Python Functions

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Python Functions
Functions are the most important aspect of an application. A function can be defined as the
organized block of reusable code which can be called whenever required.
Python allows us to divide a large program into the basic building blocks known as function.
The function contains the set of programming statements enclosed by {}. A function can be
called multiple times to provide reusability and modularity to the python program.
In other words, we can say that the collection of functions creates a program. The function is
also known as procedure or subroutine in other programming languages.
Python provide us various inbuilt functions like range() or print(). Although, the user can create
its functions which can be called user-defined functions.
Advantage of functions in python
There are the following advantages of C functions.
o By using functions, we can avoid rewriting same logic/code again and again in
a program.
o We can call python functions any number of times in a program and from any place in a
program.
o We can track a large python program easily when it is divided into multiple functions.
o Reusability is the main achievement of python functions.
o However, Function calling is always overhead in a python program.
Creating a function in python
In python, we can use def keyword to define the function. The syntax to define a function in
python is given below.
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1. def my_function():
2. function-suite
3. return <expression>
The function block is started with the colon (:) and all the same level block statements remain
at the same indentation.
A function can accept any number of parameters that must be the same in the definition and
function calling.
Function calling
In python, a function must be defined before the function calling otherwise the python
interpreter gives an error. Once the function is defined, we can call it from another function or
the python prompt. To call the function, use the function name followed by the parentheses.
A simple function that prints the message "Hello Word" is given below.
1. def hello_world():
2. print("welcome to functions")
3. hello_world()
Output:
hello world
Parameters in function
The information into the functions can be passed as the parameters. The parameters are
specified in the parentheses. We can give any number of parameters, but we have to separate
them with a comma.
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Consider the following example which contains a function that accepts a string as the
parameter and prints it.
Example 1
1. #defining the function
2. def acceptName(name):
3. print("Hi Mr. ",name);
4.
5. #calling the function
6. acceptName ("Ayush")
Example 2
1. #python function to calculate the sum of two variables
3. def sum (a,b):
4. return a+b;
5.
6. #taking values from the user
7. a = int(input("Enter a: "))
8. b = int(input("Enter b:
")) 9.
10. #printing the sum of a and b
11. print("Sum = ",sum(a,b))
Output:
Enter a: 10
Enter b: 20
Sum = 30
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Call by reference in Python
In python, all the functions are called by reference, i.e., all the changes made to the reference
inside the function revert back to the original value referred by the reference.
However, there is an exception in the case of mutable objects since the changes made to the
mutable objects like string do not revert to the original string rather, a new string object is
made, and therefore the two different objects are printed.
Example 1 Passing Immutable Object (List)

2. def change_list(list1):
3. list1.append(20);
4. list1.append(30);
5. print("list inside function = ",list1)
6.
7. #defining the list
8. list1 = [10,30,40,50]
9.
11. change_list(list1);
12. print("list outside function = ",list1);
Output:
list inside function = [10, 30, 40, 50, 20, 30]
list outside function = [10, 30, 40, 50, 20, 30]
Example 2 Passing Mutable Object (String)

2. def change_string (str):
3. str = str + " Hows you";
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4. print("printing the string inside function :",str);

5.
6. string1 = "Hi I am there"
7.
9. change_string(string1)
10.
11. print("printing the string outside function :",string1)
Output:
printing the string inside function : Hi I am there Hows you
printing the string outside function : Hi I am there
Types of arguments
There may be several types of arguments which can be passed at the time of function calling.
1. Required arguments
2. Keyword arguments
3. Default arguments
4. Variable-length arguments
Required Arguments
Till now, we have learned about function calling in python. However, we can provide the
arguments at the time of function calling. As far as the required arguments are concerned,
these are the arguments which are required to be passed at the time of function calling with
the exact match of their positions in the function call and function definition. If either of the
arguments is not provided in the function call, or the position of the arguments is changed,
then the python interpreter will show the error.
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Consider the following example.
Example 1
1. #the argument name is the required argument to the function func
2. def func(name):
3. message = "Hi "+name;
4. return message;
5. name = input("Enter the name?")
6. print(func(name))
Output:
Enter the name?John
Hi John
Example 2
1. #the function simple_interest accepts three arguments and returns the simple interest accordin
gly
2. def simple_interest(p,t,r):
3. return (p*t*r)/100
4. p = float(input("Enter the principle amount? "))
5. r = float(input("Enter the rate of interest? "))
6. t = float(input("Enter the time in years? "))
7. print("Simple Interest: ",simple_interest(p,r,t))
Output:
Enter the principle amount? 10000
Enter the rate of interest? 5
Enter the time in years? 2
Simple Interest: 1000.0
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Example 3
1. #the function calculate returns the sum of two arguments a and b
2. def calculate(a,b):
3. return a+b
4. calculate(10) # this causes an error as we are missing a required arguments b.
Output:
TypeError: calculate() missing 1 required positional argument: 'b'
Keyword arguments
Python allows us to call the function with the keyword arguments. This kind of function call will
enable us to pass the arguments in the random order.
The name of the arguments is treated as the keywords and matched in the function calling and
definition. If the same match is found, the values of the arguments are copied in the function
definition.
Example 1
1. #function func is called with the name and message as the keyword arguments
2. def func(name,message):
3. print("printing the message with",name,"and ",message)
4. func(name = "John",message="hello") #name and message is copied with the values John and h
ello respectively
Output:
printing the message with John and hello
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Example 2 providing the values in different order at the calling

