Vet Alumnus XXXXI (1&2) Decemmber 2019

Vet Alumnus Vol. XXXXI (No.
1&2) December, 2019 1

Vet Alumnus Vol. XXXXI (No. 1&2) December, 2019 2
Office bearers of the Alumni Association, College of Veterinary Science,

Guru Angad Dev Veterinary and Animal Sciences University (GADVASU),
Ludhiana - 141 004, India
Founder President Late Dr. Balwant Singh

President Dr. P.S. Brar
Secretary Dr. H.K. Verma
Joint Secretary Dr. J.S. Hundal
Treasurer Dr. S.K. Kansal
Co-Treasurer Dr. S.K. Sharma
Chief Editor Dr. V.K. Gandotra
Editor Dr. Amarjit Singh
Associate Editor Dr. Jaswinder Singh
Members of the Executive Committee
Dr. S.S. Sidhu Dr. J.K. Gupta

Dr. G.S. Toor Dr. Rana Preet Gill
Dr. Neelam Bansal Dr. Rampal Mittal
Dr. Paramjit Singh Dr. Sarbjit Randhawa
Dr. P.N. Dwivedi Dr. Kewal Arora
Dr. S.K. Mahajan Dr. Surjit Singh
Dr. M.S. Bal
Printed and Published for and on behalf of the Alumni Association of the College of
Veterinary Science, Guru Angad Dev Veterinary and Animal Sciences University
(GADVASU), Ludhiana for private circulation and printed at SOMALIA PRINTERS,
Ludhiana,Tel: 093169-14892;Email: somaliaprinters@gmail.com,
CONTENTS
COLLEGE OF VETERINARY SCIENCE: GLORIOUS 50 YEAR OF SERVICE TO ANIMAL 6
HEALTH ANDPRODUCTION
PARKASH SINGH BRAR
SINGLE CONCEPT SINGLE TRAINEE INCULCATIONAPPROACH OF GADVASU 8
HK VERMA
TIPS TO MANAGE COLD STRESS IN DAIRY COWS 17
JASMINE KAUR, JASWINDER SINGH, R.S. GREWAL AND J.S. LAMBA
FARMER’S PRODUCER ORGANIZATION (FPOS): A KEY STRATEGY TO EMPOWER 20
SMALLAND MARGINALFARMERS
AKSHITA CHADDA, Y.S JADOUN, JASWINDER SINGH, BHARTI DESHMUKH, H K VERMA
AND SK KANSAL
NUTRITIONALAPPROACHES TO OBTAIN DESIRED MILK SOLIDS 24
PARMINDER SINGH AND RAJESH KASRIJA
APPLIED ANATOMY OF HOOF IN DIFFERENT ANIMALS 30
NEELAM BANSAL, VARINDER UPPAL, ANURADHA GUPTA AND DEVENDRA PATHAK
BREEDING STRATEGIES FOR PRODUCTIVITY ENHANCEMENT IN BUFFALOES 36
BHARTI DESHMUKH, NEERAJ KASHYAP AND Y.S. JADOUN
BODY CONDITION SCORE (BCS) — A TOOL FOR DAIRY HERD MANAGEMENT 39
GURJOT KAUR MAVI, AMIT CHALLANA, P.P DUBEY AND SK KANSAL
LIVESTOCK RECORD KEEPING: AKEY TO EFFICIENT GENETIC IMPROVEMENT 45
NEERAJ KASHYAP AND BHARTI DESHMUKH
MEASURES TO IMPROVE POST PARTUM REPRODUCTION IN DAIRY ANIMALS 49
V K GANDOTRA
FOLDSCOPE AS A DIAGNOSTIC TOOL IN VETERINARY SCIENCE 52
RASHMI SAGAR AND MANDEEP SINGH BAL
FROM SYNTHETICS TO NATURAL:NEWER WAY FOR EXTENDED SHELF LIFE 55
SIVAKUMAR S AND REKHA CHAWLA
DIAGNOSIS OF PREGNANCY IN DAIRY ANIMALS: IMPORTANCE AND PROBLEMS 64
ASSOCIATED
A. K. SINGH, PRABHJOT KAUR & V. K. GANDOTRA
CURRENTAPPROACHES IN THE DIAGNOSIS OF BRUCELLOSIS IN ANIMALS 69
PAVITER KAUR AND SHARMA N S
SELENIUM TOXICITY IN ANIMALS 72
RASHMI SAGAR BHULLAR AND VINOD KUMAR DUMKA
AN OVERVIEW ON REPRODUCTIVE MANAGEMENT PRACTICES IN SWINE 76
A K SINGH, P SINGH, JASWINDER SINGH AND H K VERMA
CHEMOTHERAPEUTIC INTERVENTIONS FOR CANCER PATIENTS 80
RAJDEEP KAUR AND S.K.SHARMA
AN UPDATE ON THE CANINE UROLITHIASIS 88
HARMANPREET SINGH SODHI AND ASHWANI KUMAR
A SIMPLE METHOD OF PRESERVING RUMINANTSTOMACH OF GOAT FOR TEACHING 92
AND DEMONSTRATION
DEVENDRA PATHAK, OPINDER SINGH, NEELAM BANSAL, VARINDERUPPAL,
ANDANURADHA GUPTA
MEETING DRINKING WATER REQUIREMENTS OF ANIMALS 98
JASMINE KAUR, R.S. GREWAL AND JASWINDER SINGH
GENDER MAINSTREAMING IN LIVESTOCK FARMING: A KEY STRATEGY FOR 101
SUSTAINABLE LIVESTOCK DEVELOPMENT
Y.S JADOUN, JASWINDER SINGH, KULVINDER SINGH, H K VERMA AND SK KANSAL
Note: Authors are sole responsible for the contents given in articles
From Secretary's Desk
Dr. H.K. Verma

Director, Extension Education
GADVASU, Ludhiana
Ph.: 0161-2553364
E-mail: deegadvasuldh@gmail.com
hkvpau@rediffmail.com
GOLDEN JUBILEE CELEBRATIONS OF COVS
It gives me immense pleasure to pen down for the golden jubilee celebrations of the
college of veterinary science during the Alumni association meet. Since, the start of
college in 1969, it has produced one of the best Veterinarians of the globe. Alumni
association feel proud in sharing that thousandsof veterinariansare serving at different
places, positions and organizationsaround the globe. People respect and try to learn
etiquettesas well as commitment of the alumni of the Veterinary College, Ludhiana.I've
seen and heard people talking when vets from Ludhiana are out of its nurturing place,
they are at different level and commitment. They work sincerely, dedicatedlyand keep
the reputationof its Alma mater in mind. They are sober in dealing but hard in performing
and providing best of the care to the animals and homosapien.
Now, Alumni association is celebrating golden jubilee of the COVS, Ludhiana.

Earlier, association celebrated Silver Jubilee of the alumni association in 2013 followed
with Pearl Jubilee celebrationsin 2018.I'm thankfulto Respected late Dr Balwant Singh,
the founderpresident and other executive members who made strong pavementof this
associat ion . F urther, I t hankf ul and acknowledge all the vete rinarians
/authors/scientists/alumnifor performing exceptionally well and also for submitting the
articles to the Vet Alumnus.Suggestionsare always welcome with smiling face.
I wish you all a very Happy, Prosperousand Memorable New Year – 2020.
Sd/-
H. K. Verma
COLLEGE OF VETERINARY SCIENCE: GLORIOUS 50 YEAR

OF SERVICE TO ANIMAL HEALTH AND PRODUCTION
The greatness of a nation and its moral progress can be judged by the way its animals are
treated.” — Mahatma Gandhi
The knowledge of veterinary science existed since the ancient periods when the
veterinary education was imparted by the Gurus through their experiences & expertise.
Animal Husbandry progressed in the Mauryan age and received further push during the
regime of King Ashoka, who opened hospitals for humans & animals. East Indian Company
in later part of 18th century opened veterinary schools in India to dial with rampant equine
diseases & cattle plague. First Veterinary School was established in 1862 at Poona. Later
on, it was upgraded as the first Veterinary College of pre-independent India at Lahore in
1882 and was named Punjab Veterinary College. A part of the Lahore Veterinary College
was shifted to Hisar soon after partition of India in 1948. With reorganization of Punjab
State, College of Veterinary Science, Ludhiana was established at Punjab Agricultural Uni-
versity in November, 1969. The College was shifted to the Guru Angad Dev Veterinary and
Animal Sciences University (GADVASU), Ludhiana in 2005. The College has become center
of regional, national and international excellence in research and learning in animal health
and production over the years.It caters to the needs of Punjab by carrying out teaching,
research, and extension education programmes relevant to livestock production and health.
It has been instrumental in ushering in an era of ‘White Revolution’ in the State.
The college has a highly competent and experienced faculty who have made sig-
nificant contributions to alleviate animal health issues, bring about technological innovations
to improve livestock production and thereby winning several accolades. From academic
session 2016-17, the college has implemented the Veterinary Council of India- Minimum
Standards of Veterinary Education for B.V.Sc. & A.H. Regulations-2016. The programme
leading to award of the B.V.Sc. & A.H. degree is designed to equip graduates with the
knowledge and skills essential to a prolific veterinary career. The programme is divided into
three phases, pre-clinical, para-clinical and clinical phase exposing the graduating students
to all the nuances of a professional career. All the departments in the college have excellent
laboratory facilities and adequate infrastructure for the undergraduate and postgraduate
teaching and research. A well-equipped veterinary teaching hospital is the most sought
after facility to cater to the needs of large and small animal health care in northern India. In
addition, the college also has an elite dairy herd, pig & goat farms and a poultry farm which
provide excellent facilities for teaching and research. The college has the distinction of
having three Centres for Advanced Faculty Training in Veterinary Gynaecology and Repro-
duction; Veterinary Surgery and Radiology and Veterinary Pathology. The college also has
experiential learning programmes for students in Livestock Production and Management,
Teaching Veterinary Clinical Complex, Department of Veterinary Medicine and Livestock
Product Technology.
The college has an ultimate goal to produce Veterinary graduates, scientists and
extension workers for promoting livestock health and production, thus improving the quality
of rural life and economy of the farmer in Punjab.
It provides consultancy and specialist services to livestock owners, government,
semi-government and allied agencies. Faculty development and students personality de-
velopment programmes by providing them with opportunities to participate in appropriate
training programmes, conferences, workshops, seminars, symposia, exchange programmes
etc. It also encourages cooperation and collaboration with other departments, colleges,
universities and industries, both nationally and internationally.
The college has completed 50 glorious year of its existence in 2019. The Alumni of
this College are occupying several eminent positons at National and International levels. Its
graduates have immense contributions towards nation building and uplifting the livestock
sector as a whole. May this College continue to grow further and continue to contribute
towards development of the livestock sector and economy of Punjab.
Parkash Singh Brar
Dean, CoVS
GADVASU, Ludhiana
SINGLE CONCEPT SINGLE TRAINEE INCULCATION

APPROACH OF GADVASU
H K VERMA
DIRECTOR OF EXTENSION EDUCATION,
GURU ANGAD DEV VETERINARY & ANIMAL SCIENCES UNIVERSITY, LUDHIANA
Traditional livestock farming is undertaken by majority of farmers in India, which

are either small, marginal or landless and possess major treasurer of livestock, however
lack scientific knowledge for rearing them. Govt. is stressing on doubling of farmers in-
come which is only possible through livestock farming either on commercial or through
integrated farming. Punjab is an agrarian state with animal husbandry sector as an impor-
tant subsector. Around seventy percent people of the state are involved in agriculture and
allied activities and more than 83 per cent of the total land in the state is under agriculture.
In 2016-17, agriculture had 23.96 per cent share in State’s GDP while livestock had 8.63
percent share (Statistical Abstract Punjab, 2017). In the recent past, the share of livestock
GDP in agriculture increased steadily. Livestock economy including fisheries contributed
29.60 per cent of the agricultural GDP in 2000-01 while the share increased to 36.01 per
cent in 2016-17 and 37.65 (9.10%) in 2017-18. Livestock productivity of Punjab is highest
in the country, however the major constraints faced by livestock sector are small herd
size or livestock units, poor extension services concerning livestock sector, lack of proper
and scientific nutrition interventions for different categories of animals, insufficient prophy-
laxis , poor value addition of the produce procured from small and marginal farmers, ab-
sence of culling policy for stray animals and male calves, poor linkages with consumer
market etc. However, few farmers have adopted direct marketing and few self help groups
or producer organizations are operational, but not sufficient to take full harvesting of the
livestock productivity, later being in the hands of middlemen. Organizations like GADVASU
are hub of knowledge, technologies and procedures and loaded with literature as well as
newer protocols prevailing around the globe, for enhancing livestock productivity for its
sustainability among the farmers. In spite of the best management practices provided at
the farms, diseases in animals are bound to come
In India there are huge economic losses in animals occurring due to diseases
amounting to more than one lac crore annually. There exists information burst at the institu-
tions but the ground reality is that the percolation to the field level is poor (only 5% farmers
have access to animal related information compared to 40% in crop and agriculture, NSSO).
So, information crunch livestock farmers need information and capacity building for getting
higher as well as healthy productivity from animals. It makes the way for Extension to
come into play for penetration of information to them. This necessitates strong, aggressive
and focused approach in the field which can be in tandem with institutions as they bring the
procedures and their methodology for diffusion. Development departments take them for-
ward to the major producers dwelling in form of small and marginal farmers.
Directorate of Extension Education, Guru Angad Dev Veterinary and Animal

Sciences University, Ludhiana has adopted a farmer friendly cum multisided, multitier and
all-round approach to make livestock/dairy farmers acquainted with latest trends of farm-
ing. Innovation and research outcome of the university over the years have led to the
propagation of various livestock development strategies to the farmers, through various
extension methodologies. Punjab stands sixth among states of India regarding milk produc-
tion at 11.28 million tonnes from 2.53 % dairy animals of country and per capita availability
is 1120 gm, 7% share of India with 32.5 million litres daily production. The increase has
been maintained irrespective of the slight increase in cattle and 20% decrease in buffa-
loes(2012 to 2017, latest census). Buffalo is the main stay of dairy and its number has
decreased in the current census(51 lac to 40 lac)The field problems and constraints in
dairy sector are mainly two fold either on the animal husbandry front or on the health
aspect. Main factors contributing to animal husbandry sector are lower nutritional status of
the animals and poor management practices causing reproductive problems. The nutri-
tional feeding of animals reared for dairy are still below the standards adopted in developing
countries and those recommended by FAO and veterinary institutions. Requirements of
ingredients in fodder and concentrate rations are still out of the knowledge of common
farmers producing maximum milk. On the other hand the management practices of hous-
ing, feeding and production are not adequate enough for ideal dairy practices. The health
problems mainly are of reproduction and disease prevention.
Reproduction problems of the dairy animals mostly pertain to repeat breeding,

anoestrous, prolapse of the uterus and placental retention and abortion. All these problems
are based on poor nutritional status of the animal. Moreover faulty management practices
also contribute towards the development of these reproductive affections. Further the lack
of awareness of farmer on the basis of evaluation and identification of reproduction prob-
lems and to have the sufficient involvement and consultancy of veterinary experts precipi-
tates these problems. Nutritional aspects of present day dairy farmers also demand when
look into the constraints of dairy development in recent times. Inadequate feed formulation
lack of refined techniques by feed manufactures, poor quality of available market feed tells
upon the production traits of milking animals. The principle of high energy-low bulk feed for
high producing dairy animals has still to be followed by the farmers in our country. The
notion of high energy diet containing soya and other high protein constituents is totally out
of the mind of the common farmer. Various bye pass energy rich technologies have been
developed which meet the nutritional requirements of high yielders
Present day dairy farms depicts increased size of farms, increase milk Production
per milch animal, high level of mechanization, different farm organization Observation, a
core issue leading to late detection of heat and health disorders, control of production
costs is major issue, more attention for sub clinical diseases, health problems are consid-
ered to be the major constraint for profitability, formulation of least cost ration as feed costs
are the highest variable costs in production, development of farming skills and manage-
ment of animals, equipment and farming conditions, while Progressive dairy farmer fea-
tures have an advantage over common farmer,invest in knowledge through practitioners,

mind set up with self assessment and positive evaluation considered as risk takers, com-
mercially and market oriented, gather information from various sources, innovative, plan-
ners and turn threats into opportunities, highly skilled in communication so, newer ways of
making profit, group parturitions through technological interventions and bring more innova-
tions
Present Dairy Farming Scenario in the State - Dairy farming in the state run by
three groups of farmers one who follow traditional dairy farming practices and are small/
marginal farmers, other medium category farmers (rearing>10 animals) and can be cat-
egorized as common farmers, others those who have adopted and are in the scientific
raising of dairy animals and belong to the category of progressive dairy farmers. The
number of progressive dairy farmers in the state has increased significantly from around
100 in the initial stages to around 2500-3000 at present. Different categories of dairy farm-
ers have varied problems, majority want to survive, better one want to flourish while com-
mercial one are progressive which invest and are more mechanized as well as well off. In a
normal conversation with the rural dairy farmers major problems encountered by them-
dairy animals mainly suffer from Mastitis and reproductive disorders like Anestrus and
Repeat Breeding,Small herd group farmers are more affected due to different livestock
diseases, Mastitis occurrence can be seen both cattle and buffaloes, however Cross bred
animals are more affected, major losses occur from the mortality of animals or their re-
placement values followed by reduction in milk yield,24X7 AI Services and treatment facili-
ties are not available to them,Vaccination with good cold chain facilities still lack in rural
areas,more user friendly technologies are needed by them and better financial support and
insurance facilities.
The dissemination of knowledge and technology to the farmers/livestock owners is

a regular feature for meeting one of the basic mandates of the university. The fulfilling the
three mandates of teaching, research and extension has lead to grab the top position
among the state veterinary varsities of India (ICAR ranking, 2019).
Livestock population trends in Punjab (Lakh)
Indigenous
Census year Buffalo CB Cattle Total cattle
Cattle
1997 61.71 18.28 8.11 26.39
2003 59.95 15.31 5.09 20.40
2007 50.02 12.60 5.03 17.62
2012 51.60 20.65 3.63 24.28
2019 39.99 NA NA 25.19

Share of livestock in agricultural GDP over time (Rs Crore)

Total Agri.GDP % share of
Crop % share of Livestock and
Years including Livestock and
GDP crop GDP Fisheries GDP
fisheries Fisheries GDP
1980-81 2423.5 1696.42 70.00 727.08 30.00
1990-91 8253.67 6116.01 74.10 2137.66 25.90
2000-01 26635.32 18751.21 70.40 7884.11 29.60
2010-11 63805.2 44573.37 69.86 19231.83 30.14
2015-16 92818.25 59526.48 64.13 33291.77 35.87
2016-17 103904.26 66489.36 63.99 37414.99 36.01
114899.73 37.65*
2017-18 71638.43 62.35 43261.30
(24.16%) (9.10%)
*36.40 % Livestock, 1.25 % fisheries
Note: Figures in parentheses indicate percentage to total state GD

Major extension activities for information infusion-Extension should reach to
all the farmers including unreached ones. We thrive on the concept where there is any
broach of livestock, poultry or fisheries, GADVASU offers assistance and help. Institution
goes beyond that and is ready to undertake single farmer single concept training under
rapid fire approach. Major extension activities are as -
1 Field Service: Ambulatory Clinical Serv- Extension should reach to all the farmers
ice provides treatment facilities and including unreached ones. We thrive on the
counseling services to the farmers par- concept where there is any broach of
livestock, Poultry or Fisheries, GADVASU
ticularly in adopted villages. This facility offers assistance and help. Institution goes
helps the farmers to get rationale treat- beyond that and is ready to undertake single
ment and is a great experience for stu- farmer, single concept training under rapid
dents to work under field conditions for fire approach.
the whole week.

