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 S&T & INDIAN SHOBIT UNIYAL 1) Diagnosis

 Radioisotopes are an essential part of medical
S& T Indian economy SOURCES
diagnostic procedures. In combination with
Nuclear External sector  Class notes imaging devices which register the gamma rays
technology Planning in India  Handouts emitted from within, they can study the dynamic
Nano  Yellow books processes taking place in various parts of the
technology  The Hindu body. An advantage of nuclear over xray
 Vajiram techniques is that both bone and soft tissue can
magazine be imaged very successfully.
 PYQ  In using radiopharmaceuticals for diagnosis, a
 Internet radioactive dose is given to the patient and the
activity in the organ can then be studied either
NUCLEAR TECHNOLOGY as a two dimensional picture or, with a special
technique called tomography, as a three
A. FOR THE MILITARY USE dimensional picture.
 Nuclear bomb The most widely used diagnostic radioisotope is
 Hydrogen bomb technetium-99m*, with a half-life of six hours,
 Nuclear submarines etc(INS Arihant India’s first and which gives the patient a very low radiation
nuclear capable ) dose. Such isotopes are ideal for tracing many
bodily processes with the minimum of
B. FOR THE CIVILIAN USE discomfort for the patient. They are widely used
to indicate tumors and to study the heart, lungs,
1. ENERGY APPLICATION liver, kidneys, and blood circulation and volume,
 Fission and bone structure.
 fusion  Iodine-131, as sodium iodide, is used for
 radioactivity diagnosis and treatment of thyroid disorders
2) Therapy
2. NON-ENERGY APPLICATIONS
 Cancerous growths are sensitive to damage
 Radioisotopes and radiation have many
applications in agriculture, medicine, industry by radiation, which may be external - using a
and research. They greatly improve the day to gamma beam from a cobalt-60 source,
day quality of our lives. known as EBRT- External Beam Radiation
 What is a radioisotope? Therapy or internal.
 Isotopes are different forms of an atom of the  Short-range radiotherapy is known as
same chemical element. They have identical brachytherapy, and this is becoming the
chemical properties but different relative atomic main means of treatment.
masses. While the number of protons is the 3) Brachytherapy
same, the number of neutrons in the nucleus  It is an advanced cancer treatment wherein
differs. radioactive seeds or sources are placed in or
 Some isotopes are referred to as 'stable' and near the tumor itself i.e. within the body itself,
unchanging, while others are 'unstable' since giving a high radiation dose to the tumor while
their nucleus changes over time – from reducing the radiation exposure in the
milliseconds to millennia – as they emit charged surrounding healthy tissues.
particles or waves, making them 'radioactive'. It  Cancers of prostate, breast, lung, uterus, cervix,
is the radioactive nature of these unstable head and neck are treated using Brachytherapy
atoms, usually referred to as 'radioisotopes', techniques.
which gives them so many applications in  The generally used isotopes are Iridium-192 and
modern science and technology. Their Cesium-137, Iodine-125, Palladium-103. The
radioactivity means that they can be used as a radiation source is encapsulated. This means it is
tag to follow the movement of some material enclosed within a non-radioactive metallic
incorporating them. capsule often referred to as a "seed." This helps
a) MEDICINE prevent the material from moving to other parts
 There is a wide use of radiation and of the patient's body.
radioisotopes in medicine particularly for  Permanent implants put radioactive seeds
diagnosis (identification) and therapy directly in the tumor using a special delivery
(treatment) of various medical conditions. device.
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 Temporary implants use needles, catheters or in savings in energy and the better use of raw
special applicators. After the device's accurate materials
position is confirmed, the radiation sources are 3) Radiography
inserted. A computer calculates the source  Radioisotopes which emit gamma rays are more
position and the amount of time needed to portable than x-ray machines, and may give
deliver the desired radiation dose. higher-energy radiation, so can be used to check
4) Pain palliation welds of new gas and oil pipeline systems, with
 Sodium phosphate (Phosphorus-32 based) the radioactive source being placed inside the
injection is used for or pain palliation in pipe and the film outside the welds
severe bone cancer cases. Another c) FOOD & ENERGY
important radiopharmaceutical, Samarium- 1) Fertilizers
153- is effective in pain relief of terminally  Fertilisers are expensive and if not properly used
sick cancer patients. can damage the environment. Efficient use of
5) Sterilisation fertilisers is therefore of concern. It is important
 Many medical products today are sterilised by that as much of the fertiliser as possible finds its
gamma rays from a cobalt-60 source, a way into plants and that a minimum is lost to the
technique which generally is much cheaper and environment.
more effective than steam heat sterilisation.  Fertilisers 'labelled' with a particular isotope,
 Because it is a 'cold' process radiation can be such as nitrogen-15 and phosphorus-32 provide
used to sterilise a range of heat-sensitive items a means of finding out how much is taken up by
such as powders, ointments and solutions and the plant and how much is lost, allowing better
biological preparations such as bone, nerve, skin, management of fertiliser application. Using N-15
etc, used in tissue grafts. also enables assessment of how much nitrogen
 The benefit of sterilisation by radiation is is fixed from the air by soil and by root bacteria
tremendous. It is safer and cheaper because it in legumes
can be done after the item is packaged. The 2) Developing new genetic varieties of plants:
sterile shelf life of the item is then practically  Gamma irradiation is often used in conjunction with
other techniques, to produce new genetic lines of
indefinite provided the package is not broken
plants. When seeds are irradiated with Gamma
open.
radiations it can induce gene mutations in the seeds
 Apart from syringes, medical products sterilised leading to the development of new genetic varieties
by radiation include cotton wool, burn dressings, of plants.
surgical gloves, heart valves, bandages, plastic  Commonly used isotope for this purpose is Cobalt-60.
and rubber sheets and surgical instruments. Plants developed through this technique are called
b) INDUSTRY:- Mutagenic crops. These are different from GM crops
1) Environmental tracers 3) Food preservation :-
 Radioisotopes also play an important role in  Most of the countries are now adopting
detecting and analysing pollutants, since even irradiation technology to preserve food. Health
very small amounts of a radioisotope can easily and safety authorities in many countries have
be detected, and the decay of short-lived approved irradiation of food, ranging from
isotopes means that no residues remain in the spices, grains and grain products to fruit,
environment. vegetables and meat. It can replace potentially
2) Industrial tracers harmful chemical fumigants to eliminate insects
 The ability to measure radioactivity in minute from dried fruit and grain, legumes, and spices.
amounts has given radioisotopes a wide range of  In Food irradiation food items are exposed to
applications in industry as 'tracers'. By adding high levels of gamma radiation which kills
small amounts of radioactive substances to bacteria and other harmful organisms without
materials used in various processes it is possible affecting the nutritional value of food itself or
to study the mixing and flow rates of a wide leaving any residue. It is very effective in killing
range of materials, including liquids, powders bacterial pathogens in raw and frozen food. The
and gases and to locate leaks. Tracers added to irradiation of food does not make it radioactive.
lubricating oils can help measure the rate of  As well as reducing spoilage after harvesting,
wear of engines and plant and equipment. increased use of food irradiation is driven by
Tracer techniques have been used in plant concerns about food-borne diseases as well as
operations to check the performance of growing international trade in food stuffs which
equipment and improve its efficiency, resulting must meet stringent standards of quality. On

