingers + fingerprints Eyes in front of head - allows
Opposable thumbs --> power grip on perception of depth
branches Binocular vision = looking at an
object with both eyes
Stereoscopic vision = observing
the solid nature of an object (3D)
Number of offspring produced Cones --> colour vision
Fewer offspring than other
mammals
Young are dependant on their
parents for a long period of time Upright posture
allows adults to the the young can sit upright with head held high
essential survival skills allows for a better view of the
surroundings
allows the animal to walk on 1 legs
so the upper limbs are able to
carry food/tools/babies
 EVIDENCE OF COMMON ANCESTORS
FOR LIVING HOMINIDS
Evolutionary theory does NOT state that humans evolved from
the chimpanzee or gorilla, but rather it proposes that they
shared a common ancestor

There are 3 main sources of

evidence that indicates that
hominids may have shared a
common ancestor:
1 . Fossil evidence
2. Genetic evidence
3 . Cultural evidence
- Fossils are studied to
provide information on
structure, movement, diet etc.
- Features indicate how
change occurs over time
1 . Fossil evidence - Hominid fossils are rarely
complete – fragments, teeth
Palaeontologists have looked at the following etc.
features of ape an human skeletons: - Certain features are
observed in fossil finds in
order to find a common
A. Bipedalism ancestor for hominids
B. Brain size
C. Dentition
D. Palate/jaw shape
E. Prognathism
F. Cranial and brow ridges

A. BIPEDALISM
Definition: The ability to walk on two legs
All primates can sit upright or walk on two feet
occasionally - capable of an upright posture
Advantages:
Hands are free for carrying things
Better view of the surroundings
More efficient movement
Faster cooling of the body
Display of male sex organs as part of courtship
behaviour
Homonid fossils show evidence of a a transition from
quadrupedalism to bipedalism.
For early hominids to become bipedal, their skeletons
had to change quite considerably.
 EVIDENCE OF COMMON ANCESTORS
FOR LIVING HOMINIDS
A. BIPEDALISM
Position of the foramen magnum
In bipedal organims the position of the foramen
magnum moved to an anterior position to allow the
spinal cord to enter vertically.
Bipedal organisms -> more forward/anterior postion
Quadrupel organisms -> back of the skull

Pelvis size and shape

Human pelvis is short and wide to support the
upper body due to an upright posture
Ape pelvis is long and narrow as there is less
weight to support -> quadrupedal

Vertebral column shape

Bipedal organisms have a S-Shaped/curved spine
to absorb shock/allow for flexible movement
Quadrupel organisms have a C-shaped spine
 EVIDENCE OF COMMON ANCESTORS
FOR LIVING HOMINIDS
B. BRAIN SIZE
Hominid fossils indicate that the size of the cranium has
increased in most fossils over time, therefore suggesting an
increase in the size of the brain.
Humans - more rounded skull, larger cranium which contains a
large, developed brain
Apes - cranium is small and elongated (less developed brain)
More complex brain gave rise to:
Well developed hand-eye co-ordination
Capacity for language
The use of fire

Explain how an increase in cranial

volume is related to intelligence.
Since the cranium houses the brain
a large cranial volume indicates a
larger brain
which suggests greater intelligence

C. DENTITION

Size of teeth decreased with the course of evolution

In apes, the tooth enamel is very thin and in humans it is much
thicker.
In apes and early homonids the canines are larger and project
above the tooth row. There is a large gap between the incisors
and canines --> diastema
In humans, the canines are the same size as all the other teeth
(diastema disappeared)

D. PALATE SHAPE

Jaws of apes = U-shaped, narrow and rectangular. Large

spaces between teeth.
Humans = parabolic, wider and curved. Small spaces between
teeth.
 EVIDENCE OF COMMON ANCESTORS
FOR LIVING HOMINIDS
E. PROGNATHISM (A SLANTING FACE)
Apes have a a sloping face and a large protruding lower jaw
which sticks out beyond the upper part of the face -->
prognathous
Humans have a flat face and our lower jaws do not stick out
as much (well developed chin) --> not prognathous

F. CRANIAL AND BROW RIDGES

Apes have pronounced cranial and brow ridges for attachement

of well-developed chewing muscles.
In the early hominids - cranial ridges began to disappear, but
brow ridges still well developed
In modern humans - the cranial and brow ridges are less
pronounced.