2 Field Camps: Extension wing organizes animal welfare camps and animal welfare
days – in the field for treatment for sick animals, advice as well as question answers
session. On these occasions, demonstrations regarding the collection, dispatch and
transport of clinical material and farmers were made aware of correct method of
milking, teat dip, heat detection, acaricide drug application, silage making, computa-
tion of ration, vaccination and deworming regimes.
3 Trainings: University conducts various training programmes in dairy farming, poul-
try farming, pig farming, goat farming, fish farming and value addition. These trainings
help farmers in gaining technical skills and the knowledge to start these activities for
self-employment in line with the government’s policy of diversification of agriculture.
University is also undertaking commercial dairy farming and AI training programmes.
Various tailor made courses are also organized by the university. Farmers can be
trained at district level milk unions or help of institute can be taken for dedicated
programmes under mission mode for clean milk production or controlling of common
diseases.
4 Farmers fair: GADVASU organizes Pashu Palan Mela twice (March and Septem-
ber) a year at its Ludhiana campus. During Pashu Palan Mela, the whole university
is showcasing its activities, research and procedures through display inform of exhi-
bitions, demonstrations, lectures and interactions. Chief Minister Award are con-
ferred to innovative and progressive rural farmers in the field of dairy, and other
farming including value addition of livestock produce. These awards are granted for
bringing healthy competitions among the farming community to perform better. Ex-
pert talks are given on the occasion of “Pashu Palan Melas”, “Kisan Melas”, Field
days & ‘Regional Kisan Melas’, Farmers’ day celebrations’ etc. other regional re-
search stations and KVKs of the University. In addition, the farmers seek advice
through personal contact with the experts at these fairs. Farmers can be motivated
to participate in such fairs for updation also for applying for dairy awards separately
in cattle or buffalo along with pig, goat,fish, poultry and value addition category.
5 Mass media: Use of Mass media in the form of Press, Radio , T.V. talks and
through Cable channels and Private channels by the University experts, is helping
in the dissemination of knowledge in a significant way due to its vast reach. Impor-
tant aspects of animal health and production are covered from time to time to keep
the masses abreast with the latest recommendations. The messages of urgent
concern which need immediate attention are flashed through T.V. and radio through
DD Jalandhar, Pvt and Cable channels and AIR, Jalandhar as well as FM and Gold
channels in the local state and North India. The timings of such programmes can be
shared with potential milk farmers to listen or participate in them.
6 Messaging: University has registered farmers (n=>30,000) for sending them regu-
lar message through central portal and advisory also sent through whatsapp and
text message. The livestock farmers can be enrolled with university or separate
initiative can be started.
7 Farmer Information centre: To provide the farmers the needed information under
one roof, “Farmer Information Centre” is operational. This centre helps the visiting
farmers, students, unemployed youth, women farmers to get the information related
to trainings, education, camps or various inputs as single window system.
8 Literature : University has developed huge literature in Punjabi, English as well as in
Hindi language for the livestock farmers covering all aspects of livestock, poultry
and fish farming. GADVASU’S Punjabi publication, a monthly magazine “Vigyanak
Pashu Palan” carries informative articles dealing with Veterinary and Animal sci-
ences. Such published material make a long lasting impression on its readers and
can also be used as reference source by veterinarians, field officers as well as by
farmers.
9 Handy tools: GADVASU has developed management calendars (calf rearing,

feeding, general management, vaccination , de-worming and reproduction) to pro-
vide farmers readymade and handy information for up-keeping their animals in a
nice way for getting healthy produce for society. Livestock calendar contains infor-
mation on animal husbandry practices for the whole year.
10 Linkages: University has liaison with line departments of Punjab State viz; Animal
Husbandry and Dairy Development for undertaking animal welfare activities. These
departments organize various camps and field days. University provides latest tech-
nical know-how in these activities which is a two way learning for field officers /
veterinarians. Such activities can be planned by milkfed or can work in tandem with
university and other state departments.
11 Farmer field schools: Farmers field schools concept has been introduced for
better penetration into field through learning of farmers through horizontal approach
as farmers learn better from fellow farmers. This step can be initiated at few places
for better message dissemination.
12 Specialized hospital services: University extends diagnostic facilities constituting
biochemical, pathological and parasitological, culture sensitivity, mastitis and rabies
testing and post mortem facilities etc. the post mortem is done even on holidays and
Saturdays and Sundays. Such facility can be made available to dairy farmers/milk
producers for better utilization of special university services.
13 Fire brigade Veterinary Services: Emergency

There is no single perfect technology or services when required by the livestock/dairy farmers in
procedure which can cater to all the needs case of disease outbreaks, accidents, calamities are un-
of livestock farmers. Technologies must be
dertaken without any delay as a sort of fire brigade type
considered with regards to their total cost
for owner. Modern extension tools
service and farmers can contact at no. 0161-2414030. Dairy
especially digital ones can save time, man farmers can be made aware of that to contact in case of
power and money. Extension must be emergency.
provided on 24x7 basis for the growth
development and 14
sustainability. Outreach stations: To bridge the gap between the
Technology must be user universities and the field and to know the field and grass
friendly,
cheaper, easily updated, accessible and
root level scenario through Regional / Outreach Stations
locally available. Technologies must reach
to the target people, otherwise they rot
and three Krishi Vigyan Kendras. These centers are dem-
lying on shelves or in the books. onstrating developed technologies and research in their op-
(Technologies and Fish are always erational areas and also organizing various training pro-
preferred and welcomed fresh)
grammes for unemployed youth/ women in Dairy, other farm-
ing activities and also demand driven courses. They are
catering to the routine needs of farmers and livestock farmers of the areas along
with showcasing of various correct manage mental practices as well dedicated pro-
grammes for better productivity.
15 Digital Strategies: Nobody on this earth whether homosapien or animal is un-
touched with ICT in the present era and it is proving as a lifeline for all. Now it is very
much clear that through digitalization or ICT one can reach to the unreached in far
flung rural areas. Fortunately, new developments in information and communication
technology and wide spread of Internet access and mobile communications appear
to offer some solutions to meet the information and advisory need of small-scale
livestock farmers. Access to Internet based information centers is growing rapidly
and village information kiosks with user-friendly features such as touch-screens
appear to be a promising development. The ICT related initiatives in livestock exten-
sion, give extension workers an opportunity to produce customized extension mate-
rials that meet the real needs of the farmers they serve. ICT tools are proving handy
in filling this knowledge and accessibility gap and extending digital literacy to the end
users. As in this century, majority of farmers (including family members) are having
access to smart phones along with internet and they can seek desired information
from various sources. Many ICT initiatives in livestock sector have been taken by
public and private agencies but the scope of improvement still lies. The digitalized
services have major advantages as -Access to huge store-house of information is
free, Information is available instantaneously 24X7X365, Communication can also
be interactive and Information is available from any point on the globe.
…..Most powerful digitalized tool is the cell phone which has replaced many gadgets and the
number of users are around one billion in India. This is the only technology which has brought
literacy and alertness even in aged , senile and lethargic people though its user friendly multiple
uses. It is a wonderful tool to reach masses through a click of button and has proven useful in
emergency situation. Use it maximum to reach dairy farmers
Major digitalized strategies of GADVASU are-

1 Mobile advisory
2 Mass Media- Radio, TV, newspaper, Cable network, Pvt. Channels.
3 Messages- Flash, Short and Advisory
4 Videos CD -Repeat Breeding, Anoestrus, Abortion, Calf Management

5 GADVASU friends, Farmers groups/Associations,
6 Website( www.gadvasu.in), E- mail
7 Mobile Applications-
(a) Precision dairy farming App (b) Goat farming
(c) Dairy Prajanan App (d) Pig farming

Important Inputs and services to dairy farmers for better productivity:
I. Services
• 24x7 treatment facilities through Veterinary hospital, equipped with all modern facili-
ties’ known as PGI for animals.
• Surgical operations of conditions like Fracture Impaction, Diaphragmatic Hernia,
Tumors, Teat and Urine Blockage and spaying of bitches.
• Treatment of all species of animals like Large, Small, Pet, Bird , Lab, Wild and Zoo
animals in university hospital
• Treatment of Gynecological diseases like Anoestrus, Repeat breeding, Uterine dis-
ease, Dystocia, facility for Caesarean Section.
• Laboratory testing of blood, urine, faeces, mucous, C.S.F. semen and disease diag-
nosis through culture sensitivity testing. X-rays, Ultrasound Laparoscopy and En-
doscopy.
• Testing of animals for Brucellosis, Tuberculosis and Johne’s disease.
• Facility for insecticide/pesticide and mycotoxin testing.
• Attending to disease outbreaks/ epidemics and calamities like fire, flood, electrocu-
tion etc.
II. Inputs-
• Estrus Synchronization protocos
• Mastitis diagnostic kit for farmers and Herbal Teat Dip
• Milk adulteration detection kit for farmers
• ETT and IVF
• Publications (Punjabi/Hindi/English)
• Vaccination and Deworming Calendars
• Improved germplasm of crossbred cows, buffaloes as semen, embryos, bull calves
(HF, Sahiwal and Murrah)
• Supply of mineral mixture (area specific) and Uromin lick and bypass fat.
• Formulation of balanced ration for dairy animals.
• fodder conservation and preparation of concentrate for animals.
• Analytical laboratory for feed testing.
• Ideal housing for dairy farming. And climate resilient sheds.
• Rotatory handy calendars
• Nutrition calendar
• Video CD on Repeat Breeding and Anoestrus and their management in Dairy
Animals
• Mobile Apps
It always a strong commitment among the faculty and staff to help the farmers
coming from all parts of the state and adjoining areas with a trust in the institution. GADVASU,
Ludhiana has taken many steps to alleviate sufferings of dairy farmers through valued
services. These facilities have been developed for the livestock farmers, but they need to
contact veterinary varsity. .Ultimate beneficiaries are farmers and they must understand
the importance of these public institutions and bring their problems to the scientists. The
success will only come if their queries are met in time and suitable answers are provided to
them and hand holding is done in right direction, this is what GADVASU is up for it, through
unique farmer friendly cum multitier approach.
Focused area of extension-
• Target Buffalo and Sahiwal.
• Zero wastage technology of buffaloes
• Clean milk production with focus on SCC, Antibiotics/ insecticide/pesticide residues
• Value addition of buffalo for future bulk demanding products
• Separate branding of Sahiwal milk
Sustainable success can be
• Knowledge dissemination
• Handholding
• Strong extension and timely services(feed, breed and treatment)
• In Toto approach especially small farmers(reach to unreached)
• Patting and spreading success
Farmer Friendly Approach for Better Dairy Productivity

TIPS TO MANAGE COLD STRESS IN DAIRY COWS

JASMINE KAUR, JASWINDER SINGH, R.S. GREWAL AND J.S. LAMBA
DEPARTMENT OF ANIMAL NUTRITION
GURU ANGAD DEV VETERINARY AND ANIMAL SCIENCES UNIVERSITY, LUDHIANA
Cows are warm blooded animals and need to maintain a constant core body tem-
perature. Normal rectal temperature for a cow is around 38°C (101°F). Within a range of
environmental temperatures called the “thermoneutral zone,” animals do not have to ex-
pend any extra energy to maintain their body temperature. At the lower end of this range,
normal metabolic processes supply enough heat to maintain body core temperature. Within
their thermoneutral zone, animals may modify their behaviour, such as seeking shelter
from wind, and respond over the long term by growing a thick hair coat for winter, without
affecting their nutrient requirements. However, below the lower limit of the thermoneutral
zone, in the “lower critical temperature,” the animal experiences cold stress. To combat
cold stress, the animal must increase its metabolic rate to supply more body heat. This
increases dietary requirements, particularly for energy.
Exposure to cold decreases the portion of cardiac output flowing to the
gastrointestinal tract, lower limb, hoof bone and diaphragm. Cold stress also increases
secretion of the catabolic hormones cortisol and catecholamine and the more modest
changes in secretion of the anabolic hormone insulin which results in a net catabolic re-
sponse. The combined effect of these endocrine changes is to increase the mobilisation of
energy sources for use by the shivering muscles. Cold weather is known to increase the
susceptibility to pregnancy ketosis. This may be a nonspecific response to stress or star-
vation. Additionally, some of the metabolic adaptations to cold exposure may increase
susceptibility to ketosis when food supplies are limited.
Growth rate and feed conversion efficiency of cattle are reduced under cold stress.
Cows try to increase feed intake in an effort to meet their energy requirements. Also, the
maintenance energy requirement of cattle has been calculated to increase by 0.91% for
each degree below a temperature of 20°C to which animals have been adapted, thereby
reducing the efficiency of energy utilisation for growth and other biological functions. Stud-
ies have also shown that cold stress influences protein turnover in ruminants. The protein
degradation rate is increased more than synthesis, resulting in a loss of muscle mass and
carcass quality.
If cows are not fed additional feed or the quality does not allow them to eat enough
to meet their additional energy requirements, body mass will be “burned” to produce meta-
bolic heat. These cows lose weight as both feed energy and stored fat are diverted to
maintain body temperature and vital functions. Cows that start to lose weight soon enter a
downward spiral: the more weight (fat) they lose, the less insulation they have, the more
susceptible they are to further cold stress, and they lose weight even faster. Cows, and
especially heifers that lose weight, calve in poor condition. The consequences are in-
creased calving difficulties, an increase in the number of lighter, weak calves and higher
calf mortality. These dams produce a reduced amount of colostrum (of lower quality) and
have lower milk production, increased neonatal mortality and reduced growth rate in surviv-
ing calves. These cows usually have delayed return to estrus, longer days open and
poorer reproductive success.
Points to consider to limit the effect of cold stress in animals:
1 Provide a shelter for cattle.
2 Provide clean, dry bedding to keep the animals warm.
3 Cows need more calories to keep themselves warm. Provide higher quality forage
or supplement energy with grains or by-products.
4 Cows need to eat more roughage of good quality in cold weather to get the calories
for heat production since the fermentation and breakdown of cellulose generates
heat energy.
5 Provide adequate quantities of dry crop residues such as wheat straw, paddy
straw and cereal stovers specially during late evening and night.
6 Feeding in the late afternoon or evening can provide higher amount of heat from
fermentation overnight when temperature is the lowest. This is because incremen-
tal heat production reaches its maximum 6-8 hours after the feed is consumed.
7 Do not make drastic adjustments to feed intake as this could lead to reduced intake
or cattle going off-feed.
8 Sort out thin cows or heifers in order to provide them more specialized care such
as a higher energy ration.
9 Cows in the last trimester require additional grain feeding during periods when the
effective temperature falls below the lower critical level.
10 Be sure to check the waterers regularly as excessively cold water significantly limit
water intake of cattle. Make sure cows have ample water available at all times.
Limiting water will limit feed intake and make it more difficult for cows to meet their
energy requirements.
11 Some cows are designed to handle the cold better than others. Keep a close eye
on the herd to watch for additional signs of stress caused by cold weather. Older
cows, cows with previous health issues, and calves are the groups most suscep-
tible to the cold weather.
12 Under-ventilation in winter is most serious threat to the environment of the animal.

Do not restrict the ventilation rate as it can result in build-up of toxic gases like
carbon monoxide, hydrogen sulfide and nitrogen dioxide leading to sudden death of
animals housed in poorly ventilated building.
13 Teat dipping should not be discontinued during cold weather to prevent mastitis.
Teat skin chapping can become a problem in lactating cows during cold, windy
weather. Chapping makes the teat more susceptible to bacterial infections, par-
ticularly Staphylococcus. So pre and post-milking teat dips should include skin
conditioners like glycerin and lanolin. In very cold weather it may be advisable to dip
just the teat end. When teats are dipped, dip only the end and blot off any excess
with a single-use paper towel. Teats should be dry before turning cows out of the
milking parlour. Warming the teat dip reduces drying time.
We can’t control the weather but we can do everything reasonably possible to

reduce the effects of cold weather on cows. This will help reduce treatment costs and
improve production efficiency.
References:
Anonymous. 2019. Digestive, metabolic and production responses to cold stress.

allaboutfeed.net/Feed-Additives/Articles/2019/10/Digestive-metabolic-and-production-
responses-to-cold-stress-486709E/
Brian T. 2010. Cold stress in cows. http: // www.omafra. gov.on.ca/ english/ livestock/beef/
facts/07-001.htm
FARMER’S PRODUCER ORGANIZATION (FPOS): A KEY

STRATEGY TO EMPOWER SMALL AND MARGINAL
FARMERS
AKSHITA CHADDA, Y.S JADOUN, JASWINDER SINGH, BHARTI DESHMUKH,
H K VERMA AND SK KANSAL
DEPARTMENT OF VETERINARY & ANIMAL HUSBANDRY EXTENSION EDUCATION
Agriculture is the primary source of livelihood for about 58 % of Indian population.