1. #The function simple_interest(p, t, r) is called with the keyword arguments the order of argume
nts doesn't matter in this case
4. print("Simple Interest: ",simple_interest(t=10,r=10,p=1900))
Output:
Simple Interest: 1900.0
If we provide the different name of arguments at the time of function call, an error will be
thrown.
Example 3
1. #The function simple_interest(p, t, r) is called with the keyword arguments.
4.
5. print("Simple Interest: ",simple_interest(time=10,rate=10,principle=1900)) # doesn't find the ex
act match of the name of the arguments (keywords)
Output:
TypeError: simple_interest() got an unexpected keyword argument 'time'
The python allows us to provide the mix of the required arguments and keyword arguments at
the time of function call. However, the required argument must not be given after the keyword
argument, i.e., once the keyword argument is encountered in the function call, the following
arguments must also be the keyword arguments.
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Example 4
1. def func(name1,message,name2):
2. print("printing the message with",name1,",",message,",and",name2)
3. func("John",message="hello",name2="David") #the first argument is not the keyword argument
Output:
printing the message with John , hello ,and David
The following example will cause an error due to an in-proper mix of keyword and required
arguments being passed in the function call.
Example 5
1. def func(name1,message,name2):
2. print("printing the message with",name1,",",message,",and",name2)
3. func("John", message="hello","David")
Output:
SyntaxError: positional argument follows keyword argument
Default Arguments
Python allows us to initialize the arguments at the function definition. If the value of any of the
argument is not provided at the time of function call, then that argument can be initialized with
the value given in the definition even if the argument is not specified at the function call.
Example 1
1. def printme(name,age=22):
2. print("My name is",name,"and age is",age)
3. printme(name = "john") #the variable age is not passed into the function however the default v
alue of age is considered in the function
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Output:
My name is john and age is 22
Example 2
1. def printme(name,age=22):
2. print("My name is",name,"and age is",age)
3. printme(name = "john") #the variable age is not passed into the function however the default v
alue of age is considered in the function
4. printme(age = 10,name="David") #the value of age is overwritten here, 10 will be printed as age
Output:
My name is john and age is 22
My name is David and age is 10
Variable length Arguments
In the large projects, sometimes we may not know the number of arguments to be passed in
advance. In such cases, Python provides us the flexibility to provide the comma separated
values which are internally treated as tuples at the function call.
However, at the function definition, we have to define the variable with * (star) as *<variable -
name >.
Example
1. def printme(*names):
2. print("type of passed argument is ",type(names))
3. print("printing the passed arguments...")
4. for name in names:
5. print(name)
6. printme("john","David","smith","nick")
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Output:
type of passed argument is <class 'tuple'>
printing the passed arguments...
john
David
smith
nick
Scope of variables
The scopes of the variables depend upon the location where the variable is being declared. The
variable declared in one part of the program may not be accessible to the other parts.
In python, the variables are defined with the two types of scopes.
1. Global variables
2. Local variables
The variable defined outside any function is known to have a global scope whereas the variable
defined inside a function is known to have a local scope.
Example 1
1. def print_message():
2. message = "hello !! I am going to print a message." # the variable message is local to the funct
ion itself
3. print(message)
4. print_message()
5. print(message) # this will cause an error since a local variable cannot be accessible here.
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Output:
hello !! I am going to print a message.
File "/root/PycharmProjects/PythonTest/Test1.py", line 5, in
print(message)
NameError: name 'message' is not defined
Example 2
1. def calculate(*args):
2. sum=0
3. for arg in args:
4. sum = sum +arg
5. print("The sum is",sum)
6. sum=0
7. calculate(10,20,30) #60 will be printed as the sum
8. print("Value of sum outside the function:",sum) # 0 will be printed
Output:
The sum is 60
Value of sum outside the function: 0
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Python Built-in Functions
The Python built-in functions are defined as the functions whose functionality is pre-defined in
Python. The python interpreter has several functions that are always present for use. These
functions are known as Built-in Functions. There are several built-in functions in Python which
are listed below:
Python abs() Function
The python abs() function is used to return the absolute value of a number. It takes only one
argument, a number whose absolute value is to be returned. The argument can be an integer
and floating-point number. If the argument is a complex number, then, abs() returns its
magnitude.
Python abs() Function Example
1. # integer number
2. integer = -20
3. print('Absolute value of -40 is:', abs(integer))
4.
5. # floating number
6. floating = -20.83
7. print('Absolute value of -40.83 is:', abs(floating))
Output:
Absolute value of -20 is: 20