Humans Other primates

Cranium Larger cranium size Smaller cranium size

Face Flat face Sloping face

Brow ridges Brow ridges less pronounced Brow ridges pronounced

Canines/teeth Smaller canines/teeth Larger canines/teeth

Less protruding jaw/non- More protruding jaw/prognathous/bigger

Jaw
prognathous/smaller jaw jaw

Chin Well-developed chin Poorly developed chin

Foramen Magnum More forward position Back of the skull

Spine S-shaped C-shaped

Pelvic girdle Short and wide Long and narrow

EVIDENCE OF COMMON ANCESTORS
FOR LIVING HOMINIDS
 EVIDENCE OF COMMON ANCESTORS
FOR LIVING HOMINIDS
2. Genetic evidence
Chromosomal DNA
A comparison of DNA shows how closely related two organisms
are.
The more similarities there are, the closer the relationship is.
- Humans share 99.9% of the same genes
- Humans and apes share between 96-98% of the same DNA
- Humans and chimpanzees share 98.8% of the same DNA and are
therefore the closest related hominids to humans
Mitochondrial DNA
Shows how long ago humans and apes shared a common ancestor /
how long ago they separated:
Many differences in mtDNA = separated long ago
Fewer differences in mtDNA = separated more recently

3. Cultural evidence
Weapons and tools
Tool making is associated with increased intelligence and well-developed hands
(larger brain).
Apes are known to use objects as tools to gather food, however they don't make
tools.
You must be able to describe the obvious developments in the tools discovered over
the years:
Development of tool complexity
The earliest tools that have been found are large, simple and crude stones.
The more recently discovered tools are smaller, complex and elegant stones
Fire-making in modern fossils
Development of fine motor grip in modern fossils
Development of speech & language -> larger bulge in skull in modern fossils
No art forms --> complex art forms in modern fossils
Advantages of tools:
- Access to a wider variety of food (e.g. harder plant material and meat).
- The ability to kill larger prey, improve preparation of food for cooking and eating.
 MAJOR PHASES IN THE HOMINID
EVOLUTION
T h e ma i n h o mi n i n g e n e r a
wi t h i n t h e h o mi n i d g r o u p
a r e t h e f o l l o wi n g :
Ardipithecus
Australopithecus
H o mo

Ardipithecus
Transitional fossil between apes and
Australopithecus

Ardipethicus ramidus (Ardi)

Age 4,4mya

Fossil site Aramis, Ethiopia

Paleontologist Tim White

Date 1994

Height 1.2 m

Cranial capacity small brain (350 cm)

Foramen Magnum further forward than apes

Brow ridge prominent brow ridge

Prognathism present (sloped face)

short and wide (wider at

Pelvic girdle the top, narrow and long
at the bottom)
 MAJOR PHASES IN THE HOMINID
EVOLUTION
Australopithecus Transitional species species between apes and
Australopithecus afarensis Homo sapiens as they have some intermediate
Australopithecus africanus characteristics
Australopithecus sediba both ape-like and human-like characteristics

General characteristics

Height 1.5 m

small brain (400-550 cm)

Cranial capacity
larger than apes

further forward than

Foramen Magnum Ardipithecus (walked
bipedally)

Brow ridge large brow ridges

evident (protruding jaw

Prognathism
without a chin)

Pelvic girdle short and wide

Bipedalism and upright

Bipedalsim
walking

Lucy Taung child

Australopithecus afarensis Australopithecus africanus

Age 3.2 mya Age 2.5 mya

Fossil site Afar valley, Ethiopia Fossil site Taung (NW province)