(APEDA Union Budget 2018-19). India is the largest producer of pulses, rice, wheat, spices
and spice products (Madhusudhan L 2015) and also ranks first in milk production with a
production level of 176.4 million tonnes of milk with per capita availability is around 374
gram per day in 2017-18 (19th Livestock Census). Indian agriculture and livestock sector
contributes around 17-18 % and 4% to the country’s GDP respectively and provides em-
ployment to around 50 % of the countries workforce. (India economic survey 2018). In
India there are about 138 million farm holdings, which include 92.8 million marginal holdings
(1 ha) and 24.8 million small holdings (1-2 ha) (Agriculture Census 2010-11) and majority of
the farmers are small and marginal farmers which account for 86.2% of all the farmers
(Agriculture Census 2015-16). Smaller and scattered land holdings are one of major rea-
sons for the poor condition of the farmers in India. Existence of large number of small and
marginal farmers make it challenging for government extension arms to reach them with
new technology and farm support schemes. As most agricultural policies tend to favor
large farmers, not even 10 percent has reached the small and marginal farmers. Along with
small holdings, small and marginal farmers are suffering from various problems like drought
and famine. It is estimated by FAO that during 2005-2015 more than 6,43,000 crores
worth crop damaged due to natural disasters in the developing world. Other factors like
middlemen involvement, market uncertainties, inadequate price of the produce, and lack of
awareness among farmers also contribute major loss to the farmers. Therefore, concept
of FPOs came into existence, to make small holdings viable and growth more inclusive,
and to integrate smallholders with agricultural markets. Several initiatives have been taken
by the Government, financial institutions such as NABARD, private organizations, and
many other institutions to support the growth of the FPOs and facilitate their emergence as
successful business enterprises.
Concept of Farmer’s Producer Organizations (FPOs)
FPO is an organization of the producers, by the producers and for the producers.
FPOs consists of collectivization of primary producers (person producing
basic agricultural commodities, such as a farmer or cattle producer) who organize them-
selves into producers organizations with the objective of increasing farm income through
improved production, marketing and local processing activities. Producers are sharehold-
ers in the organization. Farmer’s organizations adopt all the good principles of cooperatives
like voluntary and open membership, democratic farmer member control, farmer-member
economic participation, autonomy and independence, education, training and information,
co-operation among FPOs etc. Three stages involved in sustainable development of FPO
are Incubation and early stage (Grant Support for training, exposure & system develop-
ment); Emerging and growing stage (Equity Financing, Working Capital); Matured stage i.e.
business expansion stage (Debt Capital, Term loans). FPO provides a variety of services
including financial, input supply, procurement and packaging, marketing, insurance, techni-
cal and networking Services to its members.
Formation and structure of FPOs
FPOs are registered under Indian Companies Act, 1956, as amended in 2002-03 &
2013 and can be formed by 10 or more primary producers and two or more producer
institutions. There is no restriction on the maximum number of membership. About 700 to
1000 active producer members are required for the sustainable operation of a FPO. A FPO
can be Producer Company, Cooperative society, SHG, Farmer’s association, Federation,
FIGs etc. Organization structure comprises of General Body, Executive Body (2 repre-
sentative per FIG), Board of Directors, General Manager, FPO staff, and local resource
person. Farmers may be organized at four levels; Farmer Interest Groups (FIGs); 15-20
farmers in each group, Sectoral Farmers Associations (SFA), District Farmers Forum
(DFF) and State Farmers Federation (SFF). Steps involved in establishment of FPOs are
cluster identification, diagnostic study, feasibility analysis, baseline assessment, business
planning, farmers mobilization, organizing and formalizing, resource mobilization, systems
development, business operations, assessment and audit.
Need of FPOs
Almost 87% of rural households have suffered from extreme poverty and serious
deprivations due to rural agrarian crisis caused by increased fragmentation of land and
variety of problems faced by small and marginal farmers, over the last two decades.
Farmers are the backbone of our country but due to policy failure, economy failure, tech-
nology failure, person’s failure; they are in a very bad condition. About 3 lakh farmers have
committed suicide and on an average 47 farmers commit suicide everyday in India (NCRB
2017 report). To tackle all these problems, Farmer producer organizations (FPOs) were
proposed as a way forward to get some form of land consolidation and an integration of
smallholders within an agricultural value chain. Various benefits of collectivization of farm-
ers into producer organizations are:
 Ensure better income; as aggregation of produce and bulk transport reduces marketing
cost.
 Cost of production can be reduced by procuring all inputs in bulk at wholesale rates.
 Through aggregation, the primary producers can avail the benefit of economies of scale.
 Improved bargaining power and social capital building.

 Dissemination of information about price, volume and other farming related advisories
among the producer members.
 Farmers get better access to latest markets and technology.

 Reduce farmer’s dependency on intermediaries.
Policies and schemes for promotion of FPO’s
Government has issued the National Policy and Process Guidelines in March,
2013 for the promotion of FPOs, with a dedicated source of funding from the Rashtriya
Krishi Vikas Yojana (RKVY). It has also launched the “Equity Grant and Credit Guarantee
Fund Scheme” for FPOs in January, 2014, enabling the FPOs to access a grant up to INR
10.00 lakh to double members’ equity and seek collateral-free loan up to INR 1.00 crore
from banks, which in turn can seek 85 percent cover from the Credit Guarantee Fund.
Other govt. supported programmes are Venture Capital Assistance Scheme (VCA), Na-
tional Food Security Mission (NFSM), Mission for Integrated Development of Horticulture
(MIDH), Vegetable Initiative for Urban Clusters (VIUC), Producer Organization Develop-
ment Fund (PODF), NABARD, Gramin Bhandaran Yojana (GBY), MP special project (ISAP
2018). Small Farmer’s Agri-Business Consortium (SFAC) and NABARD have emerged as
driving force in supporting FPOs and provide technical & financial support to them. GoI
provides SFAC with budgetary support and NABARD with PRODUCE fund for promotion
of FPOs. There are approx. 5000 FPOs in India. Out of these, around 3200 are registered
as Producer Companies and the remaining as Cooperatives/ Societies, etc. There are 897
FPOs promoted by SFAC in India out of which 773 are registered and 124 are under the
process of registration. (Annual report SFAC 2017-18); while NABARD has promoted 4004
FPOs out of which 2044 are registered. (Annual report NABARD 2017-18)
SWOT Analysis of FPOs
Strengths: 1. Provide efficient input delivery system 2. Create market linkages including
direct selling for optimum returns 3. Aggregation and value addition 4. Member’s empower-
ment 5. Improved extension services.
Weakness: 1.Weak financials 2. Inadequate market linkages 3. Non-availability of credit
4. Low equity base 4. Lack of clarity on business plans 5. Lack of awareness amongst
members 6. Inadequate access to infrastructure
Opportunities: 1. Potential of SHGs, Farmer’s clubs, Farmer’s association etc. to be

developed into FPOs 2. Availability of potential commodity clusters 3. SFAC support for
equity and credit guarantee.
Threats: 1. Dependence on farmer producer organization promoting institutions 2. Lack of
governance and management capabilities 3. Limited scope, scale, market.
Conclusion
Major share of Indian agriculture and livestock is covered by small and marginal
farmer. Marketing is still a challenge for the farmers. Low quantum of market surplus by
the individual small and marginal farmers, large number of intermediates and lack of ad-
equate price for agriculture produces are the main reason for poor income and non- viability
of the small farmers. In order to improve the condition of small farmers, FPOs are consid-
ered to be helpful in integrating the small farmers directly, through their institutions to
market for both inputs and output and enabling them, to reach large and high value markets
to realize better price for their produce through collectivization. Some suggested measures
should be taken by the Govt. of India/ other stakeholders for further strengthening of the
FPO movement in the country; like private institutions/ Agricultural Universities may intro-
duce special courses on FPO promotion with focus on rural youths including women so as
to create large pool of professionals in rural areas for managing FPO activities. There is
need of extension to create awareness among the farmers regarding FPOs and to syn-
chronize the stakeholders including govt. officials, financial institutions and elected mem-
bers to popularize the concept of FPOs. If FPOs are handled properly, can help to reduce
the distress of farmers. Collectivization through concept of business & cooperation is the
best solution for small and marginal farmers.
References
19th Livestock Census 2012-17. Department of Animal Husbandry, Dairying & Fisheries
Ministry of Agriculture & Farmers Welfare Government of India, New Delhi.
Agricultural and Processed Food Products Export Development Authority (APEDA), De-
partment of Commerce and Industry, Union Budget 2018–19, Press Information Bu-
reau, Ministry of Statistics and Programme Implementation, Press Releases, Media
Reports, Ministry of Agriculture and Farmers Welfare, Crisil.
Agriculture Census (2010-11). All India Report on Number and Area of Operational Hold-
ings (P5-7).
Agriculture Census (2015-16). All India Report on Number and Area of Operational Hold-
ings.
Annual report 2017-18; Small Farmer’s Agri-Business Consortium (Society promoted by
Department of Agriculture, Cooperation and Farmers Welfare, Govt. of India).
Annual report Economic Survey 2017–18 Ministry of Finance, Government of India.
Annual report NABARD 2017-18.
Madhusudhan L (2015) Agriculture Role on Indian Economy. Bus Eco J 6:176.
NCRB Report 2017 National Crime Record Bureau, Ministry of Home Affairs. Empowering
Indian Police with information technology.
NUTRITIONAL APPROACHES TO OBTAIN DESIRED MILK

SOLIDS
PARMINDER SINGH AND RAJESH KASRIJA
The amount of money a milk producer gets for his milk depends upon three fac-
tors. Firstly, the quantity of milk produced, secondly fat and solid not fat (SNF) content and
thirdly the levels of other quality parameters such as drug residues, somatic cell account,
M1 levels and off flavor etc. The higher the fat and SNF content of the milk, the higher the
price paid.
Close to 70% of milk sold in India is considered adulterated as it doesn’t conform to

standards set up by Food Safety and Standards Authority of India (FSSAI). The standards
of milk and milk products have undergone amendment since 2nd August 2017. The fat
content of milk ranges between 1.5% and 6%; as the definition says that Milk which is
adjusted for milk fat or SNF content or both, may also be named ‘milk’. Another major
difference is with regard to ‘milk’ when offered to sale without indication of class shall have
the standards of mixed milk (4.5% fat and 8.5% SNF) instead of buffalo milk. The standard
of cow milk is on all India basis, now. The minimum standards are 3.2% fat and 8.3% SNF.
Similarly buffalo milk should have 6% fat and 9.0% SNF in northern states and 5 % fat in
southern states with same SNF.
Fairly good positive relationships between level of fat and SNF in milk exist. Of the
two, the SNF is of great nutritional importance as it contains valuable animal proteins. Fat
content is much more variable than SNF. Attention to improve fat percent becomes more
rewarding when payment is based on its level in the milk. Milk yield and total solids percent-
age are related inversely, yet correlation is not so good that improvement of both yield and
total solid percent cannot be made. Some feel that improvement in yield is more difficult to
achieve when total solid concentration is to be maintained or improved.
The various nutritional approaches which alter the milk yield and composition are
discussed below:
Of all the factors affecting milk composition, nutrition and feeding practices are
most likely to cause problems; however, management changes made here are able to
quickly and dramatically alter production of fat and protein. Milk fat depression can be
alleviated within seven to 21 days by changing the diet. Milk protein changes may take 3 to
6 weeks or longer if the problem has been going on for a prolonged period. Nutrition or
ration formulation changes are more strongly correlated to milk fat content than milk pro-
tein. Milk fat can be changed by 0.1 to 1.0 percentage points, while protein is seldom
altered more than 0.1 to 0.4 points by nutritional changes. For these reasons, nutrition and
feeding management are considered the best solutions to a milk fat or protein problem
other than genetics.
a Rumen
Digestion of fiber in the rumen produces the volatile fatty acids (VFAs) ac-
etate and butyrate. Butyrate provides energy for the rumen wall, and much of it is con-
verted to betahydroxybutyrate in the rumen wall tissue. About half of the fat in milk is
synthesized in the udder from acetate and betahydroxybutyrate. The other half of milk fat
is transported from the pool of fatty acids circulating in the blood. These can originate from
body fat mobilization, absorption from the diet, or from fats metabolized in the liver. Rumen
microbes convert dietary protein into microbial protein, which is a primary source of essen-
tial amino acids. These amino acids are used by the mammary gland to synthesize milk
proteins. Glucose is required to provide energy to support this protein synthesis. Glucose
is either formed from the VFA propionate in the liver, or absorbed directly from the small
intestine. If too little propionate is absorbed from the rumen, the cow will have to breakdown
amino acids and convert them to glucose (a process called gluconeogenesis); this can
reduce the supply of amino acids available to make milk protein. In addition, some albumin
and immunoglobulin protein is transferred directly to milk from the blood. The relative amounts
of protein and energy that are available in the rumen at a given time is the major factor
affecting rumen fermentation and therefore milk components. Any diet or management
factors that affect rumen fermentation can change milk fat and protein levels. Consistently
providing adequate energy and protein and balanced amounts of rapidly fermentable carbo-
hydrate and effective fiber are keys to maintaining optimum levels of milk components. The
challenge in feeding for milk components is that high energy; low fiber diets that increase
milk protein are likely to reduce fat levels.
b Feeding Management
Any situation that causes animals to eat abnormally or limits feed intake may affect
milk components. Examples include: overcrowding at feed bunks, housing heifers with
older cows in facilities at or near full capacity, feeding rations that encourage sorting,
feeding infrequently in a conventional system (non- TMR), failing to push feed up or feed
TMR often enough, feeding protein feeds before energy feeds and feeding grain before
forage in non-TMR systems. These conditions can create slug feeding (one or two meals
per day versus 5 to 6) or allow cows to eat high grain meals part of the time and high forage
meals the remainder of the day. Ensure that fresh feed is available 18 hours each day,
spoiled feed is removed from bunks, and shade or cooling is provided during hot weather to
help maintain normal intake and normal meal patterns. Poor ventilation or cow comfort also
can depress milk fat and protein production by reducing intake. Finally, make ration changes
gradually to allow rumen microorganisms time to adapt. Any reduction in rumen microbial
protein production from nutrition or feeding management imbalances will reduce milk pro-
tein by way of less microbial protein for the cow to digest and depress fat by limiting VFA
production in the rumen.
c Body Score
Proper body condition is essential so that high producing cows can draw on body
stores of nutrients to support milk production. If body stores are minimal, yields of milk and
milk components will suffer. On the other hand, excessive body condition increases the
risk of metabolic problems and calving difficulty. Weight loss in early lactation can increase
milk fat content for a short period of time. Both thin and fat cows tend to have low milk fat in
later lactation. Protein can be depressed at calving if animals are overly obese or under-
weight. In addition, some research shows that underfeeding protein during the last three
weeks before calving can depress milk protein.
d Energy
In general, as energy intake or ration energy density increase and/or fiber de-
creases, milk fat content will be reduced, while protein is increased. In contrast, as ration
fiber levels increase and/or energy is reduced, milk protein is depressed and milk fat is
increased. Lack of energy intake or lower ration digestibility may reduce milk protein by 0.1
to 0.4%. This reduction may result from underfeeding concentrates, low forage intake,
poor quality forage, and failure to balance the ration for protein and minerals, or inad-
equately ground or prepared grains. Shifting rumen fermentation so that more propionic
acid is produced is apt to increase milk protein and decrease fat content. However, exces-
sive energy intake, such as overfeeding concentrate, may reduce milk fat content and
increase milk protein. Normal protein levels can be expected when energy needs are being
met for most of the cows. Often this is impossible to achieve with high producing animals.
e Protein
A deficiency of crude protein in the ration may depress protein in milk; mar-
ginal deficiency could result in a reduction of 0.2%, while more severe restriction of diet
crude protein would have greater impact. However, feeding excessive dietary protein does
not increase milk protein, as most of the excess is excreted. Dietary protein has little effect
on milk fat levels within normal ranges. Diet protein type also could affect milk protein
levels. Use of non-protein nitrogen (NPN) compounds, like urea, as protein substitutes will
reduce protein in milk by 0.1 to 0.3% if the NPN is a main provider of crude protein equiva-
lent. Rations higher than recommended in soluble protein may lower milk protein by 0.1 to
0.2 points. NPN levels in milk will be increased by excessive protein or NPN intake, heavy
feeding of ensiled forages, ensiled grains, immature pasture and lack of rumen undegradable
protein in the diet. Balance rations for crude protein, rumen undegradable protein, rumen
degradable protein, and soluble protein. For high producing cows, balancing for amino acids
also may be required.
f Concentrate
An increase in the intake of concentrates causes a decrease in fiber digestion and
acetic acid production. This creates an increase of propionic acid production. Propionic
acid production encourages a fattening metabolism that is in opposition to milk fat. Addition
of buffers to some rations may help to prevent acidosis; this will not change milk protein,
but will increase milk fat content. Animals that eat a substantial amount of concentrates or
a low ratio of dietary forage to concentrate may develop acidosis even when buffers are
added to the ration. The non fiber carbohydrate (NFC) portion of the diet is highly digestible
and can influence both fat and protein in milk. Excessive amounts of NFC can depress
fiber digestibility, which reduces the production of acetate and leads to low milk fat (1% or
more reduction). At the same time, greater propionate production allows higher milk protein
levels of 0.2 to 0.3%. Generally an NFC of 32 to 38% of ration dry matter is recommended
to optimize production of milk fat and protein.
g Fodder
Balance rations for lactating cows to contain at least 40 to 45% of ration dry
matter from forage. This may be altered by the level of corn silage in the ration and the level
of high-fiber by-product feeds in the ration. Low forage intake can cause a major reduction
in the fat content of milk due to low fiber levels. Several potential reasons for low forage
intake are inadequate forage feeding, poor quality forage, and low neutral detergent fiber
(NDF) content in forage that was cut too young or late in the fall. Target a forage NDF
intake of 0.9% of bodyweight daily. Although low forage (high energy) diets increase milk
protein production, this strategy is not recommended. The low forage levels contribute to
acidosis and laminitis; they do not promote good health for the rumen or the cow in the long
run. Protein and fat content also can be changed due to the physical form of forage being
fed. Much of this is related to ration sorting and failure to provide a consistent diet through-
out the day. Coarsely chopped silage and dry hay are the most common causes of sorting.
At the other extreme, very finely ground diets negatively affect rumen metabolism and
depress fat and protein production. Monitor ration particle size to ensure that adequate
effective fiber is provided, TMRs are mixed properly, rations are distributed evenly to all
cows, and sorting is minimal.
h Dietary Fat
Adding fat to the ration can affect milk component levels depending on the amount
and source of fat. Fat is generally toxic to rumen microbes and may reduce fiber digestibil-
ity when fat from natural sources exceeds 5% of ration dry matter. If rumen inert or bypass
fat is used, total fat content may safely reach 6 to 7%. At low levels of dietary fat, milk fat
content could increase slightly or show no change at all. Milk fat is reduced at higher levels,
especially with polyunsaturated oils. If fat or oil is rancid, milk fat content decreases even at
low levels of consumption. Milk protein content may be decreased by 0.1 to 0.3% in high-
fat diets. This may occur due to reduced blood glucose levels.
High milk fat content often occurs in herds that are off in feed and may have
ketosis problems. Percent fat may be reduced for sick animals, but total fat may be higher
for the herd. This may occur in herds fed large amounts of good quality forage combined
with moderate concentrate levels. Producing an abnormally high level of fat is not economi-
cally feasible, because it usually indicates that total milk production is low. Herds that
depend primarily on milk income would be better served to increase total milk yield and
keep fat percentage somewhat below the attainable maximum. Herds with unusually high
milk fat are encouraged to reduce forage intake if it is on the high side, increase concen-
trate feeding, and manage the nutrition of dry and transition cows more closely to control
problems with low intakes and ketosis.
i Feed Additives
Rumen buffers increase milk fat and possibly yield, when low-fiber, high-grain
rations are fed. Feed sodium bicarbonate with or without magnesium oxide when concen-
trate contain more than 30 kg grains or high levels of rumen fermentable fiber. This will not
only help milk fat percentage, but also maintain a healthy rumen environment. Rations in
which all the forage is berseem generally do not benefit from buffers.
Niacin can alleviate the milk protein percentage but can also slightly reduce fat
percentage. Niacin notably prevents ketosis in early lactation, especially with over condi-
tioned animals.
Maximum feed intake is the most important factor for improving and stabilizing
the milk protein and fat content. Yeast supplement helps to increase the number of benefi-
cial bacteria which stabilize the rumen pH and improve the digestibility of ration and its fiber
fractions.
j Designer Milk
i Reduction of saturated fat in the milk
Feeding of unsaturated fats in an encapsulated or protected form results in