Absolute value of -20.83 is: 20.83
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Python all() Function
The python all() function accepts an iterable object (such as list, dictionary, etc.). It returns true
if all items in passed iterable are true. Otherwise, it returns False. If the iterable object is
empty, the all() function returns True.
Python all() Function Example
1. # all values true

2. k = [1, 3, 4, 6]
3. print(all(k))
4.
5. # all values false
6. k = [0, False]
7. print(all(k))
8.
9. # one false value
10. k = [1, 3, 7, 0]
11. print(all(k))
12.
13. # one true value
14. k = [0, False, 5]
15. print(all(k))
16.
17. # empty iterable
18. k = []
19. print(all(k))
Output:
True
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False
False
False
True
Python bin() Function
The python bin() function is used to return the binary representation of a specified integer. A
result always starts with the prefix 0b.
Python bin() Function Example
1. x = 10
2. y = bin(x)
3. print (y)
Output:
0b1010
Python bool()
The python bool() converts a value to boolean(True or False) using the standard truth testing
procedure.
Python bool() Example
1. test1 = []
2. print(test1,'is',bool(test1))
3. test1 = [0]
5. test1 = 0.0
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7. test1 = None
9. test1 = True
11. test1 = 'Easy string'
Output:
[] is False
[0] is True
0.0 is False
None is False
True is True
Easy string is True
Python bytes()
The python bytes() in Python is used for returning a bytes object. It is an immutable version of
the bytearray() function.
It can create empty bytes object of the specified size.
Python bytes() Example
1. string = "Hello World."

2. array = bytes(string, 'utf-8')
3. print(array)
Output:
b ' Hello World.'
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Python callable() Function
A python callable() function in Python is something that can be called. This built-in function
checks and returns true if the object passed appears to be callable, otherwise false.
Python callable() Function Example
1. x = 8
2. print(callable(x))
Output:
False
Python compile() Function
The python compile() function takes source code as input and returns a code object which can
later be executed by exec() function.
Python compile() Function Example
1. # compile string source to code

2. code_str = 'x=5\ny=10\nprint("sum =",x+y)'
3. code = compile(code_str, 'sum.py', 'exec')
4. print(type(code))
5. exec(code)
6. exec(x)
Output:
<class 'code'>
sum = 15
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Python exec() Function
The python exec() function is used for the dynamic execution of Python program which can
either be a string or object code and it accepts large blocks of code, unlike the eval() function
which only accepts a single expression.
Python exec() Function Example
1. x = 8
2. exec('print(x==8)')
3. exec('print(x+4)')
Output:
True
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Python sum() Function
As the name says, python sum() function is used to get the sum of numbers of an iterable, i.e.,
list.
Python sum() Function Example
1. s = sum([1, 2,4 ])
2. print(s)
3.
4. s = sum([1, 2, 4], 10)
5. print(s)
Output:
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Python any() Function
The python any() function returns true if any item in an iterable is true. Otherwise, it returns
False.
Python any() Function Example
1. l = [4, 3, 2, 0]
2. print(any(l))
3.
4. l = [0, False]
5. print(any(l))
6.
7. l = [0, False, 5]
8. print(any(l))
9.
10. l = []
11. print(any(l))
Output:
True
False
True
False
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Python ascii() Function
The python ascii() function returns a string containing a printable representation of an object
and escapes the non-ASCII characters in the string using \x, \u or \U escapes.
Python ascii() Function Example
1. normalText = 'Python is interesting'

2. print(ascii(normalText))
3.
4. otherText = 'Pythön is interesting'
5. print(ascii(otherText))
6.
7. print('Pyth\xf6n is interesting')
Output:
'Python is interesting'
'Pyth\xf6n is interesting'
Pythön is interesting
Python bytearray()
The python bytearray() returns a bytearray object and can convert objects into bytearray
objects, or create an empty bytearray object of the specified size.
Python bytearray() Example
1. string = "Python is a programming language."

2.
3. # string with encoding 'utf-8'
4. arr = bytearray(string, 'utf-8')
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5. print(arr)
Output:
bytearray(b'Python is a programming language.')
Python eval() Function
The python eval() function parses the expression passed to it and runs python expression(code)
within the program.
Python eval() Function Example
1. x = 8
2. print(eval('x + 1'))
Output:
Python float()
The python float() function returns a floating-point number from a number or string.
Python float() Example
1. # for integers
2. print(float(9))
3.
4. # for floats
5. print(float(8.19))
6.
7. # for string floats
8. print(float("-24.27"))
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9.
10. # for string floats with whitespaces
11. print(float(" -17.19\n"))
12.
13. # string float error
14. print(float("xyz"))
Output:
9.0
8.19
-24.27
-17.19
ValueError: could not convert string to float: 'xyz'
Python format() Function
The python format() function returns a formatted representation of the given value.
Python format() Function Example
1. # d, f and b are a type

2.
3. # integer
4. print(format(123, "d"))
5.
6. # float arguments
7. print(format(123.4567898, "f"))
8.
9. # binary format
10. print(format(12, "b"))
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Output:
123
123.456790
1100
Python frozenset()
The python frozenset() function returns an immutable frozenset object initialized with
elements from the given iterable.
Python frozenset() Example
1. # tuple of letters
2. letters = ('m', 'r', 'o', 't', 's')
3.
4. fSet = frozenset(letters)
5. print('Frozen set is:', fSet)
6. print('Empty frozen set is:', frozenset())
Output:
Frozen set is: frozenset({'o', 'm', 's', 'r', 't'})

Empty frozen set is: frozenset()
Python getattr() Function
The python getattr() function returns the value of a named attribute of an object. If it is not
found, it returns the default value.
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Python getattr() Function Example
1. class Details:
2. age = 22
3. name = "Phill"
4.
5. details = Details()
6. print('The age is:', getattr(details, "age"))
7. print('The age is:', details.age)
Output:
The age is: 22

The age is: 22
Python globals() Function
The python globals() function returns the dictionary of the current global symbol table.
A Symbol table is defined as a data structure which contains all the necessary information
about the program. It includes variable names, methods, classes, etc.
Python globals() Function Example
1. age = 22
2.
3. globals()['age'] = 22
4. print('The age is:', age)
Output:
The age is: 22
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Python hasattr() Function
The python any() function returns true if any item in an iterable is true, otherwise it returns
False.
Python hasattr() Function Example
1. l = [4, 3, 2, 0]
2. print(any(l))
3.
4. l = [0, False]
5. print(any(l))
6.
7. l = [0, False, 5]
8. print(any(l))
9.
10. l = []
11. print(any(l))
Output:
True
False
True
False
Python iter() Function
The python iter() function is used to return an iterator object. It creates an object which can be
iterated one element at a time.
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Python iter() Function Example
1. # list of numbers
2. list = [1,2,3,4,5]
3.
4. listIter = iter(list)
5.
6. # prints '1'
7. print(next(listIter))
8.
9. # prints '2'
11.
12. # prints '3'
14.
15. # prints '4'
17.
18. # prints '5'
Output:
1
2
3
4
5
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Python len() Function
The python len() function is used to return the length (the number of items) of an object.
Python len() Function Example
1. strA = 'Python'
2. print(len(strA))
Output:
Python list()
The python list() creates a list in python.
Python list() Example
1. # empty list
2. print(list())
3.
4. # string
5. String = 'abcde'
6. print(list(String))
7.
8. # tuple
9. Tuple = (1,2,3,4,5)
10. print(list(Tuple))
11. # list
12. List = [1,2,3,4,5]
13. print(list(List))
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Output:
[]
['a', 'b', 'c', 'd', 'e']
[1,2,3,4,5]
[1,2,3,4,5]
Python locals() Function
The python locals() method updates and returns the dictionary of the current local symbol
table.
A Symbol table is defined as a data structure which contains all the necessary information
about the program. It includes variable names, methods, classes, etc.
Python locals() Function Example
1. def localsAbsent():
2. return locals()
3.
4. def localsPresent():
5. present = True
6. return locals()
7.
8. print('localsNotPresent:', localsAbsent())
9. print('localsPresent:', localsPresent())
Output:
localsAbsent: {}
localsPresent: {'present': True}
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Python map() Function
The python map() function is used to return a list of results after applying a given function to
each item of an iterable(list, tuple etc.).
Python map() Function Example
1. def calculateAddition(n):
2. return n+n
3.
4. numbers = (1, 2, 3, 4)
5. result = map(calculateAddition, numbers)
6. print(result)
7.
8. # converting map object to set
9. numbersAddition = set(result)
10. print(numbersAddition)
Output:
<map object at 0x7fb04a6bec18>

{8, 2, 4, 6}
Python memoryview() Function
The python memoryview() function returns a memoryview object of the given argument.
Python memoryview () Function Example
1. #A random bytearray
2. randomByteArray = bytearray('ABC', 'utf-8')
3.
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4. mv = memoryview(randomByteArray)
5.
6. # access the memory view's zeroth index
7. print(mv[0])
8.
9. # It create byte from memory view
10. print(bytes(mv[0:2]))
11.
12. # It create list from memory view
13. print(list(mv[0:3]))
Output:
65
b'AB'
[65, 66, 67]
Python object()
The python object() returns an empty object. It is a base for all the classes and holds the built-in
properties and methods which are default for all the classes.
Python object() Example
1. python = object()
2.
3. print(type(python))
4. print(dir(python))
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Output:
<class 'object'>
[' class ', ' delattr ', ' dir ', ' doc ', ' eq ', ' format ', ' ge ',
' getattribute ', ' gt ', ' hash ', ' init ', ' le ', ' lt ', ' ne ',
' new ', ' reduce ', ' reduce_ex ', ' repr ', ' setattr ', ' sizeof ',
' str ', ' subclasshook ']
Python open() Function
The python open() function opens the file and returns a corresponding file object.
Python open() Function Example
1. # opens python.text file of the current directory

2. f = open("python.txt")
3. # specifying full path
4. f = open("C:/Python33/README.txt")
Output:
Since the mode is omitted, the file is opened in 'r' mode; opens for reading.
Python chr() Function
Python chr() function is used to get a string representing a character which points to a Unicode
code integer. For example, chr(97) returns the string 'a'. This function takes an integer
argument and throws an error if it exceeds the specified range. The standard range of the
argument is from 0 to 1,114,111.
Python chr() Function Example
1. # Calling function
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2. result = chr(102) # It returns string representation of a char

3. result2 = chr(112)
4. # Displaying result
5. print(result)
6. print(result2)
7. # Verify, is it string type?
8. print("is it string type:", type(result) is str)
Output:
ValueError: chr() arg not in range(0x110000)
Python complex()
Python complex() function is used to convert numbers or string into a complex number. This
method takes two optional parameters and returns a complex number. The first parameter is
called a real and second as imaginary parts.
Python complex() Example
1. # Python complex() function example

3. a = complex(1) # Passing single parameter
4. b = complex(1,2) # Passing both parameters
6. print(a)
7. print(b)
Output:
(1.5+0j)
(1.5+2.2j)
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Python delattr() Function
Python delattr() function is used to delete an attribute from a class. It takes two parameters,
first is an object of the class and second is an attribute which we want to delete. After deleting
the attribute, it no longer available in the class and throws an error if try to call it using the class
object.
Python delattr() Function Example
1. class Student:
2. id = 101
3. name = "Pranshu"
4. email = "pranshu@abc.com"
5. # Declaring function
6. def getinfo(self):
7. print(self.id, self.name, self.email)
8. s = Student()
9. s.getinfo()
10. delattr(Student,'course') # Removing attribute which is not available
11. s.getinfo() # error: throws an error
Output:
101 Pranshu pranshu@abc.com

AttributeError: course
Python dir() Function
Python dir() function returns the list of names in the current local scope. If the object on which
method is called has a method named dir (), this method will be called and must return the
list of attributes. It takes a single object type argument.
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Python dir() Function Example
2. att = dir()
4. print(att)
Output:
[' annotations ', ' builtins ', ' cached ', ' doc ', ' file ', ' loader ',
' name ', ' package ', ' spec ']
Python divmod() Function
Python divmod() function is used to get remainder and quotient of two numbers. This function
takes two numeric arguments and returns a tuple. Both arguments are required and numeric
Python divmod() Function Example
1. # Python divmod() function example

3. result = divmod(10,2)
5. print(result)
Output:
(5, 0)
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Python enumerate() Function
Python enumerate() function returns an enumerated object. It takes two parameters, first is a
sequence of elements and the second is the start index of the sequence. We can get the
elements in sequence either through a loop or next() method.
Python enumerate() Function Example
2. result = enumerate([1,2,3])
4. print(result)
5. print(list(result))
Output:
<enumerate object at 0x7ff641093d80>

[(0, 1), (1, 2), (2, 3)]
Python dict()
Python dict() function is a constructor which creates a dictionary. Python dictionary provides
three different constructors to create a dictionary:
o If no argument is passed, it creates an empty dictionary.
o If a positional argument is given, a dictionary is created with the same key-value pairs.
Otherwise, pass an iterable object.
o If keyword arguments are given, the keyword arguments and their values are added
to the dictionary created from the positional argument.
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Python dict() Example
2. result = dict() # returns an empty dictionary
3. result2 = dict(a=1,b=2)
5. print(result)
6. print(result2)
Output:
{}
{'a': 1, 'b': 2}
Python filter() Function
Python filter() function is used to get filtered elements. This function takes two arguments, first
is a function and the second is iterable. The filter function returns a sequence of those elements
of iterable object for which function returns true value.
The first argument can be none, if the function is not available and returns only elements that
are true.
Python filter() Function Example
1. # Python filter() function example

2. def filterdata(x):
3. if x>5:
4. return x
6. result = filter(filterdata,(1,2,6))
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8. print(list(result))
Output:
[6]
Python hash() Function
Python hash() function is used to get the hash value of an object. Python calculates the hash
value by using the hash algorithm. The hash values are integers and used to compare dictionary
keys during a dictionary lookup. We can hash only the types which are given below:
Hashable types: * bool * int * long * float * string * Unicode * tuple * code object.
Python hash() Function Example
2. result = hash(21) # integer value
3. result2 = hash(22.2) # decimal value
5. print(result)
6. print(result2)
Output:
21
461168601842737174
Python help() Function
Python help() function is used to get help related to the object passed during the call. It takes
an optional parameter and returns help information. If no argument is given, it shows the
Python help console. It internally calls python's help function.
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Python help() Function Example
2. info = help() # No argument
4. print(info)
Output:
Welcome to Python 3.5's help utility!
Python min() Function
Python min() function is used to get the smallest element from the collection. This function
takes two arguments, first is a collection of elements and second is key, and returns the
smallest element from the collection.
Python min() Function Example
2. small = min(2225,325,2025) # returns smallest element
3. small2 = min(1000.25,2025.35,5625.36,10052.50)
5. print(small)
6. print(small2)
Output:
325
1000.25
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Python set() Function
In python, a set is a built-in class, and this function is a constructor of this class. It is used to
create a new set using elements passed during the call. It takes an iterable object as an
argument and returns a new set object.
Python set() Function Example
2. result = set() # empty set
3. result2 = set('12')
4. result3 = set('vivekit')
6. print(result)
7. print(result2)
8. print(result3)
Output:
set()
{'1', '2'}
{'t', 'k', 'v', 'i, 'v', 'e', 'i'}
Python hex() Function
Python hex() function is used to generate hex value of an integer argument. It takes an integer
argument and returns an integer converted into a hexadecimal string. In case, we want to get
a hexadecimal value of a float, then use float.hex() function.
Python hex() Function Example
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2. result = hex(1)
3. # integer value
4. result2 = hex(342)
6. print(result)
7. print(result2)
Output:
0x1
0x156
Python id() Function
Python id() function returns the identity of an object. This is an integer which is guaranteed to
be unique. This function takes an argument as an object and returns a unique integer number
which represents identity. Two objects with non-overlapping lifetimes may have the same id()
value.
Python id() Function Example
2. val = id("Vivekit") # string object
3. val2 = id(1200) # integer object
4. val3 = id([25,336,95,236,92,3225]) # List object
6. print(val)
7. print(val2)
8. print(val3)
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Output:
139963782059696
139963805666864
139963781994504
Python setattr() Function
Python setattr() function is used to set a value to the object's attribute. It takes three
arguments, i.e., an object, a string, and an arbitrary value, and returns none. It is helpful when
we want to add a new attribute to an object and set a value to it.
Python setattr() Function Example
1. class Student:
2. id = 0
3. name = ""
4.
5. def init (self, id, name):
6. self.id = id
7. self.name = name
8.
9. student = Student(102,"Sohan")
10. print(student.id)
11. print(student.name)
12. #print(student.email) product error
13. setattr(student, 'email','sohan@abc.com') # adding new attribute
14. print(student.email)
Output:
102
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Sohan
sohan@abc.com
Python slice() Function
Python slice() function is used to get a slice of elements from the collection of elements. Python
provides two overloaded slice functions. The first function takes a single argument while the
second function takes three arguments and returns a slice object. This slice object can be used
to get a subsection of the collection.
Python slice() Function Example
2. result = slice(5) # returns slice object
3. result2 = slice(0,5,3) # returns slice object
5. print(result)
6. print(result2)
Output:
slice(None, 5, None)
slice(0, 5, 3)
Python sorted() Function
Python sorted() function is used to sort elements. By default, it sorts elements in an

ascending order but can be sorted in descending also. It takes four arguments and returns a
collection in sorted order. In the case of a dictionary, it sorts only keys, not values.
Python sorted() Function Example
1. str = "vivekit" # declaring string
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3. sorted1 = sorted(str) # sorting string
5. print(sorted1)
Output:
[’e’, 'i', 'i',’k’,’v’,’v’]
Python next() Function
Python next() function is used to fetch next item from the collection. It takes two arguments,
i.e., an iterator and a default value, and returns an element.
This method calls on iterator and throws an error if no item is present. To avoid the error, we
can set a default value.
Python next() Function Example
1. number = iter([256, 32, 82]) # Creating iterator

3. item = next(number)
5. print(item)
6. # second item
8. print(item)
9. # third item
11. print(item)
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Output:
256
32
82
Python input() Function
Python input() function is used to get an input from the user. It prompts for the user input and
reads a line. After reading data, it converts it into a string and returns it. It throws an
error EOFError if EOF is read.
Python input() Function Example
2. val = input("Enter a value: ")
4. print("You entered:",val)
Output:
Enter a value: 45
You entered: 45
Python int() Function
Python int() function is used to get an integer value. It returns an expression converted into an
integer number. If the argument is a floating-point, the conversion truncates the number. If the
argument is outside the integer range, then it converts the number into a long type.
If the number is not a number or if a base is given, the number must be a string.
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Python int() Function Example
2. val = int(10) # integer value
3. val2 = int(10.52) # float value
4. val3 = int('10') # string value
6. print("integer values :",val, val2, val3)
Output:
integer values : 10 10 10
Python isinstance() Function
Python isinstance() function is used to check whether the given object is an instance of that
class. If the object belongs to the class, it returns true. Otherwise returns False. It also returns
true if the class is a subclass.
The isinstance() function takes two arguments, i.e., object and classinfo, and then it returns
either True or False.
Python isinstance() function Example
1. class Student:
2. id = 101
3. name = "John"
4. def init (self, id, name):
5. self.id=id
6. self.name=name
7.
8. student = Student(1010,"John")
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9. lst = [12,34,5,6,767]
11. print(isinstance(student, Student)) # isinstance of Student class
12. print(isinstance(lst, Student))
Output:
True
False
Python oct() Function
Python oct() function is used to get an octal value of an integer number. This method takes an
argument and returns an integer converted into an octal string. It throws an error TypeError, if
argument type is other than an integer.
Python oct() function Example
2. val = oct(10)
4. print("Octal value of 10:",val)
Output:
Octal value of 10: 0o12
Python ord() Function
The python ord() function returns an integer representing Unicode code point for the given
Unicode character.
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Python ord() function Example
1. # Code point of an integer

2. print(ord('8'))
3.
4. # Code point of an alphabet
5. print(ord('R'))
6.
7. # Code point of a character
8. print(ord('&'))
Output:
56
82
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Python pow() Function
The python pow() function is used to compute the power of a number. It returns x to the power
of y. If the third argument(z) is given, it returns x to the power of y modulus z, i.e. (x, y) % z.
Python pow() function Example
1. # positive x, positive y (x**y)

2. print(pow(4,
2)) 3.
4. # negative x, positive y
5. print(pow(-4,
2)) 6.
7. # positive x, negative y (x**-y)
8. print(pow(4, -2))
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9.
10. # negative x, negative y
11. print(pow(-4, -2))
Output:
16
16
0.0625
0.0625
Python print() Function
The python print() function prints the given object to the screen or other standard output
devices.
Python print() function Example
1. print("Python is programming language.")

2.
3. x = 7
4. # Two objects passed
5. print("x =", x)
6.
7. y = x
8. # Three objects passed
9. print('x =', x, '= y')
Output:
Python is programming language.

x=7
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x=7=y
Python range() Function
The python range() function returns an immutable sequence of numbers starting from 0 by
default, increments by 1 (by default) and ends at a specified number.
Python range() function Example
1. # empty range
2. print(list(range(0)))
3.
4. # using the range(stop)
5. print(list(range(4)))
6.
7. # using the range(start, stop)
8. print(list(range(1,7 )))
Output:
[]
[0, 1, 2, 3]
[1, 2, 3, 4, 5, 6]
Python reversed() Function
The python reversed() function returns the reversed iterator of the given sequence.
Python reversed() function Example
1. # for string
2. String = 'Java'
3. print(list(reversed(String)))
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4.
5. # for tuple
6. Tuple = ('J', 'a', 'v', 'a')
7. print(list(reversed(Tuple)))
8.
9. # for range
10. Range = range(8, 12)
11. print(list(reversed(Range)))
12.
13. # for list
14. List = [1, 2, 7, 5]
15. print(list(reversed(List)))
Output:
['a', 'v', 'a', 'J']

['a', 'v', 'a', 'J']
[11, 10, 9, 8]
[5, 7, 2, 1]
Python round() Function
The python round() function rounds off the digits of a number and returns the floating point
number.
Python round() Function Example
1. # for integers
2. print(round(10))
3.
4. # for floating point
5. print(round(10.8))
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6.
7. # even choice
8. print(round(6.6))
Output:
10
11
7
Python issubclass() Function
The python issubclass() function returns true if object argument(first argument) is a subclass of
second class(second argument).
Python issubclass() Function Example
1. class Rectangle:
2. def init (rectangleType):
3. print('Rectangle is a ', rectangleType)
4.
5. class Square(Rectangle):
6. def init (self):
7. Rectangle. init ('square')
8.
9. print(issubclass(Square, Rectangle))
10. print(issubclass(Square, list))
11. print(issubclass(Square, (list, Rectangle)))
12. print(issubclass(Rectangle, (list, Rectangle)))
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Output:
True
False
True
True
Python str
The python str() converts a specified value into a string.
Python str() Function Example
1. str('4')
Output:
'4'
Python tuple() Function
The python tuple() function is used to create a tuple object.
Python tuple() Function Example
1. t1 = tuple()
2. print('t1=', t1)
3.
4. # creating a tuple from a list
5. t2 = tuple([1, 6, 9])
6. print('t2=', t2)
7.
8. # creating a tuple from a string
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9. t1 = tuple('Java')
10. print('t1=',t1)
11.
12. # creating a tuple from a dictionary
13. t1 = tuple({4: 'four', 5: 'five'})
14. print('t1=',t1)
Output:
t1= ()
t2= (1, 6, 9)
t1= ('J', 'a', 'v', 'a')
t1= (4, 5)
Python type()
The python type() returns the type of the specified object if a single argument is passed to the
type() built in function. If three arguments are passed, then it returns a new type object.
Python type() Function Example
1. List = [4, 5]
2. print(type(List))
3.
4. Dict = {4: 'four', 5: 'five'}
5. print(type(Dict))
6.
7. class Python:
8. a=0
9.
10. InstanceOfPython = Python()
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11. print(type(InstanceOfPython))
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Output:
<class 'list'>
<class 'dict'>
<class ' main .Python'>
Python vars() function
The python vars() function returns the dict attribute of the given object.
Python vars() Function Example
1. class Python:
2. def init (self, x = 7, y = 9):
3. self.x = x
4. self.y = y
5.
6. InstanceOfPython = Python()
7. print(vars(InstanceOfPython))
Output:
{'y': 9, 'x': 7}
Python zip() Function
The python zip() Function returns a zip object, which maps a similar index of multiple
containers. It takes iterables (can be zero or more), makes it an iterator that aggregates the
elements based on iterables passed, and returns an iterator of tuples.
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Python zip() Function Example
1. numList = [4,5, 6]
2. strList = ['four', 'five', 'six']
3.
4. # No iterables are passed
5. result = zip()
6.
7. # Converting itertor to list
8. resultList = list(result)
9. print(resultList)
10.
11. # Two iterables are passed
12. result = zip(numList, strList)
13.
14. # Converting itertor to set
15. resultSet = set(result)
16. print(resultSet)
Output:
[]
{(5, 'five'), (4, 'four'), (6, 'six')}
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Python Lambda Functions
Python allows us to not declare the function in the standard manner, i.e., by using the def
keyword. Rather, the anonymous functions are declared by using lambda keyword. However,
Lambda functions can accept any number of arguments, but they can return only one value in
the form of expression.
The anonymous function contains a small piece of code. It simulates inline functions of C and
C++, but it is not exactly an inline function.
The syntax to define an Anonymous function is given below.
1. lambda arguments : expression
Example 1
1. x = lambda a:a+10 # a is an argument and a+10 is an expression which got evaluated and return
ed.
2. print("sum = ",x(20))
Output:
sum = 30
Example 2
Multiple arguments to Lambda function
1. x = lambda a,b:a+b # a and b are the arguments and a+b is the expression which gets evaluated
and returned.
2. print("sum = ",x(20,10))
Output:
sum = 30
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Why use lambda functions?
The main role of the lambda function is better described in the scenarios when we use them
anonymously inside another function. In python, the lambda function can be used as an
argument to the higher order functions as arguments. Lambda functions are also used in the
scenario where we need a Consider the following example.
Example 1
1. #the function table(n) prints the table of n
2. def table(n):
3. return lambda a:a*n; # a will contain the iteration variable i and a multiple of n is returned at
each function call
4. n = int(input("Enter the number?"))
5. b = table(n) #the entered number is passed into the function table. b will contain a lambda
func tion which is called again and again with the iteration variable i
6. for i in range(1,11):
7. print(n,"X",i,"=",b(i)); #the lambda function b is called with the iteration variable i,
Output:
Enter the number?10

10 X 1 = 10
10 X 2 = 20
10 X 3 = 30
10 X 4 = 40
10 X 5 = 50
10 X 6 = 60
10 X 7 = 70
10 X 8 = 80
10 X 9 = 90
10 X 10 = 100
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Example 2
Use of lambda function with filter
1. #program to filter out the list which contains odd numbers

2. List = {1,2,3,4,10,123,22}
3. Oddlist = list(filter(lambda x:(x%3 == 0),List)) # the list contains all the items of the list for which
the lambda function evaluates to true
4. print(Oddlist)
Output:
[3, 123]
Example 3
Use of lambda function with map
1. #program to triple each number of the list using map

2. List = {1,2,3,4,10,123,22}
3. new_list = list(map(lambda x:x*3,List)) # this will return the triple of each item of the list and ad
d it to new_list
4. print(new_list)
Output:
[3, 6, 9, 12, 30, 66, 369]
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Advantage of functions in python

There are the following advantages of C functions.

o Reusability is the main achievement of python functions.

o However, Function calling is always overhead in a python program.

Creating a function in python

Call by reference in Python

Example 1 Passing Immutable Object (List)

list inside function = [10, 30, 40, 50, 20, 30]

list outside function = [10, 30, 40, 50, 20, 30]

Example 2 Passing Mutable Object (String)

4. print("printing the string inside function :",str);

printing the string inside function : Hi I am there Hows you

printing the string outside function : Hi I am there

Consider the following example.

Enter the name?John

Enter the principle amount? 10000

Enter the rate of interest? 5

Enter the time in years? 2

Simple Interest: 1000.0

TypeError: calculate() missing 1 required positional argument: 'b'

Consider the following example.

printing the message with John and hello

Example 2 providing the values in different order at the calling

Simple Interest: 1900.0

Consider the following example.

TypeError: simple_interest() got an unexpected keyword argument 'time'

Consider the following example.

printing the message with John , hello ,and David

SyntaxError: positional argument follows keyword argument

My name is john and age is 22

My name is john and age is 22

My name is David and age is 10

Variable length Arguments

Consider the following example.

type of passed argument is <class 'tuple'>

printing the passed arguments...

Consider the following example.

hello !! I am going to print a message.

File "/root/PycharmProjects/PythonTest/Test1.py", line 5, in

NameError: name 'message' is not defined

Value of sum outside the function: 0

Python Built-in Functions

Python abs() Function

Python abs() Function Example

Absolute value of -20 is: 20

Python all() Function

Python all() Function Example

1. # all values true

Python bin() Function

Python bin() Function Example

Python bool() Example

It can create empty bytes object of the specified size.

Python bytes() Example

1. string = "Hello World."

b ' Hello World.'

Python callable() Function

Python callable() Function Example

Python compile() Function

Python compile() Function Example