Paleontologist Donald Johanson Paleontologist Raymond Dart

Date 1974 Date 1924

The shape of the pelvis indicated I t wa s t h e s k u l l o f a a c h i l d o f a b o u t

t h a t L u c y wa s f e m a l e 3-4 years old
T h e s k e l e t o n wa s a b o u t 1 m l o n g a n d s k u l l h a f h u ma n a n d a p e - l i k e
s h o we d e v i d e n c e o f b i p e d a l i s m characteristics
face had ape-like characteristics s ma l l b r a i n c a p a c i t y
f l a t n o s e , p r o t r u d i n g j a w, l a r g e s ma l l h u ma n - l i k e t e e t h
canines f o r a me n ma g n u m i n a mo r e
l o n g a r ms a n d s h o r t l e g s f o r wa r d p o s i t i o n i n d i c a t i n g
B r a i n c a p a c i t y s i mi l a r t o a p e s bipedalism

Laetoli footprints found in Tanzania

3 , 6 my a s h o ws e v i d e n c e o f b i p e d a l i s
 MAJOR PHASES IN THE HOMONID
EVOLUTION
Australopithecus
Australopithecus afarensis
Australopithecus africanus
Australopithecus sediba

Mrs Ples Karabo

Australopithecus africanus Australopithecus sediba

Age 2 mya
Age 2.6 mya

Malapa (cradle of
Fossil site Sterkfontein caves, SA Fossil site
humankind)

Paleontologist Robert Broom Prof Lee Berger and his

Paleontologist
son Matthew Berger
Date 1974
Date 2008

S ma l l e r b r a i n c a p a c i t y s i mi l a r t o Transitional fossil between

t h a t o f a c h i mp a n z e e Australopethicus africanus and
Bipedal and walked upright due to H o mo s p e c i e s
t h e p o s i t i o n o f t h e f o r a me n ma g n u m S ma l l b r a i n a n d l a r g e b r o w r i d g e s i n
J a ws i n d i c a t e d t h a t t h e r e w e r e n o c o mp a r i s o n t o m o d e r n h u ma n s , b u t
protruding canines the shape indicates a more advanced
Dentition indicated a diet of mainly brain than that of other
p l a n t ma t e r i a l w i t h a l i t t l e me a t Australopithecines
had long arms and short hands
a d a p t e d f o r t r e e c l i mb i n g
p e l v i s wa s s i mi l a r t o t h a t o f e a r l y
H o mo s p e c i e s a n d a d a p t e d f o r
wa l k i n g l o n g d i s t a n c e s

Little foot
Australopithecus africanus

Age 4mya

Fossil site Sterkfontein caves, SA

Paleontologist Ron Clarke

Date 1997

A d u l t f e ma l e f o s s i l , c o n s i d e r e d t h e
mo s t c o mp l e t e a n d o l d e s t f o s s i l
h o mi n i n e v e r d i s c o v e r e d
Bipedal because of the position of
t h e f o r a me n ma g n u m a n d t h e l o n g e r
h u ma n - l i k e l e g s
T h e a r e ms a r e s h o r t e r wi t h s ma l l e r
hands
H a s a n a p e - l i k e s ma l l e r b r a i n
 MAJOR PHASES IN THE HOMONID
EVOLUTION
Homo D i f f e r e n c e s b e t w e e n H o mo a n d A u s t r a l o p i t h e c u s
Homo habilis Handyman
> T h e b r a i n o f H o mo wa s mu c h l a r g e r a n d
Homo erectus b e t t e r d e v e l o p e d . H o mo c o u l d ma k e a n d u s e
H omo neanderthalensis tools, fire and develop language
Homo sapiens T h e s k u l l o f H o m o w a s mo r e h u ma n - l i k e w i t h
l e s s p r o mi n e n t b r o w r i d g e s , a f l a t t e r f a c e ,
s ma l l e r t e e t h a n d mo r e r o u n d e d j a wb o n e
larger cranian
=
arger brain
large Cerebrum
General characteristics
=

better thinking
·

Height 1.3 - 2m

Cranial capacity large brain (700-1600 cm)

further forward than

Foramen Magnum
Australopithecus

present in early species and

Brow ridge reduced/absent in modern humans
(Homo sapiens)

present in early species

Prognathism
absent in modern humans

Pelvic girdle short and wide

Homo habilis Homo erectus

"Handy man" --> first early humans means 'upright man'
to make use of tools
Age 400 000 - 1,6 mya

Age 1.6 - 2 mya

South Africa and
Fossil site
Indonesia
Fossil site Tanzania

had a head like an ape, but looked like a

appears to be similar to Australopithecus modern human from the neck downwards
less prominent brow ridges tall as modern humans
more human-like teeth larger brain capacity
flatter face first to use fire, tool makers
rounded head, larger brain first to migrate out of Africa to Europe
used simple tools --> scavenger/hunter and Asia
 MAJOR PHASES IN THE HOMONID
EVOLUTION
Homo General characteristics
B i p e d a l s i m wi t h u p r i g h t w a l k i n g
Homo habilis M o r e f o r wa r d f o r a me n m a g n u m, d i r e c t l y
Homo erectus a b o v e t h e v e r t e b r a l c o l u mn
H omo neanderthalensis Pelvis is short and wide
Homo sapiens Large brain
S ma l l e r t e e t h , n o d i a t e ma
F l a t f a c e , mo r e r o u n d e d j a w s w i t h a
p r o mi n e n t c h i n
No brow ridges

Homo sapiens
Homo neanderthalensis considered to be the direct
ancestors of modern humans

Age 150 000 - 200 000 ya

Age 400 000 - 40 000 ya

Fossil site Florisbad, Free State

Fossil site Tanzania

Paleontologist Tim White

closest extinct human relatives

used tools, fire, clothes, marked their Date 1932
graves with flowers
adapted for colder environments
Lived in Europe and central Asia Large brain
short stocky bodies Flat face (no prognathism)
big brain in relation to body size Good tool use
Community practices
burial of dead
complex language

TRENDS IN HUMAN DEVELOPMENT

A s h i f t o f t h e f o r a me n ma g n u m t o a
f o r wa r d / a n t e r i o r p o s i t i o n i n t h e s k u l l
--> bipedalism
Increase in cranial capacity --> larger
brain
A flatter face due to:
a less sloping forehead
less protruding jaw (from
prognathic to not prognathic)
a mo r e d e v e l o p e d c h i n
A mo r e r o u n d e d j a w
Increaded skeleton size (increase in
height)
Decrease size of cranial and brow
ridge

H o w l o n g wa s A u s t r a l o p i t h e c u s b o s e i
alive for?

N a me o n e h u ma n a n c e s t o r s p e c i e s t h a t
wa s i n d i r e c t c o m p e t i t i o n w i t h H o mo
sapiens.
 OUT OF AFRICA HYPOTHESIS
Mo d e r n h u ma n s o r i g i n a t e d i n A f r i c a a n d t h e n
mi g r a t e d t o o t h e r c o n t i n e n t s

Fossils that serve as evidence:

Fossils of Ardipithecus were found ONLY in Africa
Fossils of Australopithecus were found ONLY in Africa
The fossils of Homo habilis were ONLY found in Africa
The OLDEST fossil of Homo erectus were found in
Africa
The OLDEST fossils of Homo sapiens were found in
Africa

Genetic evidence --> mitochondrial DNA

mtDNA is only transferred from a mother to her offspring
Scientists compare the mtDNA of different populations with each
other to determine the extent of genetic variation in a population
the group that shows the most variation --> has the most mutations
--> had the most time for mutations to ccur --> oldest
studies have shown that the highest level of genetic variation occur
in human populations in Africa --> people from Africa are the oldest
humans
'Mitochondrial Eve' --> most recent female common ancestor of all
living humans --> live in Africa about 150 000 - 200 000 years ago
this supports the 'Out of Africa' hypothesis

Fossil sites in other African countries:

Nutcracker man (Paranthropus bosei) in
Tanzania
Ardi (Ardipithecus) in Ethiopia
Handy man (Homo habilis) in Tanzania
Laetoli footprints in Tanzania
Sahelanthropus tchadensis in Chad
Lucy (Australopithecus afarensis) in
Ethiopia