quick rise in the degree of unsaturation of the serum lipids, tissue fat and milk fat. Feeding
of high unsaturated oil causes depression in total fat, but increases the proportion of un-
saturated fatty acids (USFA) to saturated fatty acids (SFA) in milk. There is increase of
linoleic (18:2) and linolenic (18:3) acids in milk by feeding oil in encapsulated form. As the
melting point of milk fat containing USFA is less, the spreadability of butter made from such
milk is improved tremendously. When taken out of fridge at 50 C, the butter was nearly as
spreadable as margarine, without compromising its special eating qualities. Efforts are
underway to determine if genetic difference among breeds and individual animals are trans-
lated into ratios of SFA and USFA.
ii Escalating conjugated linoleic acid (CLA) levels in milk fat
Dairy products are rich in CLA, a product synthesized in the rumen during the
bio-hydrogenation of linoleic acid. Diets rich in linoleic acid lead to increase the CLA levels in
the milk fat two folds. Milk from grass/fodder fed animals has five times more CLA than
milk from a grain fed animal. CLAs reportedly inhibit carcinogens, proliferation of leukaemia,
colon, prostate, ovary and breast cancers. They are the only natural fatty acids accepted
by the National Academy of Sciences, USA as exhibiting reliable antitumor properties. The
other valuable health beneficial effects of CLA are anti-atherogenic effect, altered nutrient
partitioning and lipid metabolism, immune enhancement and improved bone mineralization.
iii Enhancement of Omega fatty acids
Milk from pasture fed cows contains an ideal ratio of essential fatty acids
(EFAs). It is evident that replacing grass in the diet with grains or other supplements
increases the proportion of omega-6 to omega-3 fatty acids. Too much omega-6 in the diet
creates imbalance that can disturb the production of prostaglandins leading to increased
tendency to form blood clots, inflammation, high blood pressure, irritation of the digestive
tract, depressed immune function, sterility, cell proliferation, cancer and weight gain. On
the other hand deficiency of omega-3 is associated with asthma, heart disease and learn-
ing deficiencies. There are reports that roughly equal amounts of these two fats in the diet
will result in lower risk of cancer, cardiovascular disease, autoimmune disorders, allergies,
obesity, diabetes, dementia and some mental disorders.
Scientists are on the verge of running a novel concept of designer milk into
reality for the needs of modern consumers. Designer milk is designed by changing the
feeding system or expressing or suppressing the target genes in milch animals. Table 2
summarizes the feeding practices which influence milk solids. Correct feeding is the only
way to produce milk with maximum levels of milk fat and protein.
Table 2 Feeding management changes witch alter milk solids
Management Factor Milk Fat % Milk Protein %

Dry Matter Intake Increase Increase
Frequency of feeding Increase May increase
Underfeeding Little effect Decrease
High Non Fiber Carbohydrates Decrease Increase
Small particle size Decrease Increase
High crude protein No effect Increase
Escape protein No effect Increase
Added fat Variable Decrease
APPLIED ANATOMY OF HOOF IN DIFFERENT ANIMALS

NEELAM BANSAL, VARINDER UPPAL, ANURADHA GUPTA AND
DEVENDRA PATHAK
DEPARTMENT OF VETERINARY ANATOMY
The hoof is a complex structure that plays a key role in animal’s overall health and
productivity. Although the anatomical structure of the hoof differs from species to species,
but the basic anatomy is very similar between species. For proper care, management and
treatment of the hoof, it is important to understand the basic structure of the hoof in
different animals. In cloven-footed animals like cattle, sheep, goats and pig, the hoof con-
sists of two digits, instead of one solid entity as in horse. In the ruminants, there is the
outer, or lateral digit, and the inner, or medial digit. In cattle, the lateral digit is slightly larger
in the hind feet, while the medial digit is the larger in the front feet. The space between the
two digits is called the interdigital cleft which is covered by the interdigital skin.
Structure of hoof in cattle: The hoof consists of a hard outer covering or hoof
horn, the corium, which contains the blood vessels and horn forming cells, and the skeleton
of hoof. Thus, hoof is made up of sensitive and insensitive structures which must be kept
healthy and undamaged. Sensitive structures are nerve and blood vessels and corium,
whereas insensitive structures are horny layer structures e.g. insensitive laminae, perio-
ple, wall, bars, sole and frog
External Anatomy of hoof: The external surface of the hoof consists of skin,
coronary band and hoof wall. The outer covering of the hoof is known as the hoof wall or
horn. The horn is a hard surface and functions as the epidermis of the skin. The cells
forming the horn are produced by the tissue beneath the hoof wall, called the corium. The
corium is highly vascular tissue and capable of producing the new cells, which are gradually
pushed away and produce the hard outer new growth that is keratinized or corniûed. The
new growth comes out at the coronary band, the point where the hoof meets the hairy skin.
The soft tissue that has just come to the surface is referred to as the perioplic horn and is
shiny and holds moisture of the hoof.
The dorsal, axial and abaxial hoof wall is made up of three of these segments
• The perioplic segment (stratum externum)
• The coronary segment (stratum medium)
• The parietal segment (stratum internum)
The periople is a thin waxy layer of tubular and intertubular horn on the outside of
the hoof adjacent to the haired skin. It provides a smooth, waxy surface over the hoof,
which prevents excess water loss and the hoof from becoming brittle. The coronary seg-
ment also consists of tubular and intertubular horn and arises from a portion of epidermis at
the coronary band. The coronary band is the region where haired skin becomes hoof wall
(Frandson et al., 2009). The tubules are circularly arranged cells formed parallel to the
dorsal hoof wall. The spaces between the tubules are filled with intertubular horn (Monteiro-
Riviere et al., 1993). The parietal horn, or the wall segment, is the also known as the
stratum internum. This layer is continuous with the stratum medium, and projects sheets
(laminae) of stratum corneum to interdigitate with similar dermal laminae.
The hoof wall is divided into regions:
• Toe
• Quarters
• Heel
The ground surface (solar surface) of the hoof is composed of the sole, frog,
bulbs, and bearing edge of the hoof wall. Underneath the hoof is a slightly softer region,
called the sole which is produced by the corium of the sole. The junction between the horn
forming tissues of the hoof wall and sole is called as the white line and is located around the
circumference of the bottom of the hoof. This area is susceptible to physical damage and
bacterial invasion (Ishler et al., 1999). The front part of the sole is called the toe, and the
two bulbs at the opposite end of the foot are referred to as the heel bulbs. The frog is
elastic, wedge-shaped mass of horn that fills a triangular space at the back of the foot.
Cattle toe length and sole thicknesses are associated as dorsal wall length of 7.5 cm was
associated with sole thickness of 5 to 7 mm (Toussaint Raven, 1989) or 8.2 mm (Van
Amstel et al., 2002).
Internal anatomy of hoof: it is made up of elastic tissue and bones. Elastic

tissues are capable of changing shape in response to foot impact and comprised of liga-
ments, tendons, digital cushion, hoof wall, sole, frog and bulbs of the heel. The digital
cushion is a pad of fatty tissue that protects the corium and serves as a shock absorber
for the phalanges. Ligaments are composed of elastic connective tissue that binds bone to
bone e.g. cruciate ligaments binding the two digits of the foot. Extensor and flexor tendons
attach muscles to the bones e.g. deep ûexor tendon attaches to the pedal bone and allow
the animal to ûex its foot; the extensor tendons in front allow the animal to move its foot
forward. Directly below the ûexor tendon is the digital cushion, which aids in pumping blood
throughout the foot and up the rest of the leg as well as serving as a shock absorber to
protect the sensitive tissues from the bones of the hoof.
Each digit is composed of three phalanges and three sesamoid bones. The third
phalanx (pedal bone) is present directly above the digital cushion and is the largest bone in
the hoof. The pedal bones provide the framework for the general shape of each claw and
are key components in the movement of the animal. The pedal bone is attached to the
corium by sensitive connective tissue called the laminar tissue, or laminae. The deep ûexor
tendon is attached to the posterior surface of the pedal bone, making it very important for
locomotion and ûexion of the foot. The second phalanx articulates with top of the pedal
bone to form coffin joint and behind this joint is the navicular bone, which serves as a
fulcrum for the movement of the joint. The first phalanx articulates with second phalanx to
form the pastern joint. On the palmar/plantar side of the pastern joint, there are two rudi-
mentary digits which are also protected with horn called dewclaws.
Horn rings on the hoof varies due to nutrition, health, and living conditions of the
animals e.g. in general, bovine hooves grow about 1/5 to 1/4 of an inch per month whereas
that of horse 1/4 to 3/8 of an inch per month. Trimming of hooves is done to restore the
natural shape of the hoof so that weight is distributed evenly and in a manner that is best
for all structures of the hoof and the comfort of the animal. Trimming schedules depends on
a variety of factors e.g animals which are kept in pasture are less likely to develop painful
foot problems than those living on hard cement. Generally, in a dairy cow, hooves are
trimmed twice a year.
Difference in other species:
Equine Hoof: The structure of the equine foot is very similar to the cloven-footed
hoof anatomy described above, but there are a few differences. In horse, hoof is a continu-
ous structure and a V-shaped cleft is present in the middle of sole is the frog. The frog
serves as a cushy, weight-bearing surface that absorbs shock and aids in pumping blood
throughout the hoof and up the leg. On either side of the V, there are deep clefts, followed
by ridges called the bars. The bars are a continuation of the hoof wall from the heel. The
general anatomy ff a horse’s hoof is like that of a cow, except that the horse only has one
set of bones and the third phalanx is known as the cofûn bone in the equine hoof. The
general rule for equine hooves is that they should be trimmed every six to eight weeks, but
this varies from animal to animal, as well as from season to season as feet tend to grow
faster during summer when pasture is abundant.
Porcine Hoof: The hooves of pigs are similar to those of ruminants, however, the
wall is straight, not bent medially at the toe, and they have a soft bulb that is well distanced
from the wall and sole. The hooves of the accessory digits have same structure as the
principal digits, but only bear weight on soft ground. Like the ruminant, the third and fourth
digits are the weight-bearing digits with the second and fifth being referred to as dewclaws.
In the pig, the dewclaws are not rudimentary and contain the necessary phalanges,
metacarpals/metatarsals and sesamoids to be considered a complete digit (Sisson et al.,
1975).
Sheep and Goat Hoof: Goats have strong feet and legs, and have good balance
that allows them to climb along steep hills and narrow mountain pathways. Sheep and
goats may be trimmed once to twice in a year, although this largely depends on the condi-
tions they are raised in and any health issues of the hoof. All animals kept in rocky condi-
tions may not need their hooves trimmed at all because the hard surface will wear their feet
down naturally. However, sheep and goats kept on softer surfaces should be evaluated
periodically for overgrowth (Anonymous, 2016).
Conformation of hoof: the knowledge about normal conformation of the hoof is

very important for diagnosis of various disease conditions.
Hoof (foot) Axis: It is the angle of the foot in relation to the ground surface. In
cattle, hoof angle equal to or slightly greater than 45° and a dorsal toe length of approxi-
mately 7.5 cm. However, in buffalo, the front and hind hoof angles of 53.5° and 50.3°
respectively and a toe length is 8.09 and 8.47 cm respectively. Hoof angles in equine are
45-50º for the front foot and 50-55º for the hind foot, whereas zebras showed an inverse
relationship with the average front foot angle of 58°and that of hind foot 55°.
Club Foot: When the dorsal angle to the ground is more than 60º
Run under heel (low heel; long toe): When the dorsal angle to the ground is
less than 45º
Pastern axis: It is the angle of third phalanx with relation to the ground. This axis
should be in the same plane as the foot axis, if it is not so then the animal has a broken foot
pastern axis.
Level foot: The foot with equal length to the medial and lateral quarters and heels.
Off-Level foot: The foot with one lower quarter than the opposite quarter
Flat Foot: A foot with little concavity to the sole
Common Hoof problems in different animals:
The most common signs of hoof diseases are sudden onset of lameness, hot or
painful hoof, foul-smelling of black discharge from hooves, rise in body temperature and
pulse, shifting weight off of a leg, some cracks or hole in hoof wall, swelling and bruises
near the base of the hoof. If you noticed any of the above signs in your animal, you must
immediately contact your vet and take necessary care of hoof.
Laminitis or Founder: It is inûammation of the laminar tissue which is sensitive

connective tissue holding the pedal bone to the wall of the hoof. Laminitis occurs due to
dysfunction of the blood vessels supplying the laminae and softening of the ligaments of the
suspensory apparatus leading to rotation of the pedal bone and compression of the digital
cushion.
Abscess: The condition is manifested by the presence of swelling in the hoof, pus
or blood come out from the sole and generally hot in the area.
Canker: It is hypertrophy of horn-producing tissue in drought horses. The causes

of Canker are the standing on the damp floor or urinated floor and lack of pressure on frog
of the horse hoof
Kerotoma: Formation of tumour in the inner side of the hoof wall is keratoma.
Size of the tumour can be 1 inch to 3 inches. The causes of the disease are regular
irritation in the sensitive laminae of coronary band and excessive hit on the soft tissues.
Quittor: It is chronic inflammation of lateral cartilage of hoof and is characterized

by pus formation in the site of cartilage, necrosis and coronary band. This disease is
usually seen in the front leg of the horse.
White line disease: When there is any abnormality in the hoof white line. It may
be due to some bacteria or fungi.
Ringbone: Excessive accumulation of horn tissues in the first, second and third
phalanx is known as ringbone. The cause of the disease is mostly genetic, and insufficient
Calcium or Phosphorus in the ration and continuous injuries in the periosteum of the digits.
The disease is characterized by the presence of new bony structure around the pastern or
coffin joint.
Thrush: Degeneration of frog with black necrotic material due to bacterial infec-
tion. This condition developed in the sole due the long-time standing of the horse in the wet
floor and lack of pressure on the frog which leads to necrosis of tissues.
Foot Rot: inflammation of interdigital subcutaneous tissue common in bovines
Corns and Sole Bruises: Corn is proliferation of the tissue in interdigital cleft due
to chronic irritation. Injury to sensitive laminae of the sole area is sole bruises. The cause
of the corn and some bruises is insufficient trimming of the foot, improper balance of weight
in the frog, excessive erosion on the coronet and over racing.
Crack of the hoof wall: When there is a crack in the wall of a hoof and it is also
termed as Sand crack. This disease is seen in a quarter of foreleg and the region of the
hind leg.
Navicular Disease: The condition is seen when there is any type of heel pain and
is characterized by lameness and painful gait of the horse. The cause of the disease is
genetic, improper nutrition, continuous exposure of unusual ground like hard, rocky sur-
face, etc.
Ulceration of sole: Occurs at the junction of sole and heel due to trauma
Subsolar Abscess: occurs due to puncture of the sole
Interdigital dermatitis: A wet inflammation of the interdigital cleft occurs mostly in

dairy cattle.
References
Anonymous, 2016. Hoof Anatomy, Care and Management in Livestock. Purdue Extension.
Hepworth, K., Neary, M., Kenyon, S., ID-321-W, Purdue University.
Frandson, R. D., Wilke, W. L. and Fails, A.D. 2009. Anatomy and Physiology of Farm
Animals. Ames: Wiley Blackwell.
Ishler, V., Wolfgang, D., Griswold, D., 1999. Prevention and Control of Foot Problems in
Dairy Cows. PENNSTATE, College of Agricultural Sciences. Cooperative Extension.
DAS 9920 and VSE 99-1.
König, H. E.., Liebich, H.G. and Bragulla, H. 2007. “Common Integument,” in Veterinary
Anatomy of Domestic Mammals: Textbook and Colour Atlas. Stuttgart: Schattauer,
585-635.
McClure, R. C. Functional Anatomy of the horse foot. Agricultural M U Guide. University of
Missouri, Columbia
Monteiro-Riviere, N. A., Stinson, A.W. and Calhoun, H. L. 1993. “Integument,” in Textbook
of Veterinary Histology, ed. H. Dieter Dellmann. Philadelphia: Lea and Febiger, 285-
312.
Prentice, D. E. 1973. Growth and wear rates of hoof horn in Ayrshire cattle. Research in
Veterinary Science 14: 285-290.
Sisson S, Grossman J D and Getty R. 1975. Anatomy of the Domestic Animals. 5th Edn.
Vol.1. WB Saunders Company, Philadelphia, USA
Toussaint R. E. 1989. Structure and function of the claw. Cattle footcare and claw trim-
ming. Farming press books, Ipswich.
BREEDING STRATEGIES FOR PRODUCTIVITY

ENHANCEMENT IN BUFFALOES
BHARTI DESHMUKH, NEERAJ KASHYAP AND Y.S. JADOUN
India possess the largest buffalo population having high genetic diversity with 16
recognized breeds including world renowned buffalo breeds viz. Murrah, Nili-Ravi, Jaffrabadi,
Surti, Mehsana, Bhadawari, Pandharpuri, and Banni. The buffalo population has shown
consistently increasing trend in the country and a larger increase has been recorded in the
states which are home to well-defined, milch breeds of buffaloes. Despite potential advan-
tages, little attention has been paid to buffalo improvement programs. With selective breed-
ing, improved management and the establishment of more dairy herds, milk yields are
increasing worldwide. Buffalo milk contains about twice as much butterfat as cow milk.
Riverine breeds of the Indian sub-continent are mainly raised for milk production.
Their milk yield is about six to seven litres per day. The important milk breeds of India are
the Murrah, Nili-Ravi, Surti, Mehsana and Jaffrabadi. The high-yielding Murrah is called as
Holstein-Friesian of the buffalo world. Murrah buffalo originate from Haryana- Delhi, and the
breed has been spread from that area to other parts of India due to its wide adaptability and
adequate production potential. The Nili-Ravi buffalo, a native breed of Punjab, were two
different breeds (Nili and Ravi) but are now considered to be a single breed. Nili-Ravi breed
of buffalo has been originated from border area mainly Ferozepur district of Punjab state
and this breed has production potential as good as Murrah and even out performing it in
Punjab of Pakistan. Despite Nili Ravi having high production potential, the genetic improve-
ment of this breed was somewhat neglected due to higher attention focused towards Murrah.
Selection schemes in buffaloes

In dairy animals, selection based on production related traits has been in practice
since very long for getting higher milk production. Contrasting the buffaloes from cattle
production system, reproduction becomes of great importance in buffalo rearing due to
higher age at puberty and service periods along with silent heat during summers observed
among majority of the buffalo breeds. Thus an immediate attention to reproduction per-
formance along with milk production in selection of breeding buffaloes is warranted. Fur-
ther, male and unproductive female buffaloes can add to farmers’ income as source of
meat, so appropriate attention to their growth traits is also desirable.
Most of the river buffalo are of desi type and do not belong to the defined breeds. In
the national breeding policy, improvement in these non-descript buffaloes was recom-
mended through grading up with defined breeds. Preferably Murrah, Nili-Ravi, Surti or other
local defined breeds were used in the grading-up program in the Indian sub-continent where
river buffalo predominate. Although no large scale scientific evaluation of these schemes
has been made, large proportionate increase in share of buffalo milk over time suggests
the effectiveness of grading up schemes. In Sri Lanka, grading up of local buffalo with
Murrah and Surti from India, resulted in a significant increase of approximately 290 per cent
in milk yield over the local buffalo, through the grading up program, which is highly satisfac-
tory.
In the defined breeds the selection in the initial years was done through culling of
low yielders and selection of bulls on the basis of body confirmation and dam’s milk yield.
Government farms for important buffalo breeds with herd size of around 300 breedable
females and 10 bulls were established for production and testing of bulls for improving milk
yield in them. The results of these studies have not been encouraging mainly because of
small herd size, poor accuracy of sire’s breeding values and non-availability of semen
freezing facilities at most of the farms.
Selective breeding at organized herds
To exploit the vast genetic variability within the buffalo breeds, the genetic
improvement of buffalo herds can be brought through selective breeding within breeds by
approach of progeny – testing of bulls associating multiple organized herds as well as
farmers herd under field conditions. The genetic improvement in buffalo breeds for higher
milk production, reduction in age at maturity, reduction in service period, dry period and
calving interval will lead to higher economic returns to the farmers.
Grading up for non-descript buffaloes
The production of non-descript buffaloes can be increased rapidly through
mating with superior sires of improved breeds like Murrah, Surti, Nili Ravi and Mehsana.
Surti is recommended for Karnataka, Kerala, parts of Gurjarat, Rajasthan and Madhya
Pradesh. Murrah and Nilli Ravi are recommended for Punjab, Haryana and Western U.P.
and in other parts of the country where sufficient feed and fodder resources are available.
Through grading up with superior breeds in four to five generations, the low producing non-
descript buffaloes can be replaced with high producing buffaloes conforming to well define
breeds.
Progeny testing
The associated herd progeny testing through Network Project on Buffalo Improve-
ment was initiated in 1993 with the objective to increase the intensity of selection of bulls
from large population and increased number of progeny per bull for testing in Murrah buffa-
loes. 12-15 bulls are tested on about 800 breedable buffaloes located at 6 institutional herds
participating in this project namely GADVASU Ludhiana, HAU Hisar and NDUAT Faizabad
from SAUs, CIRB Hisar, NDRI Karnal and IVRI Izatnagar from ICAR institutions. Perform-
ance evaluation and improvement of other important breeds of buffaloes under Network
Project on Buffalo Improvement involves Nili Ravi breed at CIRB sub campus Nabha Panjab,
Jaffarabadi breed at JAU Junagarh Gujarat, Bhadawari breed at IGFRI Jhansi Uttar Pradesh,
Surti breed at MPUAT Vallabhnagar Rajashthan and Pandharpuri breed at MPKV Kolhapur
Maharastra. Top ranking bulls are selected for nominated mating on the elite buffaloes at
the farm as well as on identified buffaloes in the field.

Field progeny testing under Network Project on Buffalo Improvement was initiated
to strengthen the ongoing sire evaluation programme of associated herd progeny testing at
institutional herds by involving performance recording on farmers’ animals using the semen
of bulls selected under the Network Project.
Genomic selection
Many DNA level variations have been detected differentially in high and low yielding
buffaloes. Similarly, genotypic differentiation for buffaloes with varying conception and service
period has also been demonstrated. However any of such markers have yet to be utilised
under breeding programmes due to very little contributions of any individual marker on the
quantitative traits like milk productivity. To make further progress, QTLs were identified,
yet a practical utility could not be established due to various reasons. Buffalo genomic work
has been initiated for identification of molecular markers associated with performance traits.
It has been proven on cattle that genomic selection can be successfully used to aid in
selection of high genetic merit animals at the earliest of their life with increasing accuracy
thereby improving genetic gain per unit time to the extent that could not have been achiev-
able through conventional breeding schemes. The genomic selection however demands for
setting up of reference population and accurate recording system as a prerequisite of its
adoption. Thus priority now should be to make the buffalo herds ready for genomic selec-
tion by keeping records of essential parameters such as pedigree, production and repro-
duction parameters, so that in near future genomic selection can be applied flawlessly.
Artificial insemination
The artificial insemination (AI) envisages collection of semen from the male and its
introduction in the female system at the most appropriate time. The technique involves
care and rearing of males from birth to maturity; collecting, grading, preserving and trans-
porting of the semen, and inseminating semen into females. The spread of AI brought in
focus the concept of identifying good sires both in terms of fertility and milk yield. It is
noteworthy that without the advent and broad spread adaption of AI techniques, implemen-
tation of any of the abovementioned breeding programmes may have not been possible.
Conclusion
Although conventional breeding technologies viz. selection and mating systems
have contributed significantly in genetic improvement of livestock in developed countries,
the pace in developing countries was slow due to poor spread of AI and non-availability of
genetically superior males in requisite numbers. Infrastructure for recording of data in the
field conditions is negligible. Progeny testing, being a very long process cannot deliver fast
genetic gains despite being accurate. Further, herd size with the farmers is small (1-4
cows/buffalo per household). In view of above limitations genomic selection presents a
promising scope of further genetic improvement in buffaloes. The successful implementa-
tion of genomic selection on a broad scale however will require ample preparations at the
administrative, financial, veterinary services and farmers end.
BODY CONDITION SCORE (BCS) — A TOOL FOR DAIRY HERD

MANAGEMENT
GURJOT KAUR MAVI, AMIT CHALLANA, P.P DUBEY AND SK KANSAL
Body Condition Scoring (BCS) refers to the relative amount of subcutaneous body
fat or energy reserve in the cow. It is an important management tool for maximizing milk
production and reproductive efficiency while reducing the incidence of metabolic and other
peripartum diseases. Body condition scoring help to ensure that the cow is in the correct
condition for each stage of her annual cycle and accordingly appropriate dietary changes
can be made in order to correct any deficiencies. For dairy animals, the crucial periods are
at calving and during early lactation. Achieving correct body condition at calving is impor-
tant in order to avoid calving difficulties and losses. While in early lactation it is important to
prevent excessive weight loss when meeting the extra nutritional demands of high yielding
cows. Body condition scoring is also useful in dairy heifer feeding management. Thin heifer
may not grow rapidly enough to reach puberty by 13 to 15 months of age. They may also
be too small to calve at 23 to 25 months or to carry enough weight to maintain a normal first
lactation. On the other hand, fat heifers have been shown to produce less milk when they
enter the milking herd, especially if they have been fat at puberty. Research and field
experiments have shown that body condition influences productivity, reproduction, health,
and longevity. Thinness or fatness of animal can give a clue to underlying nutritional defi-
ciencies, health problems, or improper herd management. Regular body condition scoring
can be used to troubleshoot problems and improve the health and productivity of the dairy
herd. The energy reserved in the form of subcutaneous fat can be used by the cow in
periods when she is unable to eat enough to satisfy her energy needs. In high producing
cows this is normally happens during early lactation, but it may also happen when cow is ill,
fed poor quality feed or when feed intake is restricted. After a period of weight loss, cows
should be fed more than their requirements to restore normal body condition. The main
principle left behind the body condition scoring is to achieve a balance between economic
feeding, good production and good welfare of dairy animals.
How to assess the body condition score
A 5 – point (1 to 5) scoring system is used to evaluate body condition score for

dairy animals. On the 5 – point scale, a score of 1- point denotes a very thin cow, while 5 –
point denotes an excessively fat cow. These are extreme scores and should be avoided.
The average 3 – points is the most desirable for the majority of the herd. A score with a
plus or minus indicates a borderline body condition. For accurate scoring, both visual and
tactile appraisals are necessary. The main anatomical areas to be observed for determina-
tion of body condition scoring are:
• Pelvic area
• Loin area
• Hook and pin bones
• Tail head and sacral ligaments and
• Short ribs
The following diagram illustrates the dairy cow’s major bone and muscle groups
and shows the areas of concern in scoring.
Scoring consistently requires handling cattle in order to assess body reserves but
an overall visual inspection is also important. The scoring system is designed to cover all
dairy animals (cattle and buffalos) but some allowances should be made for different breeds
or indigenous non-descript dairy animals. The scoring method involves a manual assess-
ment of the thickness of fat cover and prominence of bone at the tail head and loin area.
One should stand directly behind the animal to score both the areas and always handle the
animal quietly and carefully using the hand. The tail head is scored by feeling for the amount
of fat around the tail head and the prominence of the pelvic bones. The loin is scored by
feeling the horizontal and vertical projections of the vertebrae and the amount of fat in
between.
Score of 1
Body Condition: Very poor
• Individual short ribs have a thin covering of flesh.
• Bones of the chine, loin, and rump regions are prominent.

• Hook and pin bones protrude sharply, with a very thin covering of flesh and deep
depressions between bones.
• Severe depression below tail head and between pin bones. Bony structure protrudes
sharply, and ligaments and vulva are prominent.
Score 2
Body Condition: Poor
• Individual short ribs can be felt but are not prominent.
• Ends of ribs are sharp to the touch but have a thicker covering of flesh.
• Short ribs do not have as distinct an “overhanging shelf” effect.
• Individual bones in the chine, loin, and rump regions are not visually distinct but are
easily distinguished by touch.
• Hook and pin bones are prominent, but the depression between them is less severe.
• Area below tail head and between pin bones is somewhat depressed, but the bony
structure has some covering of flesh.
Score 3
Body Condition: Good
• Short ribs can be felt by applying slight pressure.
• Altogether, short ribs appear smooth and the overhanging shelf effect is not so
noticeable.
• The backbone appears as a rounded ridge; firm pressure is necessary to feel

individual bones.
• Hook and pin bones are rounded and smooth.
• Area between pin bones and around tail head appears smooth, without signs of fat
deposit.
Score 4
Body Condition: Fat
• Individual short ribs are distinguishable only by firm palpation.
• Short ribs appear flat or rounded, with no overhanging shelf effect.
• Ridge formed by backbone in chine region is rounded and smooth.
• Loin and rump regions appear flat.
• Hooks are rounded and the span between them is flat.
• Area of tail head and pin bones is rounded, with evidence of fat deposit.
Score: 5
Body Condition: Grossly fat
• Bony structures of backbone, short ribs, and hook and pin bones are not
apparent; subcutaneous fat deposits are very evident.
• Tail head appears to be buried in fatty tissue. The following table no.1, shows the
ranges of ideal body condition scores along with the nutritional assessment of a
dairy animal at her different physiological stages.
Conclusion
Body condition scoring is an easy technique to judge a group of animals in the field.
Researches demonstrate that body condition scoring of animals of a dairy herd is an
important manage mental tool. Body condition scoring of an animal cannot be altered rap-
idly. Specialist advice should be obtained whenever there is concern about the general
condition of the herd. In excessive condition, cows should be kept on bare pasture with
straw to maintain rumen function and should be closely monitored. If done on a regular
basis, body condition scoring can improve dairy herd nutrition, health and production.
Table No. 1: NUTRITIONAL ASSESSMENT THROUGH BODY CONDITION SCORE
Physiological stages Recommended Nutritional Assessment

BCS Score
Drying off 3.75 – 4.25 Scores below 3.75

a) Increase energy intake. Inadequate body fat
reserves, can decrease milk production in
upcoming lactation
b) Increase energy content of late-lactation
ration. Body fat reserves should be replaced at
that time.
Cow at Calving 3.75 – 4.25 Scores below 3.75 indicate cows received inadequate
energy during late lactation and/or dry period
Early Lactation 3.0 – 3.5 Scores below 3.0

a) Very high producers may drop to 2.75 and not
become a problem.
b) Thin cows that are not high producers are not
getting enough energy.
c) Cows have good body condition (3.5 – 3.75),
but production is not as high as expected.
Check for inadequate intake of protein,
mineral or water
Mid lactation 3.5 Scores below 3.5 indicate that cows are receiving
inadequate energy.
Late lactation 3.75 Scores below 3.75 at dry off mean cows are receiving
inadequate energy.
Heifers 3.25 – 3.75 Scores below 3.25 may indicate a nutritional

problem. If heifers are allowed to become too thin,
they will not grow at the proper rate and may have
reproductive problem later on.
LIVESTOCK RECORD KEEPING: A KEY TO EFFICIENT

GENETIC IMPROVEMENT
NEERAJ KASHYAP AND BHARTI DESHMUKH
DEPARTMENT OF ANIMAL GENETICS AND BREEDING
Record Keeping plays a pivotal role in improving any practice on the livestock
farms. However it may require the farmer to put time and efforts into faithfully maintaining a
recordkeeping program, the benefit observed in terms of improvement in aspects like
management, production, reproduction, and marketing planning are so enormous that they
make the efforts as equally rewarding. The record keeping may be as detailed or as simple
as one desires. Decisions like purchase, culling, replacement, breeding, housing, health
management and marketing of the animals and at farm resources can be more efficient, if
they are based on the records.
Collection of the farm records must be done purposefully. Many records are
not difficult to collect but all should be easily accessible. This is particularly important with
financial records because they are routinely used for book keeping purpose. Benchmarking
or comparative farm performance is a useful way to become more aware of the important
performance indicators that are more relevant to each livestock keeping system. Some
records are compulsory such as data for taxation purposes, whereas most are advisory.
Records provide the farm manager with relevant data, information and knowledge. There
are few uses of farm records
1. The most vital component of improving in productivity of the farm animals by aiding
in decisions like appropriate breeding, feeding, weeding and heeding.
2. Frequently used as a tool for income tax calculations, estate planning, business
arrangement, reconciliation and obtaining and managing credits/ loans.
3. Can be used to provide data for financial analysis and other diagnostic instruments
and can be used as an indicator to monitor progress.
4. They are a good forward planning tools. Past records can be used to project future
cash flows for current and modified farm practices.
Temporary and permanent records
Events of importance should be recorded immediately in the registers with all per-
tinent information. All note should be dated with correct animal identification and other data
pertinent to the situation. The records can later be transferred to permanent records. Each
animal in the herd should have a unique identification and individual permanent record that
is initiated at birth or at purchase. Format of sections may vary as per convenience but the
contents are of importance.
Records to keep
All livestock record keeping systems should incorporate some basic elements.
Recording of the performances of the animals can be done easily if animals have some
identifications / numberings. Keeping records on individual animal is very important as it is
essential in preparing realistic budgets for the future. Rather than depending on generic
estimates of the farm performance. Some of the key records to keep include:
1. Expenditure and Profit: Sales, purchase, labor, equipment and other investments
must be kept in records properly to ensure economic viability of the livestock keep-
ing.
2. Herd Status and Pedigree: Recording of the category wise herd strength helps in
determining the actual performance level of the herd. In a good herd 70 of the
breedable animals should be lactating or be pregnant. Records of total number of
animals, calves and their sex, yearlings, heifers, lactating, pregnant and dry cows
should be kept. The date of calving/birth and all other important events must also be
maintained for each animal. Recording the sire and the dam of the animals, their
breed composition and production details may help fetching good prices while selling
surplus animals
3. Feeding: Routine monitoring of the feed offered and actually consumed amount can
indicate that if the cows are in proper appetite or sick, it can also help in tuning up the
feed composition of the animals as per the requirements.
4. Growth: Birth weights followed by monthly body weights of the calvers helps to
monitor the feeding management, required to achieve the growth targets. Live weight
and body condition of the heifers and adult cows at important events like at insemi-
nation, drying, calving and 15 days post calving facilitate milking performance moni-
toring during the entire lactation and better planning of the feeding regime. The growth
records may further be supported by body condition scoring.
5. Health: Records of the vaccinations, diseases, veterinary visits and drug treat-
ments aid a veterinary professional to follow through the history of the animals,
correct diagnosis, proper line of treatment and animals’ response to treatment. It
goes without saying that a better diagnosis leads to better treatment and a healthier
herd leads to better profits.
6. Reproduction: Recording date of heat in cows is of utmost importance, because it
indicates the cyclicity status of the cows and enables the farmers for planning timely
inseminations of the animals leading to better conception, thus cutting the cost of
rearing the animals at unproductive state. The calving date is of similar importance
because, it indicates the start of the next reproductive cycle. If a cow does not come
in heat within 50 days after calving, a veterinarian should examine the reproductive
system of the animal to be sure of animals’ proper cycling or presence of any
reproductive disorder, infection etc.
Accurate recording of breeding (Insemination) date is essential for successful

pregnancy checks by a veterinarian. This helps to determine conception date that
further helps to decide the suitable time for drying off that is 60 days earlier to the
expected date of calving, assigning housing to advance pregnant animals and stage
specific fulfillment of nutritional requirements and allowances of theirs. Recording the
service bull (of which the semen has been used for the insemination) ma help in
keeping the pedigree records of the animals, which is a must in genetic evaluation of
the animals.
7. Production: Daily milk yield helps to checkup on milk payment and to optimize
feeding. Regular milk composition data that can be provided by the cooperative or
milk processing units can be used to monitor the effects of the diet. The recording of
daily milk yields of individual animals, however may prove to be cumbersome for the
farmers, especially to those who maintain a substantial numbers of animals and / or
depend on the hired labors to manage the animals.
Thus a viable practice in milk recording is for milk and milk fat to be estimated
from fewer measures made at regular intervals throughout the lactation. However,
the longer interval between these measurements, increases error of the estimates.
I n practice a monthly recording at 5, 35, 95…305 days of lactation is widely ac-
cepted for balance between the needs of accuracy and economy. While introducing
a milk recording scheme, to encourage farmers to cooperate certain incentives may
be provided, such as free veterinary care, advice on management and feeding, low
cost AI.
Utilization of Records for Genetic Improvement

Besides for a better management of the farm, performance recording of individual
animals is a very precious resource that can be utilized for selection and culling decisions
for genetic improvement. For the records to be utilized for breed improvement purpose, the
data needs to be validated and reliable. Cooperation between the farmer and the field
recorder is a basic requirement for the successful operation of any recording scheme. This
cooperation can only come through an understanding of the use of records and the uni-
formity of recording system.
A reasonably accurate progeny test of bull could be obtained from test day records
if large progeny groups are available. For example, a progeny test based on a single test
day’s record of 100–150 daughters would be as accurate as a progeny test based on
about 35 daughters with complete records. These test day records can also be used to
estimate total lactation yields. The centering method of calculating yields is easier to other
methods in monthly recording. In this procedure, the test day yield is multiplied by the
number of days in the period of which it is the center, and these products are summed to
give an estimated lactation yield. Other method is to use the suitable lactation curve model
to predict the production.
These records may be used by breeders for genetic evaluation of the animals at
the farms, progeny testing of the breeding bulls used at the farms, and prediction of the
genetic production potential of the calves born at the farms, which will further aid in the
overall genetic improvement of the animals under recording. It is important here to under-
stand that the genetic evaluation of the animals is not based on the raw records of the
animals’ performance, as it contains influences of the various external factors like sea-
sons, parity of the animal, age, body condition, nutrition, management practices, breed
composition etc. besides the genetic worth collectively transmitted through sire and dam.
These predicted / estimated genetic worth (breeding value) can be used as a reference for
selection of breeding stock, identification of elite animals, decision of replacement heifers
and voluntary culling.
Currently genomic selection is the most efficient selection tool with fastest genetic
gains, which will in near future be applied alongside field progeny testing programs. These
performance records become further crucial for the successful application of the genomic
selection as it requires a pedigreed and well recorded base population as reference on
which the entire accuracy and efficiency of the genomic estimated breeding value lies.
Conclusion
Record keeping is a necessary element of good livestock business management.

With no written records, farmers have to depend on their memory while making decisions
regarding their farm practices. But, memories can become unreliable after a few days,
months or years. If farmers maintain records, they can be sure of the farms present status
and progress. They can also ascertain strengths and weaknesses in their farm operations
and thus have better chances at improving farm practices and profitability alongside enjoy-
ing the benefits brought by genetic improvement of their herds.
MEASURES TO IMPROVE POST PARTUM REPRODUCTION

IN DAIRY ANIMALS
V K GANDOTRA
DEPARTMENT OF VETERINARY GYNAECOLOGY AND OBSTETRICS
Reproduction is a vital factor in determining the efficiency of animal production.

Reproductive efficiency can be described as a measure of the ability of a cow to become
pregnant and produce viable calf. To achieve the goal of calf a year or a 365 day calving
interval, the calving to conception interval (CCI) should not exceed 80-85 days. The CCI
comprises of interval from calving to first service and the first service to conception
interval.The calving to first service interval further depends upon the re-establishment of
ovarian cycles after calving, occurrence and detection of estrus and planned start of serv-
ices date. Hence, re-establishment of ovarian cycles after calving is of utmost importance
and is influenced by various factors viz milk yield, suckling, nutritional status, seasonal
influences, uterine health etc.
In order to maximize reproductive efficiency in dairy animals it becomes essential

to adopt management tools to achieve reproductive targets. Therefore measure to improve
post partum reproduction efficiency are aimed at early restoration of ovarian cyclicity,
detection of estrus and timely insemination and pregnancy diagnosis, provision of balanced
nutrition, control of post-partum uterine infection, hormonal interventions and avoiding un-
due stress.
Uterine Health
During pregnancy, the uterus is sterile, but after parturition the uterine lumen is
almost always contaminated with a wide range of bacteria. However, development of clini-
cal disease is dependent on the balance between host immunity and the pathogenicity of
the bacteria. This balance can be tipped in favor of disease by risk factors such as retained
placenta, dystocia, twins, and stillbirth.
Uterine disease within a week of parturition (metritis) is present in up to 40% of
dairy cows. Subsequently, 15%–20% of cattle have clinical disease that persists beyond 3
wk postpartum (endometritis), and about 30% have chronic inflammation of the uterus
without clinical signs of uterine disease (subclinical endometritis). Clinical endometritis is
characterized by the presence of a purulent or mucopurulent uterine discharge detectable
in the vagina 21-26 days or more postpartum. Subclinical endometritis is characterized by
inflammation of the endometrium that results in a significant reduction in reproductive per-
formance in the absence of signs of clinical endometritis. Subclinical disease is defined by
polymorphonuclear neutrophils (PMNs) exceeding between 5.5% of cells and 10% of cells
in samples collected by flushing the uterine lumen or by endometrial cytobrush, in the
absence of clinical endometritis.
The placenta should be expelled within a few hours of parturition in cattle. During
the first week postpartum, the uterus contracts rapidly, and lochia is discharged containing
remnants of fetal membranes and fluids. During the second to fourth weeks, any damaged
endometrial tissue regenerates, a wave of ovarian follicles develop, a dominant follicle is
selected, and estradiol secretion leads to ovulation and formation of a corpus luteum to
recommence ovarian cycles. The genital tract should have little evidence of the previous
pregnancy by 6 wk after calving and be capable of establishing the next pregnancy. How-
ever, about 50% of dairy cows have irregular ovarian cycles during the postpartum period,
and animals with abnormal vaginal discharge are more likely than normal animals to have
delayed resumption of ovarian cycles after calving.
It is therefore essential to cure any infectious problem by way of antimicrobial

therapy before attempting to improve reproductive performance by other means. Incorpo-
ration of an injection of PGF2á increases the efficacy of treatment for cows with a func-
tional CL that have metritis or other uterineinfections.Prostaglandin F2á administered to
cows on days 12 and 26 postpartum that had either dystocia and/or retained placenta
improved their subsequent reproductive performance.
Ovarian Cysts
Ovarian cysts, follicular or thin-walled, and luteal or thick-walled, are found inabout
12% of cows, mostly in the second month of lactation.Ovarian cysts results in poor repro-
ductive performance more likely.Endocrine imbalance seems to explain the occurrence of
most cysts, and theirtreatment can be resolved by administering gonadotropin-releasing
hormone(GnRH) for follicular cysts orPGF2á forluteal cysts or their combination for both
type of cysts.
Nutrition
Nutritional status of dairy animal is of vital importance to maintain a high rate of
reproductive performance. The technique of body condition score (BCS) allows to monitor
the body reserves in dairy animal. The dairy cows should be fed to calve at a BCS of 3-3.5
and should then loose minimum condition until conception. High milk production in dairy
animals in early lactation results in negative energy balance depleting the body reserves.
The conception is likely to occur when the peak of lactation is passed and the animal’s
current energy intake is greater than the output. A poor body condition score at calving
adversely affects fertility, characterized by prolonged post-partum intervals, reduced con-
ception rates, and more services per conception. Hence, care of nutritional requirements
of the animal during transitional phase of pregnancy helps in earlier restoration of ovarian
cyclicity and conception postpartum.
Feed supplementation of Urea Molasses Multinutrient Block (UMMB) and
Monensin,an ionophore, has been shown to influence reproductive performance during the
postpartum period. Supplemented dairy animals exhibit a shorter postpartum interval pro-
vided adequate energy is supplied in the ration. This effect appears to be more evident in
less intensely managed herds that generally have a moderate (60-85d) or longer postpar-
tum interval.
Management Practices
The suckling stimulus from the calf has a negative effect on cyclic activity during
the postpartum period; however, animals on a positive energy balance and in adequate
body condition generally overcome this negative stimulus prior to the breeding season. Calf
removal, either temporary or permanent can increase the number of cows that return to
estrus during the breeding season, however, the response can be variable and manage-
ment of this option can be difficult.
Bull presence postcalving has been shown to cause cows to cycle earlier, this
may be accomplished with an altered/vasectomized teaser bull that isn’t capable of breed-
ing if this practice is used prior to the breeding season.
Estrus induction or synchronization with progesterone or GnRH or PG based
protocols separately or in combination followed by AI at detected estrus or at fixed
timeenhances reproductive efficiency in dairy animals. These products may shorten the
postpartum interval provided all other management practices such as nutrition and body
condition are optimum.
Detection of estrus at appropriate time of ovarian cycle is vital for getting the dairy
animals serviced at right time. It is important to frequently observe the animals for estrus,
3-4 times a day for 20-30 min each and particularly late evening and early morning when
the animals are not being fed or milked. Maintenance of records is important to improve
efficiency of estrus detection. Failure to detect estrus is a major cause of poor reproduc-
tive performance.
In conclusion, maintaining healthy cows is essential to maximize fertility and milk
yield.Prevention of periparturient disordersby sound herd health practices will reduce the
incidence of many healthproblems. Good management practices and somehormonal treat-
ments/interventions given to early postpartum cows preclude further ill health and poor
fertility and improvetheir chances for conception.
FOLDSCOPE AS A DIAGNOSTIC TOOL IN VETERINARY

SCIENCE
RASHMI SAGAR AND MANDEEP SINGH BAL
DEPARTMENT OF PHARMACOLOGY & TOXICOLOGY
Disease diagnosis is one of the most important and most difficult aspects of
Veterinary Science when compared to Medical Science. It requires exceptional skill and
profound knowledge for diagnosing an ailment in a patient (i.e. animal) who unlike humans,
cannot express its agony on its own. Just listening to the owner’s way of describing the
indisposition and comprehending symptoms accurately is a tough job for veterinarians.
Also non-availability of proper diagnostic labs in the far flung areas adds fuel to the fire. As
it is already known that among various diagnostic equipments, microscope is a significant
tool, providing an essential, visual connection between the recognizable macro-world and
the incredible underlying micro-world. But the availability of these expensive scientific
equipments in each and every nook and corner of the world is somewhat a difficult ap-
proach especially in developing countries like India. As part of the “frugal science” move-
ment which aims to make cheap and easy tools available for scientific use in the developing
world, an origami based highly affordable paper microscope called as foldscope was devel-
oped by Dr. Manu Prakash and Jim Cybulski from University of Stanford, U.S.A. (Cybulski
et al., 2014). Another related invention from the same laboratory is paperfuge i.e. a paper
centrifuge (Bhamla et al 2017).
Foldscope is the ultra-affordable paper microscope which is designed to be ex-
tremely portable, durable and to give optical quality similar to conventional research micro-
scopes. It is designed in such a manner that it costs less than US$1. It is an optical
microscope that can be assembled from a punched sheet of cardstock, a spherical glass
lens, a light emitting diode and a diffuser panel, along with a watch battery that powers the
LED. The foldscope weighs 8 grams and comes in a kit with multiple lenses that provide
magnification from 140X to 2180X (Cybulski et al., 2014). The foldscope kit also includes
magnets that can be stuck onto the foldscope to attach it to a smartphone, allowing the
user to view and take pictures of the magnification.
Foldscope is a very useful invention of the present time especially helpful in the
expeditious diagnosis of the diseases. Moreover in the developing countries, the field ar-
eas/ rural hospitals are not well equipped with diagnostic machinery which leads to delay in
the disease diagnostic process. So in those areas foldscope can serve the purpose. Not
only this, if there is no procrastination in the disease diagnosis then this can help in proper
treatment of the ailments with specific drugs at the right dosage.
Assembling of foldscope
The unfolded foldscope is comprised of three stages cut from paper; illumination,
sample-mounting, and optics. Other primary components include a spherical ball lens (or
other micro-lenses), lens-holder apertures, an LED with diffuser or condenser lens, a
battery, and an electrical switch. The three stages are weaved together to form an assem-
bled working folded foldscope with magnification of 140x. It is attached with smartphone
with help of magnetic couplers provided in the foldscope kit to view parasitic specimens/
samples.
Foldscope as diagnostic tool
Foldscope can be used as a diagnostic tool for animal diseases. Due to the avail-
ability of various range of magnification powers from 140 X to 2180 X, it can be used to
identify a range of causative agents viz; hemoprotozoan, helminthes, arthropods, fungi,
bacteria etc.
Foldscope is highly useful in identification of parasites of veterinary importance
because of magnification equivalent to conventional microscope. Foldscope with magnifi-
cation 140X can be used for diagnosis of helminthic and arthropod diseases. Bal et al
(2019) used foldscope (magnification of 140x ) attached with smartphone as a cheap and
reliable diagnostic tool to identify helminth and arthropod parasites with comparable effi-
cacy to that of expensive light microscope. Same was also used for faecal examinations
for parasitic eggs/ova and skin scraping examination for mites. However, low grade para-
sitic infections and intracellular haemoparsites were not detected by foldscope with magni-
fication 140x. Another problem encountered while using foldscope is the time consumed in
focusing of the slides whether it is paper slide or glass slide. Richard et al (2015) used a
foldscope attached with smartphone for diagnosis of Schistosoma haematobium infection
in people of Ghana. However, for diagnosis of haemoparasites, larger magnification
lens(greater than 400) is required.
Foldscope may also be used for examination of various secretions and excretions
collected from diseased animals. Urine examination may be done conveniently by using
foldscope with magnification 140X. Haematological analysis viz; Differential leukocyte count
(DLC) may be performed by using lens of higher magnification. Foldscope can also be
used for histopathological examination of tissue sections prepared from tissues/biopsies
collected from infected/diseased/ dead animals. Wangdi et al (2019) used foldscope as a
diagnostic tool for diagnosis of fungal pathogens of tea leaves in Sikkim, India.
On the- spot sample preparation and its visualization with the help of foldscope
can prevent the delay and help in spontaneous treatment of the ailment thereby proving
highly beneficial in the field areas. Attachment with smartphone is pre requisite for effective
use of foldscope. Almost all the field veterinarians are using smart phone and internet these
days. Hence, it is easier to acquaint them with use of foldscope attached with smart phone.
The first and foremost advantage of this technology is its cost effectiveness. A
microscope costing less than a dollar is worth imagining. The conventional microscopes
are very expensive due to which in developing countries it becomes difficult to make them
available everywhere especially at the grass root levels. Moreover the conventional micro-
scopes are heavy, not easily portable and also demand extra care for their maintenance.
But as compared to them, the foldscope is origami based microscope so it can be very
easily prepared by folding of the paper sheet and carried very easily in our pocket from one
place to other place. As it is made of cardboard- like paper sheet so it is very robust and
sturdy to use and does not require any special maintenance. Another additional advantage
of using foldscope attached with smart phone based that clicked pictures can be sent to a
subject expert for further confirmation in case of any suspicion.
Smartphone assisted microscopy has immense potential to bring diagnostic test-

ing to areas most in need, and to support animal disease diagnosis especially in the under-
resourced regions of the world.
References
Bal M. S., Sagar R., Kaur P., Mahajan V., Singla L.D. & Singh C.K. (2019). Foldscope as a
diagnostic tool for identification of parasites of domesticated animals. Indian Journal of
Animal Sciences 89(10): 1082–1085.
Bhamla, M.S., Benson, B., Chai, C., Katsikis, G., Johri, A., and Prakash, M. (2017). Hand
powered ultralow cost paper centrifuge. Nat Biomed Eng1: 0009.
Cybulski, J.S., Clements, J., and Prakash, M. (2014). Foldscope: origami based paper
microscope.PLoS ONE9: e98781.
Figure 1: Folded Foldscope Figure 2: Foldscope attached with

smartphone to visualize and click pic
tures of parasitic specimens.
FROM SYNTHETICS TO NATURAL: NEWER WAY FOR

EXTENDED SHELF LIFE
SIVAKUMAR S AND REKHA CHAWLA
COLLEGE OF DAIRY SCIENCE AND TECHNOLOGY
In the era of awaken awareness and consciousness towards health, a trend has
been set up towards acceptance of more and more natural products and products with
good shelf life. In this context, novel technologies like Modified Atmosphere Packaging and
natural preservatives like bacteriocins are becoming choice of modern consumer as well
as manufacturer. Extensive work has been done and many review papers witnesses such
promising effects. A brief review of various researches has been outline in this paper.
Milk and milk products constitute the second largest gross agricultural produce in
the country and conversion of raw milk into wide variety of milk products has been practiced
in our country since pre-historic times. It is estimated that about fifty per cent of total milk
produced in India is converted into a variety of traditional milk products (Chowdhury et al
2017). Traditional dairy foods have an essential role in preservation of precious milk nutri-
ents and promotion of its consumption. Also, these are an integral part of Indian heritage
and have great social, religious, cultural, medicinal and economic importance. These have
been developed over a long period with the culinary skills of homemakers and halwais
(sweetmeat makers). Manufacture of traditional dairy products also adds value to milk and
provides considerable employment opportunity. Indian dairy products naturally contain dif-
ferent healthy components that have therapeutic properties present, owing to inherent
components such as e.g. antiallergenic qualities, osteoporosis prevention, and reduced
risk of heart disease, antimicrobial qualities, immune enhancement, anti-diarrhoeal aspects,
and alleviation of lactose intolerance etc.
Delicacies prepared from milk are as perishable as the milk is, and is dedicated as
an ideal food for microorganisms being high in moisture content and neutral pH. At ambient
temperature shelf life of traditional dairy foods is only few days. Also, processing tempera-
ture is not able to completely undertake the destruction of microorganisms. Therefore,
certain permitted chemical preservatives may be used for inhibition of growth and activity
of microorganisms. Preservative is a substance which when added to food, is capable of
inhibiting, retarding or arresting the process of fermentation, acidification or other decom-
position of food (FSSAI, 2006). Also, direct addition of these preservative agents in food
can reduce the acceptance of food quality by changing the organoleptic and textural prop-
erties of traditional dairy foods along with the fear of consuming chemicals in the form of
these preservatives. However, increasing awareness of health risks associated with these
chemical preservatives has led examining safe alternatives, and the possibility of using
antimicrobial agents. Antimicrobial agents play an important role in enhancing the shelf life
of perishable food products by inhibiting the growth of targeted bacteria. One of the tradi-
tional ways of controlling microbial growth using antimicrobial is by dipping or spraying

antimicrobial agents on the surface of the product (Kolsarici and Candogan 1995; Keryy
and Hogani 2006). However, the efficiency of the antimicrobial substances is restricted
because of its uncontrolled migration into the food and partial inactivation caused by its
interaction with the food components (Quintavalla and Vincini 2002). To overcome these
limitations, antimicrobial packaging technique is an emerging approach in this perspective.
In antimicrobial packaging, antimicrobial agents can be incorporated into the packaging
material, may be coated on the surface of packaging film or a sachet containing antimicro-
bial compound can be added into the package (Devlieghere et al 2004). Also, these agents
are gaining popularity over synthetic preservatives, being safe and more effective against
spoilage microorganisms.
ANTIMICROBIAL AGENTS
Antimicrobial agents from natural or synthetic sources have been explored with
satisfactory results regarding the growth inhibition of spoilage and pathogenic microorgan-
isms. Among the most studied, natural antimicrobial agents are bacteriocins (nisin, natamycin
and pediocin) and natural plant extracts (essential oils).
A Bacteriocins
Bacteriocins are generally defined as peptides produced by bacteria that inhibit or
kill other related and unrelated microorganisms. Bacteriocin was firstly identified by Gratia
(1925) as an antimicrobial protein produced by Escherichia coli and named colicin. The
bacteriocins produced by lactic acid bacteria (LAB) are generally recognised as safe (GRAS)
and are suitable for food preservation & can reduce the use of chemical preservatives
along with intensity of heat treatments which otherwise alone as a treatment, destroys the
organoleptic and nutritional properties of food. These are non-toxic on eukaryotic cells and
is pH and heat tolerant. Bacteriocin destroys the bacteria by acting on its cytoplasmic
membrane. These can be broadly classified as from the source from where these have
been derived like gram negative bacteria and gram positive bacteria. Also, further catego-
rization can be seen with respect to their size as class I, II (a/b/c), and III. The commonly
used bacteriocins are nisin and pediocin.
i Nisin
Nisin is an antibacterial peptide produced by Lactococcus lactis that effectively
inhibits Gram-positive bacteria and also the outgrowth spores of Bacilli and Clostridia (Cleve-
land, et al., 2001; Hurst,1981; Hurst & Hoover, 1993). The antimicrobial effect of nisin
includes disruption of the cytoplasmic membrane, either resulting in leakage of essential
cellular material such as adenosine triphosphate (ATP) from the cell or, in more severe
cases, lysis. Studies have also indicated that nisin inactivates sulphydryl groups in the
cytoplasmic membrane, thereby acting as an inhibitor of both spore outgrowth and vegeta-
tive cells (Morris et al.1984). Nisin is one of the bacteriocin approved for food applications
by Food and Agriculture Organization and World Health Organization in 1969 (Arauz et al
2009). Therefore, its use in various food products is allowed in several countries (Delves-
Broughton, 1990).
tively inhibits Gram-positive bacteria and also the outgrowth spores of Bacilli and
Clostridia (Cleveland, et al., 2001; Hurst,1981; Hurst & Hoover, 1993). The antimicrobial
effect of nisin includes disruption of the cytoplasmic membrane, either resulting in leakage
of essential cellular material such as adenosine triphosphate (ATP) from the cell or, in more
severe cases, lysis. Studies have also indicated that nisin inactivates sulphydryl groups in
the cytoplasmic membrane, thereby acting as an inhibitor of both spore outgrowth and
vegetative cells (Morris et al.1984). Nisin is one of the bacteriocin approved for food appli-
cations by Food and Agriculture Organization and World Health Organization in 1969 (Arauz
et al 2009). Therefore, its use in various food products is allowed in several countries
(Delves-Broughton, 1990).
Several studies have been reported to provide effective results with the incorpora-
tion of antimicrobial agents into the polymeric films. The possible reason behind this is the
inactivation of antimicrobial activity when it comes in contact with food matrix and compo-
nents or dilution below effective concentration due to migration into the bulk food. There-
fore, the attachment of antimicrobial agents to films enables slow release of antimicrobial
agents function over longer time period (Appendini and Hotchkiss, 2002; Muriel–Galet et
al., 2012). In a similar study, Coma et al. (2001) prepared edible cellulosic films with
hydroxypropyl methyl cellulose (HPMC) along with nisin as an antimicrobial agent against
gram positive species and tested the same against L. innocuaand S. aureus. To this film,
further addition of stearic acid improved water migration properties and thus results dem-
onstrated significant effect on reducing the inhibitory activity of microbes.
Though many dairy products have been considered for shelf life enhancement
using these novel approaches. However, studies considering composite dairy foods are
still lacking and would be an innovative choice to prolong the life of such products. Numer-
ous studies of nisin have been reported. However keeping in consideration the length of the
article only few have been listed herein.
ii Pediocin
Pediocin is a bacteriocin produced by Pediococcus species and is categorized in

class IIa of bacteriocin from lactic acid bacteria, with known antilisterial activity. It inhibits
the growth of microorganisms by binding to cytoplasmic membranes, forming poration
complexes. This process finally causes the cell death with cell lysis (Rodriguez et al. 2002).
The use of pediocin has been extensively studied in meat products and few in dairy prod-
ucts (Ennahar et al. 1998). Jagannath et al. (2001) studied the effect of pediocin in control-
ling the growth of L. monocytogenes in shrikhand wherein pediocin was used at different
concentrations and kept at different temperatures for various length of time. The results
showed that 23% level of pediocin inhibited the growth even at higher temperature and
longer storage period. The use of pediocin as biopreservative in dairy products is limited,
where as in some studies pediocin was used as an antimicrobial agent in antimicrobial
packaging (Silva et al. 2018).
B. Essential Oils
Essential oils (EO’s) are also known as volatile oils or simply as the oil of the
plant from which they were extracted, such as oil of clove. Therefore these can be defined
as oils being a concentrated liquid containing volatile aroma compounds from plants. These
can be extracted by expression, fermentation, or extraction. Amongst various methods,
though method of steam distillation is most commonly used for commercially production of
essential oils. The essential oils are mostly used as flavouring agents, perfumes and phar-
maceuticals (Braak and Leijten, 1999). Owing to its antimicrobial properties, currently es-
sential oils are used as antibacterial agents and as food preservatives. A large variety of
EO’s from different plants such as basil (Ocimumbasilicum L.), chamomile flowers (Matri-
caria chamomilla L.), cardamom seeds (Elettariacardamomum (L.) Maton) and rosemary
(Rosmarinus officinalis L.), has been applied to food or food packaging as antimicrobial and
antioxidant and are considered as GRAS (Food and Drug Administration (FDA), 2016).
Generally, essential oils containing higher concentrations of phenolic compounds such as
carvacrol, eugenol, and thymol bears strongest antibacterial properties against foodborne
pathogens. Essential oils from oregano, clove, sage, rosemary, nutmeg, mint and thyme
have shown to inhibit Listeria monocytogenes at concentrations @ 0.7 to 2.7% (Tassou et
al. 1995). These oils inhibit the growth by disturbing the cytoplasmic membrane, disrupting
the proton motive force, electron flow and coagulation of cell contents (Burt, 2004). The
preservative action helps in enhancing the shelf life of foods, reducing or eliminating patho-
genic microorganisms and increasing the overall quality of food products (Dussault et al.,
2014; Echegoyen and Nerin, 2015). Several studies have been undertaken using essential
oils as biopreservative. Govaris et al., (2010) investigated the usage of Lamiaceae essen-
tial oil as food preservative applied alone @0.6% or 0.9% and in combination with nisin to
check the antimicrobial activity against S. enteritidis. Results indicated when used @ 0.9
%, showed quite high activity against S. enteritidis.
Seydim and Sarikus (2006) produced antimicrobial film by incorporating different

ratios of oregano, rosemary and garlic essential oils into whey protein isolate films and
tested the antimicrobial activity against Escherichia coli O157:H7 (ATCC 35218), Staphylo-
coccus aureus (ATCC 43300), Salmonella enteritidis (ATCC 13076), Listeria monocytogenes
(NCTC 2167) and Lactobacillus plantarum (DSM 20174). Results demonstrated the use of
garlic essential oils into whey protein films showed maximum inhibition against the selected
organisms than oregano and rosemary essential oils. In a similar kind of study, Emiroglu et
al., 2010 evaluated antimicrobial activity of soy protein edible film incorporated with 1, 2, 3,
4 and 5% oregano and thyme essential oils againstE. coli O157:H7, Staphylococcus
aureus, Pseudomonas aeruginosa and Lactobacillus plantarum by inhibition zone test. The
results showed that prepared films had antimicrobial activity against E. coli, E coli O157:H7
and S. aureus whereas L. plantarum and P. aeruginosa appeared to be more resistant
bacteria.
MODIFIED ATMOSPHERE PACKAGING FOR TRADITIONAL DAIRY FOODS
The modified atmosphere packaging is sealing the product in modified air or by

altering the chemical composition of air. It can be done by either ways by decreasing
oxygen level and increasing carbon dioxide and nitrogen level. The low level of oxygen
prevents the fat oxidation, pigment and browning oxidation and growth of aerobic bacteria
(Sandhya 2010). As dairy products provide nutrients and favourable environment for growth
of microorganisms and microbiological deterioration of dairy products is caused by growth
of psychrotrophic gram negative bacteria species (Pseudomonas, Acinetobacter, Flavo-
bacterium, Aerobacter, Serratia, Proteus), yeast and mold (Geotrichum, Mucor, Alternaria
and Penicillium) (Chambers 2002). Therefore, addition of high carbon dioxide retard the
growth of microorganisms by displacing oxygen, lowering the pH or forming carbonic acid
(Butler 1982) and directly affecting on the metabolism of microorganisms (Daniels et al
1985). For packaging of dairy products, the CO2 composition may vary from 10 to 100 %
and balanced with nitrogen preventing package collapse (Singh et al 2012). Nitrogen is inert
gas, tasteless, used as filler gas and preserves the food products by replacing the oxygen
gas. The modified atmosphere is done by modifying the atmosphere surrounding a food
product by vacuum, gas flushing or controlled permeability of the pack. The change in
atmosphere causes no growth of microbes and doesn’t allow biochemical and enzymatic
reactions without using any chemical preservatives.
SYNERGISTIC EFFECT OF MODIFIED ATMOSPHERE PACKAGING AND ANTI-
MICROBIAL PACKAGING
Several studies are published related to the modified atmosphere packaging for
shelf life extension. Whereas antimicrobial packaging is also used by various researchers
to extend the shelf life. However, the synergistic use of modified atmosphere packaging
and antimicrobial packaging can give a new approach. The antimicrobial packaging inhibits
the growth of various microorganisms along with the potential of modified-atmosphere
packaging (MAP) which can further extend the shelf life of different dairy products. Studies
pertaining to MAP have been demonstrated in various researches (Floros et al., 2000;
Pantaleao et al., 2007; Papaioannou et al., 2007). The combined use of both packaging will
give more inhibitory action against microorganisms. The various studies has been ex-
tended the shelf life of traditional dairy foods by Modified atmosphere packaging (Londhe et
al 2012, Chowdhury et al 2017, Jha et al 2015, Ghayal et al 2015, Jain et al 2015 and
Sharma et al 2001) and limited studies used antimicrobial packaging whereas study related
to combined use of both packaging is not present without one researchers i.e. Andhare et
al 2016 who packed the lalpeda in polyethylene bags coated with nisin and modified atmos-
phere by increasing carbon dioxide and nitrogen levels and life was extended upto 10 days.
Other studies of combined effect are present on different products rather than traditional
dairy foods like Conte et al 2009 and Mastromatteo et al 2014 where the authors used the
active and modified atmosphere packaging for extending the shelf life of Fior d Latte cheese
and low moisture mozzarella cheese respectively.
Conclusion:
Application of these technologies has made the favourable choice of consumers

and helped manufacturers to meet their demands towards healthful products. Also, not
only natural but extended shelf life is another salient feature of products prepared either
with bacteriocins or with the incorporation of natural entities such as essential oils and use
of novel techniques like MAP. Synergistic effect of either of these two can further helps in
improving product shelf life without impairing its sensory, microbiogical and physic-chemi-
cal properties. In further time approaching there will be more and more researches will be
carried out to yield the potential of hurdle technology to harness more benefits.
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DIAGNOSIS OF PREGNANCY IN DAIRY ANIMALS:

IMPORTANCE AND PROBLEMS ASSOCIATED
A. K. SINGH, PRABHJOT KAUR & V. K. GANDOTRA
Pregnancy is a normal physiological condition of female from the time of fertilization

until the birth of fetus. To achieve this goal, it is important to successfully inseminate the
animal at right time and diagnose their pregnancy as early as possible. The average gesta-
tion period in buffalo and cow is 310 ± 10 days and 280 ± 10 days, respectively (Dobson
and Kamonpatana 1986). During the whole life span, a dairy animal may deliver about 8-10
times. This current manuscript gives an overview of the diagnosis of pregnancy in dairy
animals, importance and problems associated with it.
Pregnancy diagnosis in dairy animals: Diagnosis of pregnancy is termed as cyseiognosis
in cattle and buffalo. There are several external and internal indications of pregnancy in
animals.
External indicators of pregnancy: These are not confirmatory but are just indicators.
 Breeding history: The animal should have been mated either by natural
service or by artificial insemination.
 Cessation of estrus: It is the first indication of conception following service.

An animal may be pregnant if not coming in heat during next 21 days after
mating (Youngquist 1997). However, it is not always reliable because:
o Sometimes the owner may not see signs of estrus.

o Cessation of estrus may be due to pathology of uterus and ovaries.
o Increase in abdominal size and body weight.

o Comparatively, about 3-6% pregnant cows may exhibit estrus signs
during first trimester which is termed as ‘Gestational Heat’.
 Development of udder: This is evident usually at 4-5 months of gestation in

heifers and at 7-8 months of gestation in pluriparous animals when a little
yellowish thick fluid can be pressed from the teats.
 Change in temperament: During pregnancy the animals become docile and

quiet which are otherwise vicious and very excited. Especially during the last
fortnight before delivery, the activity of the pregnant animals is very much
reduced; they prefer segregation and show a desire to rest as much as possi
ble.
 Enlargement of the Abdomen: The increase in the size of abdomen occurs

at about same rate as the rate of development of the fetus. Towards the end
of pregnancy, the flanks appear hollow and the abdomen appears dropped
down.
 Relaxation of pelvic ligaments: This occurs just towards parturition.

 Abdominal ballottement of fetus: Fetal movement can be felt in lower right
flank by pushing fist. This can be appreciated from 6 months onward.
 Fetal heart auscultation: This can be done after 6-7 months of gestation
from right flank
Internal indicators of pregnancy: These are as follows:
 Vaginal examination: In this method, vaginal speculum is used to see accu

mulation of thick mucus discharge which covers the external-Os and forms
pregnancy seal. During pregnancy, the vaginal mucus membrane will be dry
and pale and cervix will be closed. However, this method is not so reliable.
 Rectal examination of genitalia: It is the most practical, conventional, inex

pensive, immediate method of pregnancy diagnosis in large animals (Balhara
et al 2013).
 Time for pregnancy diagnosis by rectal palpation: The pregnancy can

be diagnosed at 35 days after conception by an experienced veterinarian.
However, it should be avoided as there are chances of rupture of amniotic
vesicle and early embryonic death by digital/hand pressure during manipula
tion. Therefore it should be performed at 55-60 days of gestation.
 Changes in ovaries and uterus during pregnancy: Following changes are

observed in ovaries and uterus during pregnancy:
 In ovaries: One of the ovaries bears a CL which ipsilateral to the pregnant

horn. The ovaries can be palpated up to 4 month of gestation and after that
they are pulled ventrally and cranially along with pregnant horn.
In uterus: These are as follows:

• Asymmetry of uterine horn and thinning of the uterine wall.
• Distension of pregnant horn due to the presence of amniotic vesicle,

fetal fluids and membranes and the conceptus.
• Slipping of fetal membranes (Fincher’s technique)
• Location of uterus: It depends upon the length of gestation. The uterus

remains in pelvic cavity only upto 4 months and descends down in the
abdominal cavity from 5-6 months onwards.
• Palpation of fetus at various stages of pregnancy: It is not done
before 60 days of gestation due to small size of fetus and distended
amniotic vesicle.
• Palpation of placentomes: The placentomes start forming by 60-70
days but can be palpated 80 days onwards at the level of intercornual
ligaments. At day 120 these are fully developed.
• Fremitus palpation: It is the palpation of pulsation of middle uterine

artery which is branch of internal iliac artery. Due to advancement of
pregnancy the diameter of this artery increases and arterial wall
becomes thin. Instead of regular pulse the artery gives thrill/whirr/gush
sensation (like rushing of water in a pipe). It can be felt at 80-120 days
of gestation. The prominence increases as pregnancy advances. In
non-pregnant animals the diameter of artery is 3-4 mm only whereas, in preg-
nant animal it varies between 1-1.5 cm. The middle uterine artery is located in
the fold of broad ligament.
Ultrasonography: It is highly confirmative and requires expertise. By ultrasonog-
raphy, the embryonic vesicle and heart beat can be observed as early as 20-30 days of
pregnancy in cattle and buffalo (Fricke 2002; Romano et al 2007).
Importance of pregnancy diagnosis: An accurate and early pregnancy diagno-

sis is essential because:
• It helps in identification of non-pregnant animals which can be treated or rebred

at the earliest.
• It is required for certifying the animals for sale purpose.
• It helps in good management and economic feeding especially to avoid peri-

partum complications.
• To prevent lapse of one season for breeding in seasonal breeders.
• To reduce waste in breeding program using expensive hormonal techniques.
Problems encountered during pregnancy: Following problems and diseases

may be encountered during pregnancy:
a Resorption of fetus: This condition is suspected during early pregnancy.

The animal may fail to show symptoms of abortion following death of the fetus.
The fetal tissues and fetal fluids are dried up and fetus shrinks as a contorted
mass around which the uterus contracts. Therefore, it is very important to

have repeated pregnancy diagnostic check-ups following preliminary exami
nation.
b Accumulation of fluid in uterus: This condition is more commonly encoun
tered in the second trimester of pregnancy due to defective circulation or fetal
deformity. During this condition there is excessive accumulation of water
inside the fetal membranes which may be upto 100-200 liters. The abdomen
becomes too much distended leading to respiratory distress. Such animals
should be got treated as early as possible otherwise, the death becomes
evident.
c Torsion of uterus: This condition mostly occurs during late pregnancy. It is

more commonly encountered in buffaloes than in cows during late pregnancy.
During this condition, the animal feels abdominal pain and strains to deliver but
no part of fetus and/or water bag comes out due to obstruction in the passage
This condition warrants prompt diagnosis and treatment to save future reprod
uctive capacity of the animal.
d Prolapse of vagina: It can occur at any stage of pregnancy. Amongst the

various pre-disposing factors, deficiency of calcium, hereditary disposition
and feeding of estrogen rich diet are most important. This condition can also
occur due to accidental feeding of mouldy feed to the animals. The severity of
the problem can extend from a mild degree to complete exposure of vaginal
tissue through the vulva. If not treated properly and timely, it can lead to
lacerations, maggot formation and wounds on the vaginal tissue resulting in
severe hemorrhage. Abortion can also occur due to stress in affected ani
mals. With proper management and treatment, such cases can be treated
successfully.
e. Abortion: This occurs mostly during early stages of pregnancy when the
uterus has not descended into the abdominal cavity. It can occur if the genital organs of a
pregnant animal are not palpated carefully which can cause rupture of fetal heart, fetal
membranes or corpus luteum. This can lead to lacerations, rupture of rectum, develop-
ment of peritonitis and subsequent death of the animal.
Key points:
• Always get the animals checked for pregnancy by a qualified doctor (twice or thrice
during gestation) to know the progress of pregnancy.
• Keep a record of estrus cycle and date of insemination to ensure the delivery date.
• Feed balanced diet to pregnant animals to avoid weak calves and difficulties at the
time of delivery.
• Treat the non-pregnant animals as early as possible to reduce their maintenance

cost.
• Keep the pregnant animals segregated so as to prevent any injury to them.
• If suspected for any problem get the pregnant animal examined and treated quickly.
References
Balhara A K, Gupta M, Singh S, Mohanty A K and Singh I. 2013. Early pregnancy diagnosis
in bovines: current status and future directions. The Scientific World Journal 1-10.
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M A. 2007. Early pregnancy diagnosis by palpation per rectum: Influence on embryo/
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WB Saunders Co. Philadelphia, PA, pp 295-303.
CURRENT APPROACHES IN THE DIAGNOSIS OF

BRUCELLOSIS IN ANIMALS
PAVITER KAUR AND SHARMA N S
DEPARTMENT OF VETERINARY MICROBIOLOGY,
Bovine brucellosis is an economically important infectious disease with public health

significance characterized by abortions and reduced fertility in bovines. Owing to the im-
mense economic and public health concerns, various assays have been developed for the
diagnosis of brucellosis in animals. Direct detection methods like isolation and identification
of Brucella from clinical samples, molecular diagnostic assays like PCR, multiplex PCR,
Real time PCR, serological detection of antibodies to Brucella by RBPT, STAT, ELISA and
advanced diagnostic assays like Fluorescence polarisation assay (FPA) can be used for
diagnosis of brucellosis. Though many diagnostic tests with improved sensitivity and
specificity have been developed , but each test has its own disadvantage. So, the solution
to the problem with accurate diagnosis of brucellosis will involve a combination of different
tests for testing a single sample/ animal.
Brucellosis in animals is an economically important, infectious disease with public

health significance causing abortions and reduced fertility in bovines. Depending upon the
affinity for their preferred hosts, six classical Brucella spps., namely B. abortus (cattle and
buffaloes), B. melitensis (goats), B. ovis (sheep), B. suis (pigs), B. canis (dogs) and B.
neotomae (desert wood rats) and have been identified (Osterman and Moriyon 2006). In
addition, the genus Brucella has recently been expanded to include marine isolates, B. ceti
and B. pinnipedialis respectively (Foster et al 2007). B. abortus, B. melitensis and B. suis
are highly pathogenic for humans. Brucella spps. are gram negative coccobacilli arranged
singly or in pairs or short chains. Clinical signs like abortion, retained placenta, orchitis,
epididymitis and rarely, arthritis, with excretion of the organism in uterine discharges and in
milk can be seen in animals suffering from brucellosis. In the control and eradication
programmes for brucellosis, vaccination of animals is an important part, and usually B.
abortus strain 19 vaccine is used. In addition to vaccination, detection of the causative
agent in clinical samples is also very important. A number of biochemical, serological and
molecular techniques for disease diagnosis and identification of Brucella have been devel-
oped. Diagnosis can be carried out by lab testing of milk or blood for the presence of
antibodies to Brucella spp. or by isolation of the organism from clinical samples obtained
from affected animals or aborted foetuses like vaginal discharges, uterine discharges,
placenta, foetal stomach contents or milk followed by identification of the organism with
different diagnostic assays. Discussed below are some of the assays that can be used for
diagnosis of brucellosis in animals:
Different methods for diagnosis of brucellosis in animals
1. Isolation and Biochemical identification:

Brucella can be isolated from clinical samples like vaginal discharges, uterine dis-
charges, placental cotyledons, foetal stomach contents and milk obtained from animals
suffering from abortions or other reproductive disorders and from aborted foetuses. The
samples are streaked on Brucella agar base and the inoculated plates are kept at 370C for
3-5 days with and without 5-10% CO2 tension in the dessicator. Growth of the colonies is
examined for 4-6 days. Colonies typical of Brucella spp. can be stained by Gram’s staining
and identification of the organism can be done by catalase, oxidase and other biochemical
tests according to the OIE Manual (2016). B abortus can be recovered from the placenta
but pure culture can be obtained from the stomach and lungs of an aborted fetus. Isolation
of Brucella is the “gold standard” in diagnosis of brucellosis and is the confirmative test
(Godfroid et al 2010). Though isolation has the advantage of detecting the organisms
directly, but this method takes long time, is associated with a high risk of lab acquired
infections, requires level 3 bio-containement facilities and highly skilled technicians for han-
dling the samples (Hinic et al 2008). Also, sensitivity of isolation is less in chronic infections
and this is unsuitable when large animal populations have to be tested. In order to over-
come these difficulties, nucleic acid based assays have been developed and explored for
the rapid detection of Brucella spp.
2. Molecular tests
• Conventional PCR: The molecular biological techniques, often based on the polymer-
ase chain reaction (PCR) amplification, are successfully used for Brucella identifica-
tion and typing (Yu and Nielsen 2010). DNA is extracted from the cultures or directly
from the clinical samples using conventional methods or with commercially available
DNA extraction kits and subjected to PCR. Amplification of the desired gene se-
quences is then visualised with the help of gel electrophoresis. A number of ge-
nus- or species-specific conventional PCR assays using primers derived from differ-
ent gene sequences from the Brucella genome, such as 16S rRNA, the 16S-23S
intergenic spacer region, mp2 and bcsp31 have been established.
• Multiplex PCR: Since diagnosis by monoplex PCR allows the detection of a single
bacterium or single species of the bacterium at a time, hence, monoplex PCR is
relatively costly and time consuming. Identification of different species of Brucella is
necessary for studying the epidemiological patterns of the organism and for the
control and successful eradication of brucellosis. Multiplex PCR is a kind of PCR
technique where multiple target DNA sequences can be detected in a single tube
reaction (Richtzenhain et al, 2002). Therefore, by application of this assay, molecular
typing of all Brucella spp. including the vaccine strains can be done in a single reac-
tion (Goni et al, 2008).
• Real time PCR: Real-time PCR is a technique based on the polymerase chain
reaction, which is used to amplify and simultaneously detect or quantify a targeted

DNA molecule. In Real time PCR, the general principle of polymerase chain reaction
is followed except that the amplified DNA is detected as the reaction progresses in
“real time” and there is no need to analyze the PCR products by agarose gel electro-
phoresis. The introduction of Real-time PCR offers improved sensitivity, specificity
and speed of performance as compared to conventional PCR. Real-time PCR assay
based on Brucella spp. specific multiple insertion sequence IS711 has been de-
scribed by Hinic et al (2009) for detection of Brucella spp.
3. Serological tests
Serum agglutination tests like RBPT, STAT have been the standard diagnostic meth-
ods for brucellosis diagnosis. Other tests that may be used are complement fixation, rivanol
precipitation, and acidified antigen procedures (Merck Veterinary Manual). RBPT is a broad
simple method of brucellosis diagnostics (Alton et al, 1988) in which drops of stained
antigen and serum is mixed on a plate and any resulting agglutination signifies a positive
reaction. RBPT is an excellent screening test but may be oversensitive for especially the
vaccinated individual animals. Complement fixation test for detection of antibodies to Bru-
cella consists of a complex series of proteins. These proteins if activated by antigen anti-
body complexes react in a cascade sequential manner to cause lysis of the cell. The
drawback of the complement fixation test is that it is difficult to standardise it, so, is pro-
gressively being replaced by primary Enzyme linked immunosorbent assays (ELISA)
(Poester et al, 2010).
a I-ELISA: Indirect ELISA (iELISA) is based on the specific binding of antibodies present
in the sample to be tested with the antigen that is immobilised on the surface of
ELISA plate. The antigen antibody binding is visualized using chemically or
enzymatically derived fluorescent, luminescent or colorimetric reactions. iELISA for
diagnosis of brucellosis has been used by many researchers and many commer-
cially available iELISA kits for brucellosis diagnosis are available. For ELISA, very low
quantities of antigen and antibody are required and it can detect very low concentra-
tion of either reagent. Other advantages include high degree of sensitivity and poten-
tial for being used as both qualitative and quantitative assay.
b C-ELISA: Competitive enzyme immunoassays are based on selecting a monoclonal

antibody with higher affinity for the antigen as compared to vaccinal antibody. Com-
petitive ELISA for detection of bovine serum antibodies to B.abortus field strains
generally do not react with sera containing residual antibody from vaccination with
B.abortus S-19. So C-ELISA is capable of eliminating problems due to residual
antibodies produced in response to vaccination with B. abortus S19 and from cross
reacting antibodies but with lower affinity than antibodies arising from infection (Nielsen
et al 1995). Many commercial c-ELISA kits for brucellosis diagnosis are available.
c MRT: Milk ring test is an agglutination test used for screening dairy herds for brucel-
losis. The test is conducted on fresh milk collected from dairy cattle but does not
work on pasteurized or homogenized milk (Fleischhauer, 1937). IgM and IgA antibod-
ies bound to fat globules are detected in this test. Though MRT is cost effective,
easy to perfom and can cover a large population in a short time (Cadmus et al, 2008)
but the sensitivity of the test becomes less reliable in large herds with more than 100
lactating cows (FAO). Another disadvantage is that false-positive reactions may
occur in recently vaccinated cattle or in samples containing abnormal milk, such as
colostrum or in mastitic milk (FAO).
4. Advanced diagnostic tests

a. Peptide Nucleic Acid Fluorescent In-situ Hybridisation assay Fluorescence in
situ hybridization (FISH) technique is a novel diagnostic technique in which the tradi-
tional staining procedures are combined with the unique performance of PNA probes
for rapid and accurate diagnosis of infectious diseases (Lehtola et al, 2006). PNA
FISH is mainly based upon 16S rRNA as a target probe. The probes can be either
deoxyribonucleic acid (DNA) oligo probes or Peptide nucleic acid (PNA) probes.
These have been used to identify organisms from cultures. The neutral characteris-
tic of PNA molecule is responsible for a higher thermal stability (high Tm) between
PNA/DNA or PNA/RNA bonding, compared with the traditional DNA probes and spe-
cific hybridization between the PNA sequences and nucleic acid complementary
sequences occur according to the Watson-Crick rules (Cerqueira et al, 2011). PNA
probes normally have sequences relatively smaller (13-18 nucleotides) than DNA
sequences (at least 18 nucleotides) (Cerqueira et al, 2011). Due to uncharged back-
bone of PNA, these probes have superior hybridization characteristics as compared
to traditional DNA probes (Perry O’ Keefe et al 2001).
b. Fluorescence Polarisation Assay: Serological test like the Fluorescence polari-

zation assay (FPA) directly measures the binding of an antigen with antibody makes
use of molecular rotational properties, measuring directly the binding of an antigen
with antibody. The principle of the method relies on a fluorescent dye attached to a
small antigen (or antibody fragment) that is excited by plane polarized light at the
appropriate wave length. FPA is based upon the differences between a small soluble
antigen molecule in solution (labelled with a flurochrome) and the antigen molecule
complexed with its antibody. The rate of rotation of the antigen molecule is reduced
when its molecular size is increased by its binding to antibody (or antigen) (Nielsen et
al 1996). FPA for brucellosis diagnosis has been used by many researchers (Gall et
al 2000, 2001, 2002; Lucero et al 2003; Trangadia et al 2012; Nielsen et al 1996,
1998).
Conclusions: It can be concluded that though molecular assays like PCR have
been developed with increased sensitivity and specificity and used in labs with promising
results but in resource limited labs where PCR cannot be performed in routine due to the
high running cost, lack of technical expertise or lack of instrument; serological testing can
be carried out. Serological tests can be carried out in any lab with basic facilities and are
much less expensive. But for accurate diagnosis of brucellosis, a combination of different
tests for a single sample/ animal can be carried out.
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SELENIUM TOXICITY IN ANIMALS

RASHMI SAGAR BHULLAR AND VINOD KUMAR DUMKA
DEPARTMENT OF VETERINARY PHARMACOLOGY AND TOXI COLOGY
Selenium is an essential element with narrow margin of safety having difference

between adequate and potentially toxic concentrations in the diet being approximately 10 to
20 fold. Selenium is an important component of many selenoenzymes and proteins like
glutathione peroxidase which acts as an antioxidant in the body. So, in order to prevent
deficiency and resulting diseases like white muscle disease in sheep and cattle, exertional
myopathy in horses, exudative diathesis in poultry and hepatosis dietetica in pigs, supple-
ments with selenium content of 0.2–0.3 ppm are added to their diets. The maximum toler-
able concentrations for selenium in most livestock feed is considered to be 2–5 ppm.
Etiology
Although all animal species are susceptible to the toxic effects of Selenium poison-
ing but it is more common in forage eating animals such as cattle, sheep, horses and other
herbivores that may graze selenium containing plants. Plants accumulate selenium if the
element is available at high concentrations in the soil but pH and moisture content of the soil
have greater influence on the relative bioavailability of selenium to plants. Generally sele-
nium is mostly bioavailable to plants when they grow on more alkaline soils with low rainfall
(<50 cm). The alkalinity and low moisture content of the soil tend to allow more of the
selenium to be retained as the oxidized form of selenate for plant uptake. Because low
moisture in the soil decreases the anaerobic environments to greater depths, drought
conditions could allow for more selenium in the soil to be oxidized into forms which are
readily available for plant uptake
1 Based on their relative requirements and ability to accumulate selenium, Selenium

accumulating plants have been classified as :
2 Obligate indicator plants require large amount of selenium for growth and contain
high selenium concentrations open more than 1000 to 10000 ppm and include spe-
cies of Astragalus, Stanley, Oonopsis.
3 Facultative indicator plants absorb and tolerate higher concentrations of soil selenium,
with accumulations ranging from trace amounts to a few thousand ppm, but they do
not require selenium for growth and include species
of Aster, Castilleja, Grindelia, