AUTOMATIC CONTROL 1

ME412: AUTOMATIC CONTROL (3 UNITS)

(LECTURE NOTE)

By

Engr. Dr. I. S. Sintali

Department of Mechanical Engineering

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1.0 INTRODUCTION

The word “control” finds several meanings as command, direct,

govern or regulate. A control system may be regarded as a group of
physical components arranged to direct the flow of energy to a machine or
process in such a manner as to achieve the desired performance. The word
automatic means self-moving or self-acting. Thus, automatic control system
is a self-acting control system. In other word, automatic control system is
defined as an inter-connection of several components all working together
to perform a certain function. More specifically, automatic control system
can be described as a group of components which respond to a signal. The
response of these components is the performance of a function. The signal
which causes the components to operate and perform their individual
function is called an actuating signal.
Automatic control however played a vital role in the advancement of
engineering and science. In addition to this, extreme importance in space
vehicle systems, missile guidance systems, robotic systems and the like.
Automatic control has become an important and integral part of modern
manufacturing and industrial processes involving control of temperature,
pressure, humidity, flow, etc. For example, automatic control is essential in
the design of auto-pilot systems in aerospace industries and in the design of
cars and trucks in automobile industries.
Definitions: Before we can discuss control systems, some basic
terminologies must be defined.

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Controlled Variable and Control Signal or Manipulated Variable. The

controlled variable is the quantity or condition that is measured and
controlled. The control signal or manipulated variable is the quantity or
condition that is varied by the controller so as to affect the value of the
controlled variable. Normally, the controlled variable is the output of the
system. Control means measuring the value of the controlled variable of
the system by applying the control signal to the system to correct or limit
deviation of the measured value from a desired value.
Plant: A plant may be a piece of equipment, perhaps just a set of
machine parts functioning together the purpose of which is to perform a
particular operation.
Process: The Merriam–Webster Dictionary defines a process to be a
natural, progressively continuing operation or development marked by a
series of gradual changes that succeed one another in a relatively fixed way
and lead toward a particular result or end; or an artificial or voluntary
progressively continuing operation that consists of a series of controlled
actions or movements systematically directed toward a particular result or
end. Examples are chemical, economic, and biological processes.
System: A system is a combination of components that act together
and perform a certain objective. A system need not be physical. The
concept of the system can be applied to abstract, dynamic phenomena
such as those encountered in economics. The word system should,
therefore, be interpreted to imply physical, biological, economic, and the
like, systems.

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Disturbance: A disturbance is a signal that tends to adversely affect

the value of the output of a system. If a disturbance is generated within the
system, it is called internal, while an external disturbance is generated
outside the system and is an input.
Feedback Control: Feedback control refers to an operation that, in
the presence of disturbances, tends to reduce or increase the difference
between the output of a system and some reference input and does so, on
the basis of this difference. Here only unpredictable disturbances are so
specified, since predictable or known disturbances can always be
compensated for within the system

1.1 Loop Systems

Feedback Control System: A system that maintains a prescribed

relationship between the output and the reference input by comparing
them and using the difference as a means of control is called a feedback
control system. An example would be a room temperature control system.
By measuring the actual room temperature and comparing it with the
reference temperature (desired temperature), the thermostat turns the
heating or cooling equipment on or off in such a way as to ensure that the
room temperature remains at a comfortable level regardless of outside
conditions. Feedback control systems are not limited to engineering but can
be found in various non-engineering fields as well. The human body, for
instance, is a highly advanced feedback control system. Both body
temperature and blood pressure are kept constant by means of
physiological feedback. In fact, feedback performs a vital function: It makes

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the human body relatively insensitive to external disturbances, thus

enabling it to function properly in a changing environment.

The broad concept of control system can be subdivided into two

basic categories, open loop control system and closed loop control system.

Open-Loop Control Systems: Those systems in which the output has

no effect on the control action are called open-loop control systems. In
other words, in an open loop control system the output is neither
measured nor fed back for comparison with the input. The actuating signal
is made up solely of an input signal which represents the command to the
system. One practical example is a washing machine. Soaking, washing, and
rinsing in the washer operate on a time basis. The machine does not
measure the output signal, that is, the cleanliness of the clothes.

Closed-Loop Control Systems: Feedback control systems are often

referred to as closed-loop control systems. In practice, the terms feedback
control and closed-loop control are used interchangeably. In a closed-loop
control system the actuating error signal, which is the difference between
the input signal and the feedback signal (which may be the output signal
itself or a function of the output signal and its derivatives and/or integrals),
is fed to the controller so as to reduce the error and bring the output of the
system to a desired value. The term closed-loop control always implies the
use of feedback control action in order to reduce system error.

The functional diagrams shown below will help clarify the difference
between open and closed loop control systems.

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Desired Output Actuating Device Process

Out Put
Response

Fig. 1: Functional Diagram of an open loop control system

Desired Output
Comparison Controller Process Out put
Response

Measurement

Fig. 2: Functional Diagram of a closed loop control system

Desired Output
Comparison Controller Process Out put
Response

Measurement

Fig. 3: Functional Diagram of a Multivariable control system

An advantage of the closed loop control system is the fact that the
use of feedback makes the system response relatively insensitive to
external disturbances and internal variations in system parameters. It is
thus possible to use relatively inaccurate and inexpensive components to
obtain the accurate control of a given plant, whereas doing so is impossible
in the open-loop case. From the point of view of stability, the open-loop
control system is easier to build because system stability is not a major
problem. On the other hand, stability is a major problem in the closed-loop
control system, which may tend to overcorrect errors and thereby can

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cause oscillations of constant or changing amplitude. It should be

emphasized that for systems in which the inputs are known ahead of time
and in which there are no disturbances it is advisable to use open-loop
control. Closed-loop control systems have advantages only when
unpredictable disturbances and/or unpredictable variations in system
components are present. Note that the output power rating partially
determines the cost, weight, and size of a control system. The number of
components used in a closed-loop control system is more than that for a
corresponding open-loop control system. Thus, the closed-loop control
system is generally higher in cost and power. To decrease the required
power of a system, open loop control may be used where applicable. A
proper combination of open-loop and closed-loop controls is usually less
expensive and will give satisfactory overall system performance.

The major advantages of open-loop control systems are as follows:

i. Simple construction and ease of maintenance.

ii. Less expensive than a corresponding closed-loop system.
iii. There is no stability problem.
iv. Convenient when output is hard to measure or measuring the output
precisely is economically not feasible.

The major disadvantages of open-loop control systems are as follows:

i. Disturbances and changes in calibration cause errors, and the output

may be different from what is desired.

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ii. To maintain the required quality in the output, recalibration is

necessary from time to time.

1.1.1 Example of a Typical Control System

Let us consider a simple mechanism of a control system (an oven).

Assume that the oven is heated by an electric heater controlled by a switch
as shown in the figure below:

Switch Input
Temperature
Power Source
Oven
Current
Heating Element
Power Source
Fig. 3: Open loop Temperature – Oven Control System

The setting of the switch represents the input quantity, since it

actuates the system to produce output. The temperature of the system is
the output. The current is termed the manipulated quantity, since the
current to the heater is being altered. For given setting of the switch, the
temperature of the oven will reach a value related to the heater current
and heat losses through the oven walls. But in most cases, the desired
temperature may not be satisfactory and this fact can in no way alter the
input to the oven. Thus, it is said that the output quantity has no effect on
the input quantity. This type of control is called an open loop control
system.

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For the purpose of maintaining the oven temperature at a desired

value, a human being can be added into the system. By observing the
thermometer, the temperature of the oven can be read out and controlling
(adjusting the switch) the desired temperature can be achieved. If the
current is too high, the current is reduced and vise-visa with the help of the
switch. By the introduction of the human being there is now an effect of
the output quantity. In this case, the man is the comparator in that he
compares the desired value with the reference value in mind to execute the
command. However, the arrangement is time consuming, in that he has to
continue altering the switch setting until desired value is attained. This
arrangement is called a manual closed loop control system.

To further improve performance and obtain more precise control,

the human being may be replaced by mechanical or other form of control
mechanism or control unit. The thermocouple generates an electrical
voltage proportional to temperature. The temperature in the oven is
measured by a thermocouple in form of voltage. This voltage is fed back
and compared with the reference voltage that represents the desired
temperature. The difference between the two voltages is amplified
electronically and controls the current and thus the heating element. This is
called automatic control system.

1.1.2 Advantages of Feedback include the following:

i. Increase accuracy (Reduce the steady-state Error)

ii. Reduced sensitivity to parameter variations

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iii. Reduced effects of disturbances

iv. Increased speed of response and band width

1.1.3 Basically there are two problems in control system

i. The characteristics or properties to be fixed and we wish to keep it so

fixed irrespective of variation in other properties of the system.
Variations may be caused by external disturbance. This is called the
regular problem.
ii. The properties of the process are to be varied according to the
desired fashion and this system is required to keep in step with the
variation. This called the servo-mechanism or tracking problem.

1.2 Stability

In the study of stability, our major interest is how a system reacts to

a change. If the position of a new condition causes the system to go else-
where, the system is said to be unstable, then a controlling device is
needed to make it stable. Stability is the ability of a system to avoid
sustained oscillation. According to the usual definition of stability, a stable
system is one in which a bounded input produces a bounded output. The
whole study of control theories is hinged around the desire to stabilize the
dynamic system. Let us consider the simple mechanical analogy shown
below;
Ball

Support

Stable unstable

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Here balls are placed on supports, the output being represented by

the movement of the ball. The one which is placed on a concave support is
said to be stable, since after any disturbance, short of one which knocks the
ball out of its support, it remains to its stable state at the bottom of the
curve. The ball which is paced on top of the convex support is said to be
unstable, as any disturbance results in the ball falling and the desired
operating state with the ball on the apex is never achieved. Between the
stable and unstable condition lies the conditionally stable system. This form
of stability is just as unsatisfactory as an unstable one.

A stable control system will always return to a stable operating state,

short of catastrophic failures. In an unstable system any disturbance will
result in oscillations building up until some part fails. In the language of
control theorem, the ratio of the output quantity to the input quantity is
called the transfer function and is equal to 1.

𝑂𝑢𝑡𝑝𝑢𝑡
𝑇𝑟𝑎𝑛𝑠𝑓𝑒𝑟 𝐹𝑢𝑛𝑐𝑡𝑖𝑜𝑛 = =1
𝑖𝑛𝑝𝑢𝑡

In practice however, all real systems have certain characteristics that

this ideal behavior being almost impossible. These characteristics include;

i. Inertia – energy storage which causes a system to have phase system

(Lagging)
ii. Elasticity which causes oscillations
iii. Damping – which causes change in magnitude

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2.0 Modeling
Before we attempt to design a control device for any system, we
have to test whether the system stabilizes or not. There are basically two
ways to do this.
i. Perturbed the actual system or subject it to actual input signal and
determine how it responds. Now use trial and error control until a
suitable control is achieved.
ii. Propose a physical and mathematical model of the system, using
suitable assumptions to an idealization by experimenting with the
real system. Determine the parameters of the model and then use
the model to select a proper controlling scheme. When an
appropriate model has been formed with respect to any type of input
signal, then the response to any type of input signal can easily be
determine by the computational method alone. However, at the
experimental stage, the response of the system selected signal gives
some good hints as to the stability of the system. The main type of
standard signals used are;

a. Impulse signal b. Step signal

c. Ramp Signal d. Periodic signal

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Model of physical systems are usually derived using physical laws such as;

i. Newton’s law of motion

ii. 1st and 2nd laws of thermodynamics
iii. Kirchhoff and Faraday’s laws

In most cases the model takes the form of near ordinary differential
equations. One major example of a control system is the servo of the
angular position of heavy masses especially where absolute precision is
important.

As an example, consider the following; an anti-aircraft gun is

mounted on rotating platform such that it can be rotated at very fast speed
in order to aim the gun at an attacking aircraft. The input signal for rotating
the platform comes from radial instrument to the electric motor. Let the
required input to electric motor be 𝜃𝑖(𝑡) ; suppose the rotation of the motor
causes the platform to rotate through a variable angle 𝜃𝑜(𝑡) . The basic
question of interest is how the output compares with the input
[ 𝜃𝑜(𝑡) , 𝜃𝑖(𝑡) ].
Gun

Motor Platform
𝜃𝑖(𝑡)
Bearing

2.1 Physical Model

To answer the above question, we proceed to model the system first;

we make some assumptions and idealizations:

i. The platform and the gun is a simple rigid body to make one mass

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ii. That the friction at the bearing is wet and hence a linear damper
iii. That the error [𝜀 = 𝜃𝑖(𝑡) − 𝜃𝑜(𝑡) ]is small and therefore linear
analysis applies.
iv. The presence of external disturbance, e.g. wind and some internal
losses are negligible.
v. That the shaft connecting the motor to the platform is rigid

𝜃𝑜
𝜃𝑖(𝑡) Motor C

Damper

The presence of inertia I and the damping C would make the

response unpredictable depending on several factors. Suppose the value of
𝜃𝑖(𝑡) is compared with 𝜃𝑜(𝑡) and the error signal is amplified and fed to the
motor for correction, then we have a feedback control system as follows:

C(s)+ 𝜃𝑜(𝑡)
𝜃𝑖(𝑡)
Amplifier Motor
R(s)-
Damper
Measurement

2.2 Mathematical Modeling

A mathematical model of a dynamic system is defined as a set of

equations that represents the dynamics of the system accurately, or at
least fairly well. Note that a mathematical model is not unique to a given
system. A system may be represented in many different ways and,
therefore, may have many mathematical models, depending on one’s
perspective. The dynamics of many systems, whether they are mechanical,

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electrical, thermal, economic, biological, and so on, may be described in

terms of differential equations. Such differential equations may be
obtained by using physical laws governing a particular system—for
example, Newton’s laws for mechanical systems and Kirchhoff’s laws for
electrical systems. We must always keep in mind that deriving reasonable
mathematical models is the most important part of the entire analysis of
control systems. For us to achieve a successful model we need to take note
off the following:

Simplicity versus Accuracy: In obtaining a mathematical model, we

must make a compromise between the simplicity of the model and the
accuracy of the results of the analysis. In deriving a reasonably simplified
mathematical model, we frequently find it necessary to ignore certain
inherent physical properties of the system. In particular, if a linear lumped-
parameter mathematical model (that is, one employing ordinary
differential equations) is desired, it is always necessary to ignore certain
nonlinearities and distributed parameters that may be present in the
physical system. If the effects that these ignored properties have on the
response are small, good agreements will be obtained between the results
of the analysis of a mathematical model and the results of the experimental
study of the physical system. For example, the mass of a spring may be
neglected in low frequency operations, but it becomes an important
property of the system at high frequencies.

Linear Systems: A system is called linear if the principle of superposition

applies. The principle of superposition states that the response produced

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by the simultaneous application of two different forcing functions is the

sum of the two individual responses. Hence, for the linear system, the
response to several inputs can be calculated by treating one input at a time
and adding the results. It is this principle that allows one to build up
complicated solutions to the linear differential equation from simple
solutions.

Linear Time-Invariant Systems and Linear Time-Varying Systems: A

differential equation is linear if the coefficients are constants or functions
only of the independent variable. Dynamic systems that are composed of
linear time-invariant lumped-parameter components may be described by
linear time-invariant differential equations—that is, constant-coefficient
differential equations. Such systems are called linear time-invariant (or
linear constant-coefficient) systems. Systems that are represented by
differential equations whose coefficients are functions of time are called
linear time-varying systems. An example of a time-varying control system is
a spacecraft control system. (The mass of a spacecraft changes due to fuel
consumption.)

Now let us develop the mathematical model of the system. As a first

approximation, we assume that the potentiometer is a perfect one, then;

Torque from the motor 𝑇𝑚 = 𝑘 × 𝜀

Where; 𝜀 = (𝜃𝑖 − 𝜃𝑜 )

and k is the stiffness of the rotor.

Hence; 𝑇𝑚 = 𝑘(𝜃𝑖 − 𝜃𝑜 )

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𝑑𝜃𝑜
Torque from the damper 𝑇𝐷 = 𝐶
𝑑𝑡

By Newton’s second law of motion, it is said that, the sum of the

vectors of the moment is equal to the product of the inertia and the
angular acceleration.
𝑑 2 𝜃𝑜
Σ𝑚
̅̅̅ = 𝐼𝛼̅ where 𝛼 =
𝑑𝑡 2

𝑑 2 𝜃𝑜
Σ𝑚
̅̅̅ = 𝐼
𝑑𝑡 2

But this model Σ𝑚

̅̅̅ = 𝑇𝑚 − 𝑇𝐷
𝑑𝜃𝑜
̅̅̅ = 𝑘(𝜃𝑖 − 𝜃𝑜 ) − 𝐶
Σ𝑚
𝑑𝑡

𝑑𝜃𝑜 𝑑 2 𝜃𝑜
Hence; 𝑘(𝜃𝑖 − 𝜃𝑜 ) − 𝐶 =𝐼
𝑑𝑡 𝑑𝑡 2

Rearranging we have;
𝑑 2 𝜃𝑜 𝑑𝜃𝑜
𝐼 +𝐶 + 𝑘𝜃𝑜 = 𝑘𝜃𝑖
𝑑𝑡 2 𝑑𝑡

𝐼𝜃̈ + 𝐶𝜃̇ + 𝑘𝜃𝑜 = 𝑘𝜃𝑖

This last equation is the second order constant coefficient ordinary

differential equation which represents the model of the system. Once a
mathematical model of a system is obtained, various analytical and
computer tools can be used for analysis and synthesis purposes. We can
now study the behavior of the original system by finding the solution for
the different value of input.

2.3 Methods of Analysis

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There are basically four main approaches that can be used to analyze
control system;

i. Time (t) – domain analysis: - it has to do with the direct solution of

the equation
ii. Complex (s)- domain analysis: - it has to do with the use of Laplace
transforms or root locus method
iii. Frequency (w) – domain analysis: - here we make use of Nyquist polar
curve and bode plot
iv. State space analysis: - which make use of another domain analysis
and it also make use of the study from advanced control theorems

3.0 Performance criteria

There are three main criteria that are used to assess the performance
of a control system, they are;

i. Adequate stability
ii. Fast response
iii. Adequate steady state accuracy

4.0 Control system Design

In the design of control system, no direct synthesized procedure is

available. A control designer uses a combination of synthesis and analysis.
Typically, a designer is faced with several components like amplifier, motor
etc. which must be used. These systems have transfer functions, with the

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use of which the system model is developed. When the feed-back loop is
closed, the system might be

i. Unstable
ii. Have too large steady state error
iii. Have too small damping error
iv. Have too small natural frequency

The designer or engineer must make changes to bring the system

performance into specific agreement. The changed system must again be
analyzed to determine any improvement and thus to be a competent
control designer requires the capacity to analyze a system quickly and
correctly. In a nutshell, the complete control system design can be
presented as follows:
1. Establish the control goals

2. Identify the variables to Control

3. Write the specifications for the variables

4. Establish the system configures and identify the

actuator

5. Obtain a model of the process, the actuator and the

sensor(s)

6. Described a controller and select key parameters to

be adjusted.

7. Optimize the parameter and analyze the performance

If the performance meets the specification

If the performance does not meet the
finalize the design
specification, then iterate the configuration and
the actuator Control System Design

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4.1 Other criteria

Apart from criteria of stability, there are other criteria that need to be
look into. Once the system is analyzed to be stable, the next step is to
determine how other criteria can be satisfied and these criteria include;
i. The per unit peak of overshoot may be specified. This is given as;
−𝐶𝜋
𝑀𝑝 = 𝑒𝑥𝑝 [ ] 0 ≤ 𝑀𝑝 ≤ 0.2
√𝐶 2 −1

In this case, the required value of C (damping) may be calculated.

ii. The maximum time or the time to maximize overshoot 𝑇𝑝 may be
𝜋 𝜋
specified and 𝑇𝑝 = =
𝑊𝑑 𝑊𝑛 √𝐶 2 −1

iii. The tolerance band may be specified and setting time 𝑇𝑠 given. It is
usually tabulated as shown below;
Tolerance (%) 1 2 3 4 5 6 10 15 20

Optimum (b) 0.82 0.80 0.75 0.72 0.69 0.63 0.57 0.52 0.46
Setting Time (𝑤𝑛 𝑡𝑚 ) 4.0 3.5 3.2 3.0 2.8 2.6 2.3 2.0 1.8

5.0 Time Domain Analysis

The time domain analysis involves a direct solution of the system in

differential equation. Consider the mathematical model given below;
𝐼𝜃𝑜̈ + 𝐶𝜃𝑜̇ + 𝑘𝜃𝑜 = 𝑘𝜃𝑖 ……………….. (i)
We notice that three quantities I, C, and k are essential to the
numerical solution of this equation. These are called the system
parameters. I and C are characteristics of the system, while k is the
characteristic of the controller. To reduce the number of the parameters
required, we proceed as follows;

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Divide equation (i) by I;

𝐶 𝑘 𝑘
𝜃𝑜̈ + 𝜃𝑜̇ + 𝜃𝑜 = 𝜃𝑖
𝐼 𝐼 𝐼

𝑘 𝑘 𝐶
We know that 𝑤𝑛 = √ which implies that 𝑤𝑛 2 = then = 2𝑏𝑤𝑛
𝐼 𝐼 𝐼

Hence;
𝜃𝑜̈ + 2𝑏𝑤𝑛 𝜃𝑜̇ + 𝑤𝑛 2 𝜃𝑜 = 𝑤𝑛 2 𝜃𝑖 ……………….. (ii)
The solution to the differential equation (ii) is divided into two parts
i.e. the homogenous solution and the particular integral solution.
𝜃𝑜(𝑡) = 𝜃𝑜ℎ(𝑡) + 𝜃𝑜𝑝(𝑡) ……………………………….. (iii)
To get the homogenous solution we set the right-hand side to zero.
Therefore;
𝜃𝑜̈ + 2𝑏𝑤𝑛 𝜃𝑜̇ + 𝑤𝑛 2 𝜃𝑜 = 0 ………………………… (iv)
Consider a solution of the form;
𝜃𝑜 = 𝐴𝑒 𝑚𝑡 …………………………………………….. (v)
Substituting equation (v) into (iv) to get
(𝑚2 + 2𝑏𝑤𝑛 𝑚 + 𝑤𝑛 2 )𝐴𝑒 𝑚𝑡 = 0
At 𝑡 = 0 and A = 1 the solution becomes;
𝑚1,2 = −𝑏𝑤𝑛 ± 𝑤𝑛 √𝑏 2 − 1 ……………………… (vi)
In this equation there are three cases to consider;
When
i. 𝑏>1
ii. 𝑏=1
iii. 𝑏<1

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Case I: When 𝑏 > 1 substitute in (v)

𝜃𝑜(𝑡) = 𝐴1 𝑒 𝑚1𝑡 + 𝐴2 𝑒 𝑚2𝑡 ………………. (vii)
2 −1)𝑡 2 −1)𝑡
𝜃𝑜(𝑡) = 𝐴1 𝑒 (−𝑏𝑤𝑛 +𝑤𝑛√𝑏 + 𝐴2 𝑒 (−𝑏𝑤𝑛 −𝑤𝑛 √𝑏 … (viii)
The constant 𝐴1 and 𝐴2 can be obtained by using initial conditions.
Case II: When 𝑏 = 1, then 𝑚1 = 𝑚2 = −𝑏𝑤𝑛
Hence 𝜃𝑜(𝑡) = 𝐴1 𝑒 −𝑏𝑤𝑛𝑡 + 𝐴2 𝑒 −𝑏𝑤𝑛 𝑡 ………………. (ix)
Case III: When 𝑏 < 1, then 𝑚1 and 𝑚2 are complex conjugate of the form;
𝑚1,2 = −𝑏𝑤𝑛 ± 𝑖𝑤𝑑 ……………. (x)
Thus 𝜃𝑜(𝑡) = 𝑒 −𝑏𝑤𝑛 𝑡 (𝐴1 𝑒 𝑖𝑤𝑑𝑡 + 𝐴2 𝑒 −𝑖𝑤𝑑𝑡 ) ….. (xi)
By Euler’s equation 𝑒 𝑖𝜃 = (𝑐𝑜𝑠𝜃 + 𝑖𝑠𝑖𝑛𝜃); 𝑒 −𝑖𝜃 = (𝑐𝑜𝑠𝜃 − 𝑖𝑠𝑖𝑛𝜃)
Hence;
𝜃𝑜(𝑡) = 𝑒 −𝑏𝑤𝑛 𝑡 [𝐴1 (𝑐𝑜𝑠𝑤𝑑 𝑡 + 𝑖𝑠𝑖𝑛𝑤𝑑 𝑡) + 𝐴2 (𝑐𝑜𝑠𝑤𝑑 𝑡 − 𝑖𝑠𝑖𝑛𝑤𝑑 𝑡)]
= 𝑒 −𝑏𝑤𝑛 𝑡 [(𝐴1 + 𝐴2 )𝑐𝑜𝑠𝜔𝑑 𝑡 + 𝑖(𝐴1 − 𝐴2 )𝑠𝑖𝑛𝜔𝑑 𝑡]

Let 𝐴1 + 𝐴2 = 𝐴; and 𝑖(𝐴1 − 𝐴2 ) = 𝐵

= 𝑒 (−𝑏𝑤𝑛 )𝑡 [𝐴 cos 𝑤𝑑 𝑡 + 𝐵 sin 𝑤𝑑 𝑡] … (xii)

This completes the search for homogenous solution.

Now we proceed to the particular solution: Since the right-hand side
of the equation (ii) is constant within all derivatives in (II) is equal to zero,
we have;
𝑤𝑛 2 𝜃𝑜𝑝(𝑡) = 𝑤𝑛 2 𝜃𝑖(𝑡)
𝜃𝑜𝑝(𝑡) = 𝜃𝑖(𝑡) ……………….. (xiii)
The complete solution now gives us;
2 −1)𝑡 2 −1)𝑡
Case: 𝑏 > 1 𝜃𝑜(𝑡) = 𝐴1 𝑒 (−𝑏𝑤𝑛 +𝑤𝑛 √𝑏 + 𝐴2 𝑒 (−𝑏𝑤𝑛 −𝑤𝑛 √𝑏 + 𝜃𝑖 (xiv)

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Case: 𝑏 = 1 𝜃𝑜(𝑡) = 𝐴1 𝑒 (−𝑏𝑤𝑛 )𝑡 + 𝐴2 𝑒 (−𝑏𝑤𝑛 )𝑡 + 𝜃𝑖 (xv)

Case: 𝑏 < 1 𝜃𝑜(𝑡) = 𝑒 (−𝑏𝑤𝑛 )𝑡 [𝐴 cos 𝑤𝑑 𝑡 + 𝐵 sin 𝑤𝑑 𝑡] + 𝜃𝑖 (xvi)

𝜃𝑖 𝑏<1
𝑏=1

𝑏>1

From the graph above we see that the most interesting case is
when 𝑏 < 1, we now proceed to rewrite the equation for the case, and the
equation we are going to rewrite is (xvi).
Now boundary conditions;
𝜃𝑜 = 0 When 𝑡 = 0, i.e., 𝜃𝑜̇ (0) = 0 ……… (xvii)
From equation (xvi) differentiating we have;
𝜃𝑜̇ (𝑡) = 𝑒 (−𝑏𝑤𝑛 )𝑡 [−𝐴 𝑤𝑑 sin 𝑤𝑑 𝑡 + 𝐵 𝑤𝑑 cos 𝑤𝑑 𝑡] − 𝑏𝑤𝑛 𝑒 (−𝑏𝑤𝑛 )𝑡 [Acos 𝑤𝑑 𝑡 +
𝐵 sin 𝑤𝑑 𝑡] ..…. (xviii)

Substituting (xvii) in (xvi) then; 𝜃𝑜(𝑡) = 𝐴 + 𝜃𝑖 = 0 hence 𝐴 = −𝜃𝑖 …… (xix)

Using equation (xvii) in (xviii) gives
0 = 𝐵𝑤𝑑 − 𝑏𝑤𝑛 𝐴
0 = 𝐵𝑤𝑑 − 𝑏𝑤𝑛 (−𝜃𝑖 )
0 = 𝐵𝑤𝑑 + 𝑏𝑤𝑛 (𝜃𝑖 )
−𝑏𝑤𝑛 (𝜃𝑖 )
𝐵= ………………….. (xx)
𝑤𝑑

Then equation (xvi) can now be written as;

𝑡 −𝑏𝑤𝑛 (𝜃𝑖 )
𝜃𝑜(𝑡) = 𝜃𝑖 + 𝑒 (−𝑏𝑤𝑛 ) [−𝜃𝑖 cos 𝑤𝑑 𝑡 + sin 𝑤𝑑 𝑡]
𝑤𝑑

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𝑡 −𝑏𝑤𝑛
𝜃𝑜(𝑡) = 𝜃𝑖 [ 1 − 𝑒 (−𝑏𝑤𝑛 ) [cos 𝑤𝑑 𝑡 + sin 𝑤𝑑 𝑡] ……….. (xxi)
𝑤𝑑

Now using the right-angle triangle;

1
Hence; Sin𝛼 =
𝑐
C 1
𝛼
1 = 𝑐Sin𝛼
𝑏𝑤𝑛
𝑏𝑤𝑛
Cos𝛼 =
𝑤𝑑 𝑐

𝑤𝑑 𝑏𝑤𝑛
cCos𝛼 =
𝑤𝑑

Substituting in xxi;
𝑡
𝜃𝑜(𝑡) = 𝜃𝑖 [ 1 − 𝑒 (−𝑏𝑤𝑛 ) [𝑐Sin𝛼. cos 𝑤𝑑 𝑡 − 𝑐Cos𝛼 sin 𝑤𝑑 𝑡]
𝑡
𝜃𝑜(𝑡) = 𝜃𝑖 [ 1 − 𝑒 (−𝑏𝑤𝑛 ) . 𝑐[Sin 𝑤𝑑 𝑡 + 𝛼] ……… (xxii)
𝑏2 𝑤𝑛 2
𝑏2 𝑤𝑛 2 𝑏2 𝑐2 = 𝑎𝑛𝑑
Where; 𝑐 = √1 + = √1 + ( 𝑤𝑑 2 )
𝑤𝑑 2 1−𝑏2 2
𝑤𝑑 = 𝑤𝑛 √ 1 − 𝑏
1
This implies that 𝑐 = ………….. (xxiii)
√1−𝑏2

𝑤𝑑 √1−𝑏2
𝑡𝑎𝑛𝛼 = = …………. (xxiv)
𝑏𝑤𝑛 𝑏
𝑡
𝑒 (−𝑏𝑤𝑛)
Hence; 𝜃𝑜 = 𝜃𝑖 [ 1 − [Sin 𝑤𝑑 𝑡 + 𝛼] ………… (xxv)
√1−𝑏2

The first term in the bracket i.e., 1 is constant in all time, but the second
term vanishes for larger values of time. It may be noted that actually the first
term is the particular solution while the second term is the homogenous.
Because of the time behavior of the second term the first term is often called
steady state solution and the second term is called transient solution. From
𝜃𝑜 (𝑡)
the graph of , we note that b ≥ 1 the response is slow but it has no
𝑤𝑛 (𝑡)

overshoot on the other hand when b < 1 the response is very fast but there is

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an overshoot of the steady state value. Thus, a compromise has always got to
be struck between fast response and stability of the response. From this
discussion a number of criteria can be deduced for the desirable performance
of a dynamic system.

Example 1: A servo-mechanism is used to control the angular position  o of a

missile launcher via a command signal  i applied to a wheel. The moment of
inertia of the launching platform is estimated to be 0.1kgm2 and the motion
produces a torque of 20Nm per radian error. The damping in the bearing
supporting platform is estimated to be half that necessary to produce critical
damping in the system.

i. Develop an expression for the response of the system to a step input of

1rad and determine the frequency of transient oscillation and the time
to rise to the first maximum.
ii. Determine the velocity lag when the wheel is rotated at constant
angular velocity of 10rev/min.
iii. If the system must settle within a 5% tolerance band in a time not
greater than 2 sec, determine the necessary value of K and effective
value of C.
Solution:
Given: Moment of Inertia I = 0.1kgm2
Torque K = 20Nm/rad of error
1 1
Damping C = Cr = b = cr
2 2
1
∴ 𝐶 = (1) = 0.5 and
2

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𝜃𝑖 = 1 𝑟𝑎𝑑
Now, 𝜃𝑜̈ + 2𝑏𝑤𝑛 𝜃𝑜̇ + 𝑤𝑛 2 𝜃𝑜 = 𝑤𝑛 2 𝜃𝑖
𝑘 20
We know that 𝑤𝑛 = √ = √ = 14.14 𝑟𝑎𝑑/𝑠
𝐼 0.1

𝑤𝑛 2 = 14.142 ≅ 200
2𝑏𝑤𝑛 = 2 × 0.5 × 14.14
= 14.14
Putting these values in 𝜃𝑜̈ + 2𝑏𝑤𝑛 𝜃𝑜̇ + 𝑤𝑛 2 𝜃𝑜 = 𝑤𝑛 2 𝜃𝑖 we have;
𝜃𝑜̈ + 14.14𝜃𝑜̇ + 200𝜃𝑜 = 200 × 1
For transient solution;
𝑒 −𝑏𝑤𝑛𝑡
𝜃𝑜 (𝑡) = sin (𝑤𝑑 𝑡 + 𝛼)
√1−𝑏2

𝑏𝑤𝑛 = 0.5 × 14.14 = 7.07and

√1 − 𝑏 2 = √1 − (0.5)2 = 0.866
∴ 𝜃𝑜 (𝑡) = 1.15[𝑒 −7.07𝑡 𝑠𝑖𝑛(𝑤𝑑 𝑡 + 𝛼)]
But 𝑤𝑑 = 𝑤𝑛 √1 − 𝑏 2 = 14.14 × 0.866 = 12.25 𝑟𝑎𝑑/𝑠
𝑤𝑑 1−𝑏2
𝑇𝑎𝑛𝛼 = =√ = 1.732
𝑏𝑤𝑛 𝑏

𝛼 = 𝑇𝑎𝑛−1 1.732 = 1.05 𝑟𝑎𝑑

𝜃𝑜 (𝑡) = 1.15[𝑒 −7.07𝑡 𝑠𝑖𝑛(12.25𝑡 + 1.05)]
i.Time to rise to the first maximum
𝜋 𝜋
𝑇𝑝 = = = 0.256𝑠𝑒𝑐
𝑤𝑑 12.25

ii. Velocity lag is given by

2𝑏𝑤𝑖 2×10×𝜋
𝜀𝑠𝑠 = but 𝑤𝑖 =
𝑤𝑛 60
2×0.5×10×2×𝜋
Then 𝜀𝑠𝑠 = = 0.0741𝑚/𝑠
60×14.14

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iii. From table of tolerance band at 5% tolerance band 𝑏 = 0.69; time

2.8
𝑡𝑚 = 2𝑠𝑒𝑐 and 𝑤𝑛 𝑡𝑚 = 2.8 ∴ 𝑤𝑛 = = 1.4
2

𝑘
But 𝑤𝑛 = √ 𝑘 = 𝑤𝑛 2 𝐼 = 1. 42 × 0.1 = 0.196𝑁/𝑚
𝐼

𝐶
For C = 2𝑏𝑤𝑛 𝐶 = 2𝑏𝑤𝑛 𝐼 = 2 × 0.69 × 1.4 × 0.1
𝐼

𝐶 = 0.1932
6.0 Complex Domain Analysis

Recall that the direct solution of differential equations in the time

domain is laborious owing to the need to calculate both the
homogenous and particular solution of the equation and also evaluate the
constant A and B. In complex domain analysis, Laplace transforms are often
use in a systematic technique to obtain the solution of the constant
coefficient ordinary differential equations. The method of Laplace
transforms is a system that relies on algebra (rather than calculus-based
methods) to solve linear differential equations. While it might seem to be a
somewhat cumbersome method at times, it is a very powerful tool that
enables us to readily deal with linear differential equations with
discontinuous forcing functions.
The Laplace transform is an operation that transforms a function of t
(i.e., a function of time domain), defined on [0, ∞), to a function of s (i.e., of
frequency domain) *. F(s) is the Laplace transform, or simply transform, of
f(t). Together the two functions f (t) and F(s) are called a Laplace transform
pair.
Definition:

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Let a function 𝑓 be defined for 𝑡 ≥ 0. We define the Laplace transform of

𝑓, denoted by 𝐹(𝑠)or ℒ(𝑓(𝑡)), as
∞
𝐹(𝑠) = ℒ(𝑓(𝑡)) = ∫0 𝑒 −𝑠𝑡 𝑓(𝑡)𝑑𝑡 …1
for those s for which the integral in (1) exists. We also refer 𝑓(𝑡)as the
inverse Laplace transform of 𝐹(𝑠) and we write
𝑓(𝑡) = ℒ −1 (𝐹(𝑠))
Example 4: Let 𝑓(𝑡) = 1. Compute 𝐹(𝑠) = ℒ(𝑓(𝑡)) directly. Give the
region in the complex s-plane.
∞ ∞ −1 1
𝐹(𝑠) = ℒ(𝑓(𝑡; 𝑠)) = ∫0 𝑒 −𝑠𝑡 𝑑𝑡 = ∫0 𝑒 −𝑠𝑡 𝑑𝑡 = (0 − 𝑒 0 ) =
𝑠 𝑠

Example 5: Let 𝑓(𝑡) = 𝑒 𝑎𝑡 . Compute 𝐹(𝑠) = ℒ(𝑓(𝑡; 𝑠)) directly. Give the
region in the complex s-plane.
∞ ∞ 1 ∞
𝐹(𝑠) = ℒ(𝑓(𝑡; 𝑠)) = ∫0 𝑒 𝑎𝑡 . 𝑒 −𝑠𝑡 𝑑𝑡 = ∫0 𝑒 (𝑎−𝑠)𝑡 𝑑𝑡 = 𝑒 (𝑎−𝑠)𝑡 ⌉
𝑎−𝑠 0
1 1 1
(0 − 𝑒 0 ) = (−1) =
𝑎−𝑠 𝑎−𝑠 𝑠−𝑎

Example 6: Let𝑓(𝑡) = 𝑏. Compute 𝐹(𝑠) = ℒ(𝑓(𝑡; 𝑠)) directly. Give the

region in the complex s-plane.
∞
∞ 𝑏𝑒 −𝑠𝑡 −𝑏 𝑏
𝐹(𝑠) = ℒ(𝑓(𝑡; 𝑠)) = ∫0 𝑏. 𝑒 −𝑠𝑡 𝑑𝑡 = ⌉ = =
−𝑠 0 −𝑠 𝑠

These are normally contained in Laplace table as shown below. The

properties and rules for Laplace transform are equally presented below.
These are properties and Rules of Laplace transform

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Function and Transforms Tables:

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6.2 Inverse Laplace Transform

If 𝐹(𝑠) is the Laplace transform of 𝑓(𝑡) then the inverse Laplace is
given as;
1 𝑐+𝑗∞
ℒ −1 𝐹(𝑠) = 𝑓(𝑡) = ∫ 𝐹(𝑠)𝑒 𝑠𝑡 𝑑𝑡
2𝜋𝑗 𝑐−𝑗∞

But this method is not generally used. In practice if 𝐹(𝑠) is a rational

function obtained the partial fraction and take the inverse Laplace with the
help of standard table of transforms pairs.
2
Example 7: Find the inverse Laplace of
𝑠(𝑠+2)
2
Solution: Given 𝐹(𝑠) =
𝑠(𝑠+2)
1 1
The partial fraction of 𝐹(𝑠) = −
𝑠 (𝑠+2)
1 1
𝑓(𝑡) = ℒ −1 𝐹(𝑠) = ℒ −1 − ℒ −1 (𝑠+2) = 1 − 𝑒 −2𝑡
𝑠

Example 8: Find the inverse Laplace transform of

50
𝑠(𝑠+2)(𝑠+0.5)

Solution: Expand by partial fraction

50 𝐴 𝐵 𝐶
= + +
𝑠(𝑠+2)(𝑠+0.5) 𝑠 𝑠+2 𝑠+0.5
50
𝐴= | ∴ 𝐴 = 50
(𝑠+2)(𝑠+0.5) 𝑠=0

50
𝐵= | ∴ 𝐵 = 16.67
𝑠(𝑠+0.5) 𝑠=−2

50
𝐶= | ∴ 𝐶 = −66.67
𝑠(𝑠+2) 𝑠=−0.5

50 50 16.67 −66.67
𝐸𝑜 (𝑡) = = + +
𝑠(𝑠+2)(𝑠+0.5) 𝑠 𝑠+2 𝑠+0.5

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The inverse Laplace of the above equation is

𝑒𝑜 (𝑡) = 50 + 16.67𝑒 −2𝑡 − 66.67𝑒 −0.5𝑡

Example 9: A model of a control system is given as:

𝑋̈(𝑡) + 3𝑋̇(𝑡) + 2𝑋(𝑡) = 6, such that 𝑋(0) = 1 𝑎𝑛𝑑 𝑋̇(0) = 0.
Find the inverse Laplace of this model.
Solution: The inverse Laplace of this model can be obtained as follows:

Step I: ℒ[𝑥̈ (𝑡) + 3𝑥̇ (𝑡) + 2𝑥(𝑡)] = ℒ[6]

ℒ[𝑥̈ (𝑡)] + ℒ[3𝑥̇ (𝑡)] + ℒ[2𝑥(𝑡)] = ℒ[6]
Then: ℒ[𝑥̈ (𝑡)] = 𝑆 2 𝑥(𝑠) − 𝑆𝑥(0+ ) − 𝑥̇ (0+ )
𝑆 2 𝑥(𝑠) − 𝑆 × 1 − (0)
(𝑆 2 𝑥(𝑠) − 𝑆)
ℒ[3𝑥̇ (𝑡)] = 3[𝑆𝑥(𝑠) − 𝑥(0+ )]
3[𝑆𝑥(𝑠) − 1]
3𝑆𝑥(𝑠) − 3
ℒ[2𝑥(𝑡)] = 2𝑥(𝑠)
6
ℒ[6] =
𝑠
6
Step II: [𝑆 2 𝑥(𝑠) − 𝑆)] + [3𝑆𝑥(𝑠) − 3] + 2𝑥(𝑠) =
𝑠
6
𝑆 2 𝑥(𝑠) + 3𝑆𝑥(𝑠) + 2𝑥(𝑠) = + 𝑆 + 3
𝑠
6+𝑆 2 +3𝑆
[𝑆 2 + 3𝑆 + 2]𝑥(𝑠) =
𝑆
6+𝑆 2 +3𝑆
[(𝑆 + 1)(𝑆 + 2)]𝑥(𝑠) =
𝑆
6+𝑆 2 +3𝑆
𝑥(𝑠) =
𝑆(𝑆+1)(𝑆+2)

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6+𝑆 2 +3𝑆 𝐾1 2 𝐾 3 𝐾
Step III: = + (𝑆+1) + (𝑆+2)
𝑆(𝑆+1)(𝑆+2) 𝑆

6+𝑆 2 +3𝑆 6
And 𝐾1 = (𝑆+1)(𝑆+2)⌋ = =3
𝑆=0 2

6+𝑆 2 +3𝑆 6+1−3

𝐾2 = ⌋ = = −4
𝑆(𝑆+2) 𝑆 =−1 (−1)(1)

6+𝑆 2 +3𝑆 6+4−6

𝐾3 = ⌋ = =2
𝑆(𝑆+1) 𝑆 = −2 (−2)(−1)

3 4 2
Then: 𝑥(𝑠) = − (𝑆+1) + (𝑆+2)
5

Hence ℒ −1 [ 𝑥(𝑠)] = 3 − 4𝑒 −𝑡 + 2𝑒 −2𝑡

Example 10: Solve the Laplace transform of this equation

I (s ) =
10
(s + 1)(s + 2)
10
Solution: 𝐼(𝑠) = (𝑆+1)(𝑆+2)
10 1 𝐾 2 𝐾
(𝑆+1)(𝑆+2)
= (𝑆+1) + (𝑆+2)
10 1 𝐾
(𝑆+1)(𝑆+2)
= (𝑆+1)
10 10
𝐾1 = (𝑆+2)| = (−1+2)
= 10
𝑆 = −1

Now for 𝐾2
10 2 𝐾
(𝑆+1)(𝑆+2)
= (𝑆+2)
10 10
𝐾2 = (𝑆+1)| = (−2+1)
= −10
𝑆 = −2
10 10
Therefore: 𝐼(𝑠) = (𝑆+1) − (𝑆+2)

Hence: 𝑥(𝑠) = 10𝑒 −𝑡 − 10𝑒 −2𝑡

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7.0 Transfer Function and Block Diagram

7.1 Transfer Function

The transfer function of a linear time-invariant differential equation
system is defined as the ratio of the Laplace transform of the output
(response function) to the Laplace transform of the input (driving function)
under the assumption that all initial conditions are zero. Consider the linear
time-invariant system defined by the following differential equation:
𝑎0 𝐶 (𝑛) + 𝑎1 𝐶 (𝑛−1) + ⋯ … . +𝑎𝑛−1 𝑐̇ + 𝑎𝑛 𝑐
= 𝑏0 𝑅(𝑚) + 𝑏1 𝑅(𝑚−1) + ⋯ … . +𝑏𝑚−1 𝑅̇ + 𝑏𝑚 𝑅
(𝑛 ≥ 𝑚)
where C is the output of the system and R is the input. The transfer function
of this system is the ratio of the Laplace transformed output to the Laplace
transformed input when all initial conditions are zero, or
ℒ(𝑂𝑢𝑡𝑝𝑢𝑡)
𝑇𝑟𝑎𝑛𝑠𝑓𝑒𝑟 𝑓𝑢𝑛𝑐𝑡𝑖𝑜𝑛 = 𝐺(𝑠) =
ℒ(𝐼𝑛𝑝𝑢𝑡)

𝐶(𝑠) 𝑏0 𝑆 (𝑚) +𝑏1 𝑆 (𝑚−1) +⋯….+𝑏𝑚−1 𝑆+𝑏𝑚

𝐺(𝑠) = =
𝑅(𝑠) 𝑎0 𝑆 (𝑛) +𝑎1 𝑆 (𝑛−1) +⋯….+𝑎𝑛−1 𝑆+𝑎𝑛

By using the concept of transfer function, it is possible to represent

system dynamics by algebraic equations in s. If the highest power of s in the
denominator of the transfer function is equal to n, the system is called an
nth-order system.
The applicability of the concept of the transfer function is limited to
linear time-invariant differential equation systems. The transfer function
approach, however, is extensively used in the analysis and design of such
systems. In what follows, we shall list important comments concerning the
transfer function below:

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i. The transfer function of a system is a mathematical model in that it is an

operational method of expressing the differential equation that relates
the output variable to the input variable.
ii. The transfer function is a property of a system itself, independent of the
magnitude and nature of the input or driving function.
iii. The transfer function includes the units necessary to relate the input to
the output; however, it does not provide any information concerning the
physical structure of the system. (The transfer functions of many
physically different systems can be identical.)
iv. If the transfer function of a system is known, the output or response can
be studied for various forms of inputs with a view toward understanding
the nature of the system.
v. If the transfer function of a system is unknown, it may be established
experimentally by introducing known inputs and studying the output of
the system. Once established, a transfer function gives a full description
of the dynamic characteristics of the system, as distinct from its physical
description.
Convolution Integral: For a linear time-invariant system the transfer function
𝐶(𝑠)
G(s) is 𝐺(𝑠) =
𝑅(𝑠)

Where R(s) is the Laplace transform of the input to the system and
C(s) is the Laplace transform of the output of the system, where we assume
that all initial conditions involved are zero. It follows that the output C(s) can
be written as the product of G(s) and R(s):
𝐶(𝑠) = 𝑅(𝑠) 𝐺(𝑠).

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Impulse-Response Function: Consider the output (response) of a linear time

invariant system to a unit-impulse input when the initial conditions are zero.
Since the Laplace transform of the unit-impulse function is unity, the Laplace
transform of the output of the system is:
𝐶(𝑠) = 𝐺(𝑠)
7.2 Block Diagram
A control system may consist of a number of components. To show
the functions performed by each component, in control engineering, we
commonly use a diagram called the block diagram. A block diagram of a
system is a pictorial representation of the functions performed by each
component and of the flow of signals. Such a diagram depicts the
interrelationships that exist among the various components. Differing from a
purely abstract mathematical representation, a block diagram has the
advantage of indicating more realistically the signal flows of the actual system.
In a block diagram all system variables are linked to each other through
functional blocks. The functional block or simply block is a symbol for the
mathematical operation on the input signal to the block that produces the
output. The transfer functions of the components are usually entered in the
corresponding blocks, which are connected by arrows to indicate the direction
of the flow of signals. Note that the signal can pass only in the direction of the
arrows. Thus, a block diagram of a control system explicitly shows a unilateral
property. Figure shown below is an element of the block diagram. The
arrowhead pointing toward the block indicates the input, and the arrowhead

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leading away from the block represents the output. Such arrows are referred
to as signals.
R(s) C(s)
Input Transfer Function G(s) Output

R(s) = Input Signal

G(s) = Transfer Function
C(s) = Output Signal
Then the system can be represented as:
𝐶(𝑠) = 𝑅(𝑠) 𝐺(𝑠)
The flow of system variables from one block to another block is represented by
the arrow. In addition to this, the sum of the signals or differences of the signal
are represented by a summing point as shown in the figures below.
Applications of one input to two or more blocks are represented by takeoff
point.

A C = A±B
G1
±

B G2
Summing Point
Take Off Point

7.2.1 Closed Loop Block Diagram

As explained earlier on, a closed loop system is one in which the
output is fed back into an error detector and compared with the reference
input. The feedback may be negative or positive. Consider a closed loop
system shown in the figure below:

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R(s) E(s) C(s)

G(s)
±
B(s)
H(s)

Where; R(s) = Reference input signal

E(s) = Actuating or Error Signal
G(s) = Forward Path Transfer Function
C(s) = Output Signal
H(s) = Feedback Transfer Function
B(s) = Feedback Signal
Here 𝐶(𝑠) = 𝐸(𝑠) 𝐺(𝑠) …1
𝐵(𝑠) = 𝐻(𝑠)𝐶(𝑠) …2
𝐸(𝑠) = 𝑅(𝑠) − 𝐵(𝑠) …3
Putting the value of (1) into (2) we obtain;
𝐵(𝑠) = 𝐻(𝑠)𝐺(𝑠)𝐸(𝑠)
𝐵(𝑠)
= 𝐻(𝑠)𝐺(𝑠) …4
𝐸(𝑠)
𝐵(𝑠)
= Open loop transfer function = 𝐻(𝑠)𝐺(𝑠)
𝐸(𝑠)

Putting the value of (3) into (1) we obtain;

𝐶(𝑠) = [𝑅(𝑠) − 𝐵(𝑠)] 𝐺(𝑠)
𝐶(𝑠) = 𝑅(𝑠). 𝐺(𝑠) − 𝐵(𝑠). 𝐺(𝑠) …5
Putting the value of (2) into (5) we obtain;
𝐶(𝑠) = 𝑅(𝑠). 𝐺(𝑠) − 𝐻(𝑠)𝐶(𝑠). 𝐺(𝑠)
𝐶(𝑠)[1 + 𝐻(𝑠). 𝐺(𝑠)] = 𝑅(𝑠). 𝐺(𝑠)

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𝐶(𝑠) 𝐺(𝑠)
= …6
𝑅(𝑠) 1+𝐻(𝑠).𝐺(𝑠)
𝐶(𝑠) 𝐺(𝑠)
= Closed loop transfer function =
𝑅(𝑠) 1+𝐻(𝑠).𝐺(𝑠)

If the feedback is positive then equation (6) becomes;

𝐶(𝑠) 𝐺(𝑠)
= …7
𝑅(𝑠) 1−𝐻(𝑠).𝐺(𝑠)

Put the values of C(s) from equation (1) into equation (6)
𝐸(𝑠) 𝐺(𝑠) 𝐺(𝑠)
=
𝑅(𝑠) 1+𝐻(𝑠).𝐺(𝑠)
𝐸(𝑠) 1
= …8
𝑅(𝑠) 1+𝐻(𝑠).𝐺(𝑠)
𝐸(𝑠) 1
= Error Ratio =
𝑅(𝑠) 1+𝐻(𝑠).𝐺(𝑠)

If the feedback is positive then equation (8) becomes

𝐸(𝑠) 1
= …9
𝑅(𝑠) 1−𝐻(𝑠).𝐺(𝑠)

Put the values of C(s) from equation (1) into equation (2)
𝐵(𝑠) = 𝐻(𝑠). 𝐸(𝑠). 𝐺(𝑠) … 10
Put the values of E(s) from equation (3) into equation (10)
𝐵(𝑠) = 𝐻(𝑠). 𝐺(𝑠)[𝑅(𝑠) − 𝐵(𝑠)]
𝐵(𝑠) 𝐻(𝑠).𝐺(𝑠)
= … 11
𝑅(𝑠) 1+𝐻(𝑠).𝐺(𝑠)
𝐵(𝑠) 𝐻(𝑠).𝐺(𝑠)
= Primary feedback ratio =
𝑅(𝑠) 1+𝐻(𝑠).𝐺(𝑠)

For positive feedback;

𝐵(𝑠) 𝐻(𝑠).𝐺(𝑠)
= … 12
𝑅(𝑠) 1−𝐻(𝑠).𝐺(𝑠)

For unity feedback control system 𝐻(𝑠) = 1

𝐶(𝑠) 𝐺(𝑠)
= For negative Feedback
𝑅(𝑠) 1+𝐻(𝑠).𝐺(𝑠)

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𝐶(𝑠) 𝐺(𝑠)
= For positive Feedback
𝑅(𝑠) 1−𝐻(𝑠).𝐺(𝑠)

7.2.2 Multi-input Multi-output System (MIMO)

When two or more inputs act on a system, each input can be treated
independently of the others. Complete output can be obtained by adding
the effects of each input. Consider a two-input linear system shown in the
figure below.

R2(s)

R1(s) C(s)
E(s) G1(s) ± G2(s)
±
B(s)
H(s)

Step I: Put R1(s) = 0

𝐶2 (𝑠) 𝐺2 (𝑠)
(𝑠)
=
𝑅2 1+𝐻(𝑠).𝐺1 (𝑠).𝐺2 (𝑠)

Step II: Put R2(s) = 0

𝐶1 (𝑠) 𝐺1 (𝑠).𝐺2 (𝑠)
(𝑠)
=
𝑅1 1+𝐻(𝑠).𝐺1 (𝑠).𝐺2 (𝑠)

Hence; 𝐶(𝑠) = 𝐶1 (𝑠) + 𝐶2 (𝑠)

𝐺1 (𝑠).𝐺2 (𝑠).𝑅1 (𝑠) 𝐺2 (𝑠).𝑅2 (𝑠)
𝐶(𝑠) = +
1+𝐻(𝑠).𝐺1 (𝑠).𝐺2 (𝑠) 1+𝐻(𝑠).𝐺1 (𝑠).𝐺2 (𝑠)
𝐺2 (𝑠)
𝐶(𝑠) = [𝐺1 (𝑠). 𝑅1 (𝑠) + 𝑅2 (𝑠)]
1+𝐻(𝑠).𝐺1 (𝑠).𝐺2 (𝑠)

MIMO system can be express in matrix form as follows:

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𝐶1 (𝑠) 𝐺11 (𝑠) 𝐺12 (𝑠) . . . 𝑅 (𝑠)

1
𝐶2 (𝑠) . . . . . 𝑅 (𝑠)
2
.. = . . . . . ..
. . . . .
[𝐶𝑛 (𝑠)] [𝐺𝑛𝑚 (𝑠) . . . .] [ 𝑅𝑛 (𝑠)]
Where; 𝐶(𝑠) = 𝐺(𝑠)𝑅(𝑠)
𝐺(𝑠) = Matrix transfer function
7.2.3 Block Diagram Reduction
Rule No I: Block in Cascade
When two or more blocks are in cascade, the resultant block is the
product of the individual block transfer function. Consider the two blocks as
in the figure below;
R(s) G1(s) C1(s) C(s)
G2(s)

Thus,
𝐶1 (𝑠)
= 𝐺1 (𝑠)
𝑅(𝑠)
𝐶(𝑠)
= 𝐺2 (𝑠)
𝐶1 (𝑠)
𝐶1 (𝑠) 𝐶(𝑠) 𝐶(𝑠)
∴ . (𝑠)
= = 𝐺1 (𝑠). 𝐺2 (𝑠)
𝑅(𝑠) 𝐶1 𝑅(𝑠)

R(s) G1(s).G2(s) C(s)

Rule No II: Block in Parallel

When two or more blocks are connected in parallel as shown in the
figure below; the resultant block is the sum of individual block transfer
function.

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G1(s)

R(s) G2(s) ± C(s)

G3(s)

𝐶(𝑠) = 𝑅(𝑠)𝐺1 (𝑠) + 𝑅(𝑠)𝐺2 (𝑠) + 𝑅(𝑠)𝐺3 (𝑠)

𝐶(𝑠) = 𝑅(𝑠)[𝐺1 (𝑠) + 𝐺2 (𝑠) + 𝐺3 (𝑠)]
𝐶(𝑠)
= 𝐺1 (𝑠) + 𝐺2 (𝑠) + 𝐺3 (𝑠)
𝑅(𝑠)

R(s) G1(s)+G2(s)+𝐺3 (𝑠) C(s)

Rule No III: Moving a takeoff point ahead of a block

If a takeoff point is move ahead of a block, a block with equal transfer
function will be introduced in the branch of a takeoff point as shown below;

C(s)
R(s) C(s)
R(s) G(s) G(s)
≡
G(s)

Rule No IV: Moving a takeoff point after a block

If a takeoff point is move after a block, a block with a reciprocal of transfer
function will be introduced in the branch of a takeoff point as shown below;

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R(s) C(s) R(s) C(s)

G(s) G(s)

≡ 1
𝐺(𝑠)

Rule No V: Moving a summing point beyond a block

C(s) G(s) ± C(s)

± G(s) x
x
≡
y G(s)
y

Rule No VI: Moving a summing point ahead a block

R (s) R (s) G(s) R (s) G(s) ±X(s) R (s) G(s)

G(s)
±
±
X (s) ≡ 1 X(s)
𝐺(𝑠)

Rule No VII: Interchanging to summing points

+ + X + X+Z + X + Z-Y
X X-Y X–Y+Z

+ + −
−
Y Z ≡ Z Y

Rule No VIII: Eliminating a forward loop

R(s) + C(s)
G1(s) R(s) C(s)
G1(s) - G2(s)
− ≡
G2(s)

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Example 11: Derive the transfer function of the given figure below using block
reduction technique.

R(s) + + + C(s)
G1(s) G2(s)
− − −

H1(s) H2(s)

H3(s)

Solution
Step I: There are two internal closed loops in the system, reduce them by using
equation 6.

𝐺1 𝐺2
R(s) + C(s)
1 + 𝐻1 . 𝐺1 1 + 𝐻2 . 𝐺2
−

H3(s)

Step II: Two blocks are in cascade, use rule No I.

𝐺1 𝐺2
R(s) + C(s)
(1 + 𝐻1 . 𝐺1 )(1 + 𝐻2 . 𝐺2 )
−

H3(s)

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Step III: In step II the block is a closed loop again, use equation 6.
R(s) 𝐺1 𝐺2 C(s)
(1 + 𝐻1 . 𝐺1 + 𝐻2 . 𝐺2 + 𝐺1 𝐺2 𝐻3 . +𝐺1 𝐺2 𝐻1 𝐻2 )

𝐶(𝑠) 𝐺1 𝐺2
∴ = (1+𝐻
𝑅(𝑠) 1 .𝐺1 +𝐻2 .𝐺2 +𝐺1 𝐺2 𝐻3 .+𝐺1 𝐺2 𝐻1 𝐻2 )

Example 12: Find the overall transfer function for the system shown in the figure
1
below. The pick of point is beyond the block .
𝑠𝐶2

Solution:

𝑠𝐶2

− 1
Vi(s) + 1 + 1 1 Vo(s)
𝑅1 + 𝑠𝐶1 𝑅2 𝑠𝐶2
− -

Step I:

𝑠𝐶2

− 1
Vi(s) + 1 + 1 Vo(s)
𝑅1 + 𝑠𝐶1 𝑠𝐶2 𝑅2
− -

Step II:
𝑠𝐶2

− 1
Vi(s) + 1 1 Vo(s)
𝑅1 + 𝑠𝐶1 1 + 𝑠𝐶2 𝑅2
−

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Step III:
𝑠𝐶2

− 1
Vi(s) + 1 1 Vo(s)
𝑅1 + 𝑠𝐶1 1 + 𝑠𝐶2 𝑅2
−
1 + 𝑠𝐶2 𝑅2

Step IV:
𝑠𝐶2

− 1
Vi(s) + 1 Vo(s)
𝑅1 + 𝑠𝐶1 + 𝑅2 𝐶2 𝐶1 𝑠 2
−
1 + 𝑠𝐶2 𝑅2

Step V:
Vi(s) + 1 1 Vo(s)
𝑅1 𝑠𝐶1 + 𝑅2 𝐶2 𝐶1 𝑠 2 + 𝑠𝐶2
−

1 + 𝑠𝐶2 𝑅2

Step VI:
Vi(s) + 1 Vo(s)
𝑅1 𝑠𝐶1 + 𝑅1 𝑅2 𝐶2 𝐶1 𝑠 2 + 𝑅1 𝑠𝐶2
−

1 + 𝑠𝐶2 𝑅2

Step VII:

Vi(s) 1 Vo(s)
2
1 + 𝑅1 𝑅2 𝐶2 𝐶1 𝑠 + (𝑅1 𝐶1 + 𝑅1 𝐶2 + 𝑅2 𝐶2 )𝑠

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𝑉𝑜 (𝑠) 1
= 2
𝑉𝑖 (𝑠) 1 + 𝑅1 𝑅2 𝐶2 𝐶1 𝑠 + (𝑅1 𝐶1 + 𝑅1 𝐶2 + 𝑅2 𝐶2 )𝑠

𝐶(𝑠)
Example 13: Determine the ratio the system shown in the figure below
𝑅(𝑠)

𝐻2

-
R(s) + + + C(s)
𝐺1 𝐺2 𝐺3
− −
𝐻1

Example 14: The figure below shows a block diagram of control system, determine
i. Opened loop transfer function of the system
ii. Closed loop transfer function of the system
iii. Characteristic equation of the system
iv. Reduce the system block diagram to single closed loop system
R(s) E(s) C(s)
50/S 30/S

20

R(s) E(s) T(s) C(s)

50/S 30/S

20

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Solution: Before solving the various gains and transfer functions it is

necessary to simplifying the diagram. To do this the transfer
function between T(s) and C(s) is obtain:
C(s) 𝐺 30⁄ 30
𝑆
= = 30 =
T(s) 1+𝐻 1+20( 𝑆 ) 𝑆+600

Thus;
R(s) E(s) T(s) C(s)
50/S 30/S+600

(50)(30) 1500
Now; 𝐷𝑇𝐺 = =
𝑆(𝑆+600) 𝑆(𝑆+600)
50 30
Open loop transfer function = Loop Gain = × ×5
𝑆 𝑆+600
7500 7500
= =
𝑆(𝑆+600) 𝑆 2 +600𝑆
𝐷𝑇𝐺
Closed loop transfer function=
1+𝐿𝑜𝑜𝑝 𝐺𝑎𝑖𝑛
1500
𝑆(𝑆+600) 1500
= 7500 =
1+ 𝑆 2 +600𝑆+7500
𝑆(𝑆+600)

Characteristic Equation = 1 + 𝐿𝑜𝑜𝑝 𝐺𝑎𝑖𝑛

7500
=1+
𝑆(𝑆+600)

𝑆 2 + 600𝑆 + 7500 = 0
The reduced system diagram is as follows:
R(s) 1500 C(s)
𝑆 2 + 600𝑆 + 7500

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Example15: Find the transfer function of the system shown in the figure below

1
3
𝑠

-1

-6 1
𝑠

-1

3 1
𝑠
-1

Step I:
1
3
𝑠+1

1
R(s) -6 C(s)
𝑠+2

3 1
𝑠+3

Step II 3
𝑠+1

−6
R(s) 𝑠+2 C(s)

3
𝑠+3

Step III
6
R(s) 𝑠3 + 6𝑠 2 + 11𝑠 + 6 C(s)

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𝐶(𝑠) 6
∴ =
𝑅(𝑠) 𝑠 3 +6𝑠 2 +11𝑠+6

8.0 Routh-Hurwits Criterion

Routh-Hurwits Criterion is a technique of testing the stability of

characteristic polynomial equations and it states that the system is stable if
and only if all the elements in the first column have the same algebraic sign.
If all elements are not of the same sign, then the number of sign changes of
the elements in first column equal number of roots of the characteristic
equation in the right half of the s-plane.

Consider the following characteristic polynomial system

𝐹(𝑠) = ∑𝒏𝒊=𝟏 𝒂𝒏 𝑺𝒏−𝟏

This implies that; 𝒂𝟎 𝑺𝒏 + 𝒂𝟏 𝑺𝒏−𝟏 + ⋯ … … … + 𝒂𝒏−𝟏 𝑺𝟎 + 𝒂𝒏 = 𝟎

Row
0 𝑺𝒏 𝒂𝟎 𝒂𝟐 𝒂𝟒 𝒂𝟔
1 𝑺𝒏−𝟏 𝒂𝟏 𝒂𝟑 𝒂𝟓 𝒂𝟕
2 𝑺𝒏−𝟐 𝒃𝟏 𝒃𝟐 𝒃𝟑 𝒃𝟒
3 𝑺𝒏−𝟑 𝒄𝟏 𝒄𝟐 𝒄𝟑 𝒄𝟒
. . . . . .
. . . . . .
n-1 𝑺𝟏 𝒚𝟏 𝒚
n 𝑺𝟎 𝒛𝟏

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Where the coefficients 𝑎0 , 𝑎1 … … . 𝑎𝑛 are all of the same sign and none is
zero. For this polynomial the Routh Array is where each element in the
third row onwards is obtained from the elements in the previous rows in
the following manner.

𝒂𝟏 𝒂𝟐 −𝒂𝟎 𝒂𝟑 𝒂𝟏 𝒂𝟒 −𝒂𝟎 𝒂𝟓
Here: 𝒃𝟏 = 𝒃𝟐 =
𝒂𝟏 𝒂𝟏

𝒃𝟏 𝒂𝟑 −𝒂𝟏 𝒃𝟐 𝒃𝟏 𝒂𝟓 −𝒂𝟏 𝒃𝟑
Similarly: 𝒄𝟏 = 𝒄𝟐 =
𝒃𝟏 𝒃𝟏

The number of sign changes in the first column (𝒂𝟎 , 𝒂𝟏 , 𝒃𝟏 , 𝒄𝟏 , 𝒚𝟏 , 𝒛𝟏 ) of

the Routh array is equal to the number of roots of F(s) with positive real
parts. For system to be stable all of the coefficients of the frequency
equation must have the same sign and all terms in the first column must
have the same sign.

Example 13: Check the stability of the system whose characteristic

equation is given by

S 4 + 2S 3 + 6 S 2 + 4S + 1 = 0

Solution: Obtain the array of coefficient as follows

Row
0 S4 1 6 1
1 S3 2 4
2 S2 4 1

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3 S1 3.5
4 S0 1

𝒂𝟏 𝒂𝟐 −𝒂𝟎 𝒂𝟑 𝒂𝟏 𝒂𝟒 −𝒂𝟎 𝒂𝟓
Here: 𝒃𝟏 = 𝒃𝟐 =
𝒂𝟏 𝒂𝟏

(𝟐×𝟔)−(𝟏×𝟒) 𝟐×𝟏−𝟏×𝟎
𝒃𝟏 = =𝟒 𝒃𝟐 = =𝟏
𝟐 𝟐
𝒃𝟏 𝒂𝟑 −𝒂𝟏 𝒃𝟐
Similarly: 𝒄𝟏 =
𝒃𝟏
𝟒×𝟒−𝟐×𝟏
𝒄𝟏 = = 𝟑. 𝟓
𝟒
𝟑.𝟓×𝟏−𝟒×𝟎
Also; 𝒅𝟏 = =𝟏
𝟑.𝟓

Since all the coefficients in the column are of the same sign (positive), the
given equation has no roots with positive real parts. Hence, the system is
stable.

Example 14: The characteristic equation of a certain control system is

S 5 + 7 S 4 + 6 S 3 + 42 S 2 + 8 S + 56 = 0 , use Routh criterion to establish the

stability of the system.

Solution:
Row
0 S5 1 6 8
1 S4 7 42 56
1 6 8
2 S3 0 0 0
3 S2
4 S1
5 S0

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Using these relationships:

𝒂𝟏 𝒂𝟐 −𝒂𝟎 𝒂𝟑 𝒂𝟏 𝒂𝟒 −𝒂𝟎 𝒂𝟓
𝒃𝟏 = 𝒃𝟐 =
𝒂𝟏 𝒂𝟏

𝒃𝟏 𝒂𝟑 −𝒂𝟏 𝒃𝟐 𝒃𝟏 𝒂𝟓 −𝒂𝟏 𝒃𝟑
Similarly: 𝒄𝟏 = 𝒄𝟐 =
𝒃𝟏 𝒃𝟏

We are faced with the problem of zeros in third row, thus from the new
polynomials using the entries in the row above zeros. The polynomials will
start with power of s in that row, and continue by skipping every other
power of s, i.e.

𝐹(𝑠) = 𝑺𝟒 + 𝟔𝑺𝟐 + 𝟖

𝑑𝐹(𝑆)
Then; = 4𝑺𝟑 + 𝟏𝟐𝑺 + 𝟎
𝑑𝑠

Hence, the row with all zeros in the Routh table is replaced with these
coefficients. Therefore:

2 𝑺𝟑 𝟒 𝟏𝟐 𝟎
1 3 0
3 𝑺𝟐 3 8 0
4 𝑺𝟏 𝟏 0 0
𝟑
5 𝑺𝟎 8 0 0

Since there are no sign changes in the first column, the system is said to be
stable.

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Example 14: Check the stability of the system having the following
characteristic equation

S 4 + 2 S 3 + 3 S 2 + 4S + 5 = 0

Solution:

Row
0 S4 1 3 5
1 S3 2 4
2 S2 1 5
3 S1 -6
4 S0 5

From the above result there are two number of sign changes, thus the
system is unstable.

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