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their trips into space, astronauts eat foods
preserved by irradiation. NUCLEAR TECHNOLOGY
 It can also delay the ripening of fruits and  Deals with harnessing the potential of
vegetables thus increasing their shelf life. nucleus of an atom
 irradiation of food items by gamma radiations  Atom- basic building block of the atom
from some radioactive material like cobalt-60.
 Benefits of irradiation
 no residue left, insects pathogens are killed
 cost effective as compared to chemicals
 no compromise with nutritional
 irradiate even after the packaging
 can even delay the ripening so increase shelf life
also  Most of the mass concentrated in nucleus
 irradiate products like dairy products  SUB-ATOMIC PARTICLES
 beneficial for trade as no residue left  Protons :- mass + positive
d) RADIOISOTOPE POWER SOURCES  Neutrons:- mass + negligible charge
 Some radioisotopes emit a lot of energy as they  Electrons:- negligible mass & negative
decay. Such energy can be harnessed for heart charge
pacemakers and to power satellites.  Protons and neutrons
 The decay heat of plutonium-238 has powered  are not fundamental / elementary particles
many US space vehicles. It enabled the Cassini as
space probe to investigate Saturn, and it powers  they are made up of elementary particles
the Mars Science Laboratory, the rover Curiosity known as QUARKS.
e) DATING  Electrons
 Analysing the relative abundance of particular  are fundamental / elementary particles as
naturally-occurring radioisotopes e.g. carbon14,  they cannot be broken down into more
is of vital importance in determining the age of simpler particles . belong to family of
rocks and other materials that are of interest to elementary particles called as LEPTONS.
geologists, anthropologists and archaeologists.
f) SMOKE DETECTORS  ELEMENTARY PARTICLES
 One of the commonest uses of radioisotopes  Not made up of any smaller particles
today is in household smoke detectors. These  Are building blocks of the universe
contain a small amount of americium-241. The
 All other particles and matter in the universe
Am-241 emits alpha particles which ionise the
air and allow a current between two electrodes. are made up of elementary particles
If smoke enters the detector it absorbs the alpha  TYPES ELEMENTARY PARTICLES
particles and interrupts the current, setting off
the alarm 1. Fermions (matter particles)
g) INSECT CONTROL A. Quarks – only particles in nature that have
 Chemical insecticides have for many years been fractional charge. Strong nuclear force acts only
the main weapon in trying to control the insect upon the quarks , does not act upon the leptons
population, but they have not always been a) Up
effective. Some insects have become resistant to b) Down
the chemicals used, and some insecticides leave c) Top
poisonous residues on the crops. One solution d) Bottom
has been the use of sterile insects. e) Strange
 The Sterile Insect Technique (SIT) involves f) Charm
rearing large numbers of insects then irradiating B. Leptons
their eggs with gamma radiation before a) Electrons :- charge (-1)
hatching, to sterilise them. The sterile males are b) Muon:- charge (-1)
then released in large numbers in the infested c) Tau :- charge (-1)
areas. When they mate with females, no d) Electron neutrino
e) Muon neutrino
offspring are produced. With repeated releases
f) Tau neutrino
of sterilised males, the population of the insect
pest in the project area is drastically reduced
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 Neutrinos :- belong to lepton family , carry the nucleus of the unstable atoms in order to
no charge , do not interact with matter , gain stability
have very small mass  Half life – means how long isotopes will stay
 INO LAB- India based neutrino observatory radioactive
in Tamil Nadu , Theni district , Bodi-west hills
 { technetium-99m isotope has half life of 6
(Pioneering research work)
hours and used in medical science to
 Why research on neutrino :- It is believed
that they carry unadulterated information of examine tumor and organs 3D imaging,
the various processes happening in the helps in diagnose purpose }
universe  Impact of these radiations
 HADRONS:- quarks combine to form hadrons thus
protons and neutrons are also hadrons made up of 3
quarks
 Proton:- 2 up + 1 down
 Neutron :- 1 up + 2 down
2. Bosons
 Force carrying particles or tiny bundles of energy
 Four fundamentals forces In nature
 Types of bosons
1. Gluon :- responsible for strong nuclear force
2. Photon- responsible for electromagnetic
force
3. W & Z boson – responsible for weak nuclear
force
1 to 3 are observed experimentally
4. Graviton- responsible for gravitational force
, not yet been observed
 Protons determine the identity of the element
 Atomic number element(Z) = no of protons
 Mass number ( A)= no of(protons + neutrons
 Isotope = different atoms of the same element
have same no of protons but a different number
of neutrons ( same atomic number but different
mass number )
 Isotope of hydrogen
 NUCLEAR FISSION
 It is an energetic splitting of large atoms such as
uranium and plutonium into two smaller atoms called
the fission products .To split an atom it is hit with a
neutron. Several neutrons are also released which
can go on to split other nearby atoms producing a
 Isotopes exhibit similar Chemical properties but nuclear chain reaction of sustained energy release
nuclear properties change in all  All commercial nuclear power plants in operation at
 Protium forms H2O water present use nuclear fission to generate electricity
 Barium and krypton are formed and energy is
 Deuterium forms D2O ( heavy water )
released with 3 neutrons when a neutron hits
 Tritium is radioactive uranium
 Carbon isotopes
 C-12 and C-14
C-12 C-14
Stable isotope Radioactive isotope
Carbon dating

RADIOACTIVITY
 Spontaneous emission of the specific energetic
radiations like gamma radiations () or energetic
particles like Alpha (), Beta () particles from

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 nuclear fission used in controlled manner in Non-fissile  0.7% only  99.3%
nuclear reactors by absorbing the neutrons to but fertile  scare  Abundance
produce electricity  Fissile isotope  Non-fissile
 also used in making nuclear bombs  Which can undergo but is fertile
 NUCLEAR FUSION nuclear fission  No fission
 Nuclear fusion is the combining of two small  Actual uranium fuel
atoms such as hydrogen and helium to produce
heavier atoms and energy these reactions can Artificial Artificial
release more energy than fission without U-233 Plutonium-239
producing radioactive byproducts Fissile  Fissile
 This reaction can take place under extremely Not found  Not naturally found
high temperature and pressure conditions naturally
 two smaller atoms combine to form single atom Generated
and a lot of energy is released from
 Done in Sun – sun & other stars have nuclear thorium
fusion as a source of energy  U-238 Non-fissile but is fertile :- inside the
nuclear reactor it absorbs a neutron and
transmutes into plutonium-239 , which is a fissile
material
 Uranium enrichment :- it means increasing the
concentration of U-235 in the natural Uranium
fuel . makes fuel more efficient and potent for
the generation of the electricity the enrichment
of 3-5% is generally enough but for making
nuclear bomb enrichment beyond 90% is
 Not yet been commercially developed but is a required
serious research interest worldwide due to its  Enrichment is done in facilities known as
promise of nearly limitless and low pollution centrifuges
energy  Thorium-232:- Holds special significance for
 Not self sustaining reaction India(one of the largest reserves of it in world).
 Not commercial viable now because output we Found in eastern-southern coast of India (in
are receiving is less than the input power , so MONAZITE SAND ), just like U-238 , thorium is
research to conduct it viably is being done at also non-fissile but fertile
great level on earth by scientists
 Unlimited fuel as we have Hydrogen as a fuel =  NUCLEAR FISSION REACTORS
so it is the matter of research  A nuclear reactor is a system that contains and
 Example :- China – East reactor(artificial sun )- controls sustained nuclear chain reactions. It is
nuclear fusion reactor used for generating electricity, moving aircraft
 International thermonuclear experimental carriers and submarines ,producing radioactive
reactor (ITER)- at France isotopes, and for conducting research
 To make nuclear fusion success  Main components of reactors
 35 nations contributing to build it by 1. Core:-
money and knowledge  main part of the reactor
 India is also a member of it  contains all of nuclear fuel ,Fuel is placed in
 Mega project – most expensive science fuel roads(hollow-cylindrical) in the form of
megaproject small pellets
 Why- clean , abundance source of  it generates all of the nuclear heat from
energy so all are working to get success nuclear fission
as it is very difficult do conduct nuclear  Fuel roads are made up of Zirconium metal
fusion reaction (high M.P)
 Isotopes related to nuclear fission  core can contain hundreds or thousands of
Naturally Naturally found Naturally found fuel roads
found  all controls systems are placed here in core
Thorium- Uranium-235 U-238
232
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2. Coolant :-
 Coolant is the material that captures the
heat generated inside the core and transfers
it finally to the turbine.
 Commonly used :- Plain water H2O and  Used to balance the number of neutrons
heavy water D2O , liquid sodium, helium etc  Even used to stop the reaction
used as coolants inside the core as a coolant 5. Containment structure:-
 Coolant always in fluid state  It separates the reactor from the
 Liquid used to cool down the engine environment.
 Captures the heat inside the engine  These are usually dome shaped, made of
3. Moderator:- high density steel reinforced concrete.
 Neutrons moving too fast get wasted ,  It would prevent the spread of the radiations
unable to split to nucleus , overall neutrons into the environment in case of nuclear
efficiency comes down accident
 TYPES OF REACTORS (INDIA)
 Currently 22 operational
1. PHWR :-Pressurized heavy water reactors
 18 are PHWR
  Fuel used :- natural uranium oxide
 So need to slow down the speed of neutrons at
 They Do not require enrichment of uranium In
an appropriate level so that they can split the
nucleus and fission can happen of uranium atom these reactors
, the materials used for this is called moderator  Both the Moderator and coolant is heavy water
 These moderators slow down the speed of (D2O)
neutrons in nuclear reactors to a level  Why word “Pressurized”:- the heavy water
appropriate to cause the fission of uranium atom coolant is kept/put under pressure (D2O),
effectively and increase the efficiency of allowing it to be heated to higher temperature
neutrons and through it increase overall without boiling to improve its heat carrying
efficiency of fission reaction capacity of coolant and can transfer heat more
 Commonly used moderators :- heavy water efficiently
D2O, graphite, beryllium
 Note:- Moderators cannot and should not absorb
2. FAST BREEDER REACTOR
neutrons  It is characterized by the presence of more fissile
 Note:- Plain water is not used as it absorbs the material after the reaction , than the amount of
neutrons and forms D2O fissile material that was kept in the reactor
 Note:- plutonium atoms do not require before the reaction
moderator , they can split at fast moving  These reactors are thus breeding more and
neutrons also. They can be readily split even more fissile material as the reaction progresses ,
by the fast moving neutrons. Hence the hence the name breeder reactors
plutonium based reactors would not require  Understand by example given in diagram
moderator

4. Controlling rods :-
 Fission reactions produces a lot of the
neutrons , which if unchecked can cause the
fission chain reaction to go out of control
and may cause explosion
 Thus excess neutrons present in the reactor
are removed by using controlling rods.
neutrons are absorbed by controlling rods
and make them unavailable to cause further
fission
 Commonly Made up of :- boron and
cadmium {They undergo nuclear reaction
and get converted into other substances}

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 As the fission of plutonium 239 progresses , Load factors – power produced as a %age of
more and more of U-238 converts into more and total installed capacity
more of Pu-239 (fissile material), hence we
would end up with more fissile material after the B. DISADVANTAGES/CHALLENGES/
reactor than what we started with. CONCERNS OF FISSION
 What “fast” signifies :- in these reactors the  If the nuclear power is so good why it is not
neutrons are not slow down , because plutonium adopted y so many countries , what are the
atoms do not require moderation of the speed challenges
of neutrons in order to get split , neutrons are 1. There are many entry barriers
allowed to move fast so called “fast” breeder
 Cost:- initial set up cost is huge for nuclear
reactor.
power plant
 Note:- Hence no moderator is required in these
reactors
 External dependence:- as not many
countries have uranium mines and not all
 Generally coolant used in these reactors is liquid
the countries have nuclear technology, so
sodium
they may have to hire both things from
3. LIGHT WATER REACTORS (LWRs)
other countries
 Fuel is natural uranium oxide, sometimes
a. Technology:- requited that technology
enrichment may be required
which is not freely traded
 Moderator and coolant in these is light
b. Raw material or resources:- again like
water(H2O)
uranium , thorium etc are not freely
 Broadly of two types
traded
A. Boiling water reactor (BWR)
 Availability of skilled labour or man
 Coolant that is the light water is not kept
power:- as trained people are required to
under pressure , hence gets converted into
handle nuclear power plants
steam upon coming in contact with the
heated up CORE 2. Safety concern: accidents can still happen
 Heat carrying capacity is low despite all the safety systems being applied to
the nuclear reactors, as no system can be 100%
 First to have in INDIA like Tarapur (MH)
perfect or safe. Such large scale accidents can be
B. Pressurized water reactor(PWRs) catastrophic. Examples are Chernobyl nuclear
 Coolant that is the light water is kept under accident , USSR 1986
pressure 3. Handling Nuclear waste:- radioactive waste if
 ADVANTAGES AND DISADVANTAGES not disposed carefully , may have an effect on
OF NUCLEAR POWER: FISSION the health of operators and the population
nearby
A. ADVANTAGES  What do you think about India , should India go
a) Environment friendly:- nuclear power is aggressively for nuclear energy
considered one of the cleanest sources of energy  Talk about pros and cons first write and in
. this process releases no emissions into conclusion write what govt is doing with way
environment like greenhouse gases , particulate forward for well fare of people of the country as
matter outcome can be any but intent should be welfare
b) Space needed for operating a nuclear power of the people. {even include the climate change
plant is much less as compared to other sources factor and choices of power a country would have
of power generation and compare with other power generations
means like hydro power projects etc}
c) Nuclear power plant consumes a very small
quantity of fuel thus transportation cost is very
less and large fuel storage facilities are not
 INDIA’S NUCLEAR PROGRAMME:
required THREE STAGES
d) Very reliable source of energy:- not affected by  India has consciously proceeded to explore the
adverse condition as in solar & wind energy. It possibility of tapping nuclear energy for the
can provide continuous and uninterrupted purpose of power generation and the Atomic
power at all times Energy Act was framed and implemented with
e) Nuclear power plants are very well suited to the set objectives of using two naturally
meet large demands of power. they can give occurring elements Uranium and Thorium having
better performance even at very high load good potential to be utilized as nuclear fuel in
factors of 80-90% Indian Nuclear Power Reactors.

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 Dr. Homi J Bhabha, who is regarded as the  Both the options are in practice.
father of the Indian nuclear power programme,  As a part of long – term energy strategy,
envisioned the roadmap of the three-stage Japan and France has opted “closed cycle”
nuclear programme.  India preferred a closed cycle mode in view
 The three stage nuclear power programme in of its phased expansion of nuclear power
India had been conceived with the ultimate generation extending through the second
objective of utilizing the country’s vast reserves and third stages.
of Thorium-232.  Indigenous technology for the reprocessing
 India has one of the largest reserves of Thorium of the spent fuel as well as waste
in the world. Thorium, however, cannot be used management programme has been
as a nuclear fuel in its natural state. developed by India through its own
 It needs to be converted into usable ‘fissile’ form comprehensive R&D efforts and
after a series of reactions inside the nuclear reprocessing plants were set up and are in
reactor. operation thereby attaining self - reliance in
 India’s nuclear power programme was conceived this domain.
to be a closed fuel cycle, to be achieved in three 2. STAGE 2: FAST BREEDER REACTOR
sequential stages.
 India’s second stage of nuclear power
 These stages feed into each other in such a way generation envisages the use of Pu-239 obtained
that the spent fuel generated from one stage of from the first stage reactor operation, as the fuel
the cycle is reprocessed and used in the next. core in fast breeder reactors (FBR). The main
 It was designed to breed fuel and to minimize features of FBTR are
the generation of nuclear waste
 Pu-239 serves as the main fissile
element(fuel) in the FBR
 Indian Nuclear Power Generation: Envisages a
 A blanket of U-238 surrounding the fuel core
three stage programme
will undergo nuclear transmutation to
STAGE 1 » Pressurized Heavy Water Reactor
produce fresh Pu-239 as more and more Pu-
STAGE 2 » Fast Breeder Reactor
239 is consumed during the operation.
STAGE 3 » Advanced nuclear power systems for
 Besides a blanket of Th-232 around the FBR
utilization of thorium
core also undergoes neutron capture
1. STAGE 1 » PRESSURIZED HEAVY reactions leading to the formation of U-233.
WATER REACTOR USING U-233 is the nuclear reactor fuel for the third
stage of India’s Nuclear Power Programme.
 Natural UO2 as fuel matrix
 Setting up Pu-239 fuelled fast Breeder
 Heavy water as moderator and coolant
Reactor of 500 MWe power generation is in
 Natural U isotopic composition is 0.7 % fissile U-
advanced stage of completion. Concurrently,
235 and the rest (99.3%) is U-238. In the reactor
it is proposed to use thorium-based fuel,
 The first two plants were of boiling water
along with a small feed of plutonium-based
reactors based on imported technology.
fuel in Advanced Heavy Water Reactors
Subsequent plants are of PHWR type through
(AHWRs).
indigenous R&D efforts. India achieved complete
 The AHWRs are expected to shorten the
self- reliance in this technology and this stage of
period of reaching the stage of large-scale
the programme is in the industrial domain
thorium utilization
 Reprocessing of spent fuel » By an Open 3. STAGE 3: ADVANCED NUCLEAR
Cycle or a Closed Cycle mode.
POWER SYSTEMS FOR UTILIZATION
 “Open cycle” refers to disposal of the entire
waste after subjecting to proper waste OF THORIUM
treatment.  The third phase of India’s Nuclear Power
 This Results in huge underutilization of the Generation programme is, breeder reactors
energy potential of Uranium (~2% is exploited) using U-233 fuel. India’s vast thorium deposits
 “Closed cycle” refers to chemical separation of permit design and operation of U-233 fuelled
U-238 and Pu-239 and further recycling while breeder reactors.
the other radioactive fission products are  U-233 is obtained from the nuclear
separated, sorted out according to their half transmutation of Th-232 used as a blanket in
lives and activity and appropriately disposed off the second phase Pu-239 fuelled FBR.
with minimum environmental disturbance.  Besides, U-233 fuelled breeder reactors will
have a Th-232 blanket around the U-233
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reactor core which will generate more U-233 b. Rawatbhata (2) Rajasthan
as the reactor goes operational thus c. Kudankulam (4) (PWR)
resulting in the production of more and d. Gorakhpur in Haryana (2)(new state having
more U-233 fuel from the Th-232 blanket as nuclear reactor )
more of the U-233 in the fuel core is e. Kalpakkam (1)(PFBR) {T.N} :- includes a 500
consumed helping to sustain the long term MW Prototype Fast Breeder Reactor (PFBR)
power generation fuel requirement. of the second stage of the nuclear power
 These U-233/Th-232 based breeder reactors programme.
are under development and would serve as  It is being constructed by Bharatiya
the mainstay of the final thorium utilization Nabhikiya Vidyut Nigam Limited
stage of the Indian nuclear programme. (BHAVINI) at Kalpakkam (Tamil Nadu).
 The currently known Indian thorium  But, it was designed by Indira Gandhi
reserves can easily meet the energy center for Atomic research (IGCAR) and
requirements during the next century and  fuel is used plutonium-239 and coolant
beyond is liquid sodium
 Additionally the Government has accorded
 NUCLEAR REACTORS IN INDIA administrative approval and financial sanction of
 Operated by :- Nuclear Power Corporation of 10 indigenous PHWRs of 700 MW capacity each,
India Ltd (NPCIL) is the public sector enterprise, to be set up in fleet mode. The locations are
under the Department of Atomic Energy {DAE a. Kaiga (2),
directly report to PMO and does not come under b. Gorakhpur Haryana (2),
any ministry} , entrusted with the task of nuclear c. Chutka in M.P. (2) (new location)
power generation in the country. d. Mahi Banswara in Rajasthan (4). (new
 2% to 3% of total electricity generation is location)
contributed by Nuclear power in India  On progressive completion of the projects under
 Currently, there are 22 operational nuclear construction and accorded sanction, India’s
reactors in India with a total installed capacity of nuclear power capacity is expected to reach
6780 MW. These are 22,480 MW by the year 2031.
 Tarapur[Maharashtra] 1&2 (BWR) – 2X160  More nuclear power plants are also planned for
MW; the future.
 Tarapur [Maharashtra] 3&4 (PHWR) – 2X540
MW  While opting a location for nuclear reactor
 Rawatbhata [Rajasthan] 1to6 (PHWR) – 100  Nuclear fission is not the criteria
MW +200MW + 4X220 MW  Areas where consumption is more of electricity
 Madras[T.N.] 1&2(PHWR) – 2X220 MW; like Narora has Delhi NCR nearby for huge
 Kudankulam [T.N.] 1&2(PWR) – 2X1000 MW consumption
 Narora [U.P.] 1&2 (PHWR) – 2X220 MW;  Strategically vulnerable areas are avoided like
 Kaiga [Karnataka] 1to4 ((PHWR) – 4X220 near border areas etc
MW;  Disaster prone areas may also be avoided like
 Kakrapar[Gujarat] 1&2(PHWR) – 2X220 MW high seismic zone areas etc
 Out of 22 operational reactors  THE RELEVANCE OF NUCLEAR
a. PHWR = 18
b. PWR =2 in Kudankulam made in ENERGY FOR INDIA
collaboration with Russia 1. Growing energy needs of India:
c. BWR= 2 in Tarapur  India is a growing economy, living standards
,population and so its energy requirements are
 UPCOMING REACTORS bound to increase in the future.
 Total 11 are planned out of which 1 is  To meet the increased demand we will have to
constructed completely  increase the production,
 Kakrapar Unit-3, the first reactor in the 700  cut down the dependence on fossil fuels
MWe PHWR series, has been commissioned in because of climate concerns and for
July 2020 and is currently undergoing tests international commitments
before it enters commercial operation  hence we have to explore clean energy
 In addition to this 10 more nuclear reactors with sources , nuclear energy being one of them
a total of 8000 MW capacity are under  Though today India is the third largest producer
construction in of electricity in the world yet at 1181 kWh in
a. Kakrapar(1) Gujarat
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2018-19, the per capita electricity consumption provide continuous supply of electricity at all
is still very low. {may be because that large times. So called “Intermittent sources of
number of people do not have access of energy”
electricity or affordability problem } c) External dependence:- Solar plants carry a
 This compares poorly with Canada’s 17,179 dependence on imported technology and
kWh, 13,338 kWh in the US and about 3000 kWh imported materials.
even in China. d) Energy Storage problem:- Another solar and
 Thus India needs to scale up electricity wind power generation related handicap is in
production to assure a reasonable quality of life energy storage, which makes them unsuitable as
to its citizens. a base load source of electricity
 Thus the choice is not between nuclear and  (Base load refers to the minimum amount of
renewables but to include all available sources electric power needed to be supplied to the
including nuclear. electrical grid at any given time).
 Note:- full electrification of the houses even in  To be a renewable 2. Replenish able
villages is under Saubhagya scheme under
resources have two  Biomass
ministry of Power
conditions
2. Large scale imports of fossil fuels 1. Inexhaustible
increase economic and strategic  Solar, wind, hydro
vulnerabilities:
 Currently, India draws nearly 63% of its total
 Conclusion:- Nuclear power does not have
the above limitations and hence it is the suitable
energy generation from thermal sources. replacement for fossil fuels as for power generation.
 Of this, nearly 55% is met from coal and the rest It can help in cutting down our dependence on the
from gas, with a minuscule amount from oil- imported fossil fuels
fired plants.
 Even more than 80% of crude oil is imported in  TOPIC :- NUCLEAR FUSION
India  Nuclear fusion reactors are Doughnut shaped
 India imports a significant part of its fossil fuels vacuum vessels
(essential imports) which raises economic and  They are called “TOKAMAK” reactors
strategic vulnerabilities inside India.
3. Environment friendly:
 Large scale use of coal has severe consequences
for global warming, climate change and
environmental pollution.
 India’s per capita carbon emission stand at 1-1.2
tons, compared to 20 tons per capita of US.
 If a growing Indian economy continues to rely on
coal, carbon emissions are bound to rise.
 This will impact national expenditure on
domestic environmental and health measures,
as also India’s global obligations.
 Nuclear energy, in this context, offers a
meaningful alternative.
4. Limitations of Renewable Energy:
 Renewable energy sources like solar, wind are
environmental-friendly but have some
limitations. {not nuclear is not a renewable
source note it}
a) Land intensive:- Solar and wind energy
generation is land-intensive as comparison of
other sources of energy generation for same  Wires are used in which electricity is passed ad
quantity of energy Magnetic field is created and fuel is placed and
b) Non-Reliable Sources:- as they are affected by confined inside this magnetic fuel and does not
adverse weather conditions. They cannot

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touch the walls of reactor (magnetic  Fusion fuels are widely available and nearly
confinement inexhaustible
 ITER:- INTERNATIONAL THERMONUCLEAR  Deuterium can be extracted from all forms of
EXPERIMENTAL REACTOR (FRANCE) water, while tritium will be produced during
 It is a large scale scientific experiment that aims fusion reaction. As fusion neutrons react with
to demonstrate the technological and scientific lithium (tritium breeding:- as tritium can be
feasibility of fusion energy created inside reactor also)
 ITER is based on tokamak concept of magnetic  Note:- tritium can be created from lithium but in
confinement, in which the plasma is contained in direct form it is very scarce, but lithium is very
a Doughnut shaped vacuum vessels abundant
 Fuel is a mixture of deuterium and tritium, the  Fusion reaction
two isotopes of hydrogen +  + + Energy (a lot)
 Fuel is heated at As high as 100millionOC or Deuterium + Tritium  Helium + Fusion neutron
more forming a hot plasma (ionized gas) + Energy
 Strong magnetic fields are used to keep the  Tritium breeding
plasma away from the walls of the reactor .this +  +
magnetic field is created by passing current
Lithium+ fusion neutron Helium + Tritium
through the superconducting coils surrounding
Here lithium is present as layer inside the
the vessel
nuclear reactor
 Scientific goal of ITER:-is to deliver 10 times the
 Terrestrial reserves of lithium would permit the
power it consumes i.e. from 50megawatt of
operation of fusion power plants for more than
input power, the ITER aims to deliver
1000 years ,while the sea based reserves of
500megawatt of output power
lithium would fulfill the needs for millions of
 Note:- still not successful all along the world , so
years
is not commercial yet
3) Clean source energy/environment friendly
 Members of ITER:-
 It is one of the cleanest sources of energy as the
 35 nations= 7 members (as European
major byproduct this reaction is helium, which is
nations are considered as 1 member)
inert gas (non-reactive, so no problem)
 6+1= 7 members will share the cost of the
 It is even cleaner than the fission reaction as no
project with highest contribution coming
radioactive byproducts are formed/generated in
from European union(around 45.6%), and
this process
rest will be shared equally by other 6
 (note :- fuel the tritium is radioactive not
members (around 9.1% each)
byproduct )
 These 7 members will also share the
experimental results and the intellectual 4) No risk of meltdown / safety
 A large scale nuclear accident is not possible in a
property (IPR) generated during the
experiment tokamak fusion reactor. It is difficult enough to
1) 1= European union reach and maintain the precise conditions
2) India necessary for fusions, if any disturbance occurs,
3) Japan the plasma cools within seconds and the
4) China reaction stops
 More secure than a fission reactor as fusion is
5) South Korea
6) Russia not a self-sustained reaction and simple stops if
7) USA any problem is there in reactor (plasma gets
 ITER would be the world’s largest tokamak
sudden cooler)
fusion reactor and it is described as the most 5) No risk of proliferation
 here means a massing of nuclear weapons
expensive science experiment of all time.
cannot be possible here as there is no fissile
 ADVANTAGES OF NUCLEAR FUSION material there
1) Abundant source of energy:-
 Nuclear fusion releases nearly 4 million times
more energy than a chemical reaction such as
burning of coal and 4 times as much as nuclear
fission, for the same amount of mass.

2) Sustainable source of energy

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 TOPIC:- NANO-TECHNOLOGY a) Graphene:- (Very Important Material)
 It is one single atom thick honey comb
 Nano= small size scale than the bacteria or even
(hexagonal) lattice of carbon atoms.
smaller than virus
 Nannos a Greek word called a short man or
dwarf where the name derived
 In scientific units Nano represents one billionth
of a meter
 Nano= 10-9 of a base unit
 Like 0ne nano meter (1nm)= 10-9 meter
 THE NANO SCALE
 It is a range of size, ranges from 1nm to 100nm.
 It is the size scale at which nano technology  Discovered in 2004, and scientist (Andre
operates Geim and Konstantin Novoselov) got noble
 A well accepted convention is that for something prize in 2010 for this
to exist on nano scale, at least one of its  Considered as the New wonder material
dimensions must be less than 100nm. ,because it has impressive collection of
 Nano scale is smaller than the size of bacteria super properties and has divergent
(10-6= 1micrometer of bacteria) and of even properties that cannot be found in single
virus (100nm) material like
 WHY ONLY THIS SIZE SCALE IS PREFFERED  Graphene properties:-
 One of strongest materials , many times
FOR NANO TECNOLOGY.
stronger than steel (100times) yet much
 Materials may exhibit significantly different
lighter than aluminum
properties at nano-scale than what they show at
 Harder than diamond (when hammered)
macro scale
yet more elastic than rubber
 At nano scale there may be a change in the
 Electrical conductivity is better than
physical properties, chemical properties,
silver and many times (13 times ) than
magnetic properties, electrical and heat
copper
conductivity etc
 It conducts heat 2 times better than
 Materials may acquire some entirely new
diamond
properties at nano scale than that of at macro
 Almost transparent
scale means there is a transitional phase of
 It is impervious (non-porous) so that
properties when the material goes through
even helium cannot pass through it
macro to nano scale.
 It has a very high surface area per unit
 Analyse the following examples:-
mass. With less than 3 grams of
1) Gold Graphene we can cover an entire
 At macro scale = solid ,yellow colour, chemically non- football field
reactive
b) Carbon nano tubes
 At nano scale= gold may exhibit different colours
 Cylindrical molecules that consist of rolled
depending upon the size of its nano particles (red,
yellow, purple) , becomes chemically very reactive
up sheets of Graphene
c) Fullerene (C-60)
2) Silver  Carbon cage structure
 At nano scale=
 Named after the famous architect
 silver also exhibits different colors at nano scale
like red ,yellow, blue
Buckminster fuller as he made geodesic
 becomes bactericidal means it starts killing domes whose structure resembles with this
bacteria (even used commercially now also like C-60 fullerene .
in soaps and hand washes like in life boy soap  These are the spherical molecules having
has nano silver) diameters on the nano-scale
3) Copper  It consists of 60 carbon atoms arranged as
 At nano scale= Becomes transparent 20 hexagons and 12 pentagons (like in a
4) Carbon football)
 Allotropes (different structural forms) at nano-
scale like the following
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d) But at nano-scale atomic level forces like
electromagnetic force etc become more
dominant in determining the behavior of
materials and macro level forces have very little
influence
e) Thus we can say that the game of science has
different rules when we play it at the nano-scale
 DEFINITION OF NANO-TECHNOLOGY
 Refers to technology which enables us to see
understand and manipulate matter at nano-
scale
 It enables us to exploit novel properties at that
scale

 C-60 was named Buckminster fullerene in

 NANO-TECH…APPLICATIONS
recognition of Buckminster fuller (an A. IN FIELD OF MEDICINE
Architect), who was well known for building
geodesic domes, which the carbon cage 1) Targeted drug delivery: -
structure resembles.  Targeted drug delivery is a system of specifying
 The term fullerene is now used for any the drug moiety directly into its targeted body
carbon cage structure. area using nano-particles as drug carriers
(organ, cellular, and subcellular level of specific
5) Quantum Dots:- (QDs) tissue) to overcome the aspecific toxic effect of
 Q technology is used in TV, LED as like Samsung conventional drug delivery, thereby reducing the
Q-LED s, In which Q represents quantum amount of drug required for therapeutic
 They are Nano scale semiconductor particles efficacy.
 They emit light of specific wavelength, if  Nano-particles containing nano-sized drug is
electricity or light is applied to them, and these attached to antibody , which acts as a guide to
wavelengths can be precisely tuned by changing take them precisely to the infected cell’s
the Dots’ size, shape and material, giving rise to location
many applications specially in display  Benefits are that
technologies like TVs a) infected cells get the adequate quantity of
 Larger QDs emit longer wavelengths like orange, the drug
red etc and smaller QDs shorter wavelengths like b) The healthy cells do not get the unnecessary
green, blue etc dose of the drug, hence limited side effects
6) In Textiles:- c) Very small quantity of drug is required
 Like in socks these (Silver) are being used as 2) Targeted heat Therapy’s
antibacterial, and sold as odor less socks.
 Gold nano-particles are targeted to bind to
7) Water filterers:- cancer cells by attaching antibody to their
 these materials are being used as antibacterial
surface
 WHY DO MATERIALS BEHAVE DIFFERENTLY  The infected area is then irradiated with infrared
AT NANO-SCALE? laser which passes through the body flesh
a) Vastly increased in the surface area-to- volume without heating it but gold nano-particles get
ratio at nano-scale. Thus as the particle size heated significantly leading to the death of
decreases, a greater portion of the atom found surrounding cancer cells.
on the surface as compare to those inside  This laser can pass through body flesh but cant
 Thus all this surface related phenomenon or process heat up skin, but makes heat up of the gold nano
would get more magnified or pronounced particles significantly and all cells in vicinity of
 For example= chemical reactivity gold nano particles get destroyed (cancer cells)
b) Quantum mechanicals plays a dominant role at and healthy cells would largely be protected
nano-scale d classical laws of physics play a
negligible role
3) Medial nano-robots
 Nano-sized robots will navigate inside the
c) At macro scale forces like gravity, friction etc
play a very dominant role in determining the human body, transport important molecules and
behavior of materials
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communicate with the devices outside by way of in binding and removing arsenic from the ground
miniature senses water
 They would detect the occurrence of any disease  Silver nano-coating in water filters act as
at a very early stage bactericidal
 They can also be made to act like artificial RBC or
artificial WBC
D. IN FIELD OF COSMETICS
 Nano-particles of zinc-oxide (ZnO) & Titanium-
4) Diagnosis Dioxide (TiO2), they are very effective in
 Lab-on-a-chip : nano-scale diagnostic device, absorbing the ultra violet radiations and are
would be able to conduct multiple lab tests on a widely used in sunscreen creams
single platforms and would be much faster and
will require extremely small fluid volume E. IN FIELD OF TEXTILES
 Such nano-fibers are being developed which
2020 Mains Question
What do you understand by nano-technology makes the clothes water and stain repellant and
and how is it helping in the health sector? wrinkle free
 Use of nano-silver in textiles will not allow the

B. IN FIELD OF AGRICULTURE growth of bacteria on the body

a) Precision farming F. IN FIELD OF ENERGY
 Precision farming with the help of nano-sensors  Solar cells: nano-particles of Indium salinide,
dispersed in the field and smart delivery drastically increase the conversion efficiency of
systems, efficient use of resources like water , solar cells of solar energy into electrical energy
fertilizers etc can be done
 Nano-sensors detect what the plant requires and
G. IN FIELD OF IT & ELECTRONICS
then delivery systems release whatever it  The use of carbon nano tubes, Graphene and
requires in optimum quantity other nano materials would help in further
miniaturization of electronics devices and
b) Nano-urea increasing the data storage capacity of the
 LIQUID NANO-UREA storage devices
 IFFCO:- developed liquid nano-urea which reduces
wastage of UREA and can bring down govt subsidy
burden
 MISSION ON NANO S&T
 It is developed to replace conventional urea and it (NANO MISSION)
can curtail the requirement of the same by at least
50%.
 Nano Technology is a knowledge-intensive
 It contains 40,000 mg/L of nitrogen in a 500 ml bottle and "enabling technology" which is expected
which is equivalent to the impact of nitrogen nutrient to influence a wide range of products and
provided by one bag of conventional urea processes with far-reaching implications for
 Bottle price= 240Rs the national economy and development.
 Efficiency: - 85-90% contrast to conventional
urea(25%)  NANO-S&T INITIATIVE (NSTI)
 PM Modi visited Gujarat “kalol” first nano urea plant  To create the background and infrastructure for
 India has become the first country globally to start R&D in Nano-science & technology, Nano
commercial production of nano urea. kalol plant has Science & Technology Initiative (NSTI) was rolled
been set up by Indian farmers' fertilizer cooperative out in the time period of 2001 to 2006 by
limited (IFFCO) with an investment of rs 175 crore
Department of Science and Technology (DST).
 Ramesh Raliya developed Nano Urea at Nano
Across India, 19 Centres of Excellence have been
Biotechnology Research Centre (NBRC)
 White in colour
established for research, development and
applications of nanotechnology.
C. IN FIELD OF PURIFICATION OF WATER
 There are many areas where ground water have  NANO-S&T MISSION (NSTM)
Arsenic content (in India) and many of these  Building upon the promotional activities carried
areas are not advanced areas out as part of the Nano Science and Technology
 In these areas we can develop such water filters Initiative (NSTI)the Government of India
which have ferrous oxide nano-particles, which launched a Mission on Nano Science and
have capability in binding with arsenic and Nano- Technology (Nano Mission) in May 2007 with a
particles of ferrous oxide are extremely effective budget outlay of Rs. 1000 crores.

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 The Nano Mission is an umbrella programme for publications in Nano science and technology
capacity building which envisages the overall (moving from 4th to the 3rd position). Nano
development of this field of research in the mission has resulted in some useful products like
country and to tap some of its applied potential Nano hydrogen based eye drops, pesticide
for nation’s development. In brief, the objectives removal technology for drinking water, water
of the Nano-Mission are: filters for arsenic and fluoride removal, nano
1) Basic Research Promotion – silver based antimicrobial textile coating, etc.
 Funding of basic research by individual scientists  Indian scientists have been given access to
and/or groups of scientists and creation of global state-of-the-art facilities like the Photon
centres of excellence for Nano science research. Factory at Tsukuba, Japan and PETRA III in
2) Nano Applications & Technology Development Hamburg, Germany. The Nano Mission has
Programmes- orchestrated national dialogues to promote R&D
 To catalyze Applications and Technology in development of standards for nanotechnology
Development Programmes leading to products and for laying down a National Regulatory
and devices, the Mission proposes to promote Framework Road-Map for Nanotechnology
application-oriented R&D Projects. Special effort (NRFR-Nanotech). The Nano Mission has thus
will be made to involve the industrial sector into helped establish a good ecosystem in the
nanotechnology R&D directly or through Public country to pursue front-ranking basic research
Private Partnership (PPP) ventures. and also to seed and nurture application-
3) Infrastructure development for nano science & oriented R&D, focused on useful technologies
technology research and products.
 Equipments , devices in eminent institutions (like
providing labs etc)  RISKS/CONCERNS OF NANO-
4) Human Resource Development-
 Providing effective education and training to
TECHNOLOGY
researchers and professionals in diversified fields 1) HEALTH AND ENVIRONMENT
so that a genuine interdisciplinary culture for  Nanoparticles are easily inhaled. They can pass
Nano science, engineering and technology can from the lungs into the bloodstream and other
emerge. organs. Once they’re inside the body, it’s not
5) International Collaborations- clear how long they remain or what they do.
 Apart from exploratory visits of scientists,  What’s more, current science has no way/means
organization of joint workshops and conferences of testing for nano-waste in the air or water, and
and joint research projects, it is also planned to no way of cleaning up such pollution.
facilitate access to sophisticated research  Some studies have revealed that Nanoparticles
facilities abroad, establish joint centres of like zinc oxide and titanium dioxide used in
excellence and forge academia-industry sunscreens could potentially penetrate skin and
partnerships at the international level wherever potentially increase free radical activity.
required and desirable.  Because of their super small size, nanoparticles
can slip through wastewater treatment plants
 SECOND PHASE OF NSTM and survive to take up residence in our rivers,
 The Union Cabinet gave its approval for streams, and other waterways, as well as in our
continuation of the Mission on Nano Science and soils.
Technology (Nano Mission) in its Phase-II in the  A 2011 animal study discovered that silver
12th Plan Period at a total cost of Rs. 650 crores. nanoparticles, when inhaled, caused lung
 The Nano Mission, in this new phase, will also toxicity and inflammation. A research showed
make greater effort to promote application that carbon nanoparticles (used in plastics and
oriented R&D so that some useful products, computer chips) could damage the lungs in a
processes and technologies also emerge. It will way similar to that of asbestos, potentially
be anchored in the Department of Science and leading to an increased risk of lung cancer.
Technology and steered by a Nano Mission  Researchers have discovered that silver
Council chaired by an eminent scientist.(CNR nanoparticles used in socks to reduce foot odour
Rao) are being released in the wash with possible
 As a result of the efforts led by the Nano negative consequences. Silver nanoparticles
Mission, today, India is amongst the top five which are bactericidal may then destroy
nations in the world in terms of scientific beneficial bacteria which are important for

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breaking down organic matter in waste
treatment plants or farms.

2) PRIVACY:
 As products shrink in size, spying devices too can
become invisible to the naked eye and more
mobile, making it easier to invade our privacy.
3) MILITARY:
 Nanotechnology could result in untraceable
weapons of mass destruction. It could create
new threats that are hard to detect and counter.
4) NANO DIVIDE:
 Nano-Technology can widen the gap between
rich and the poor.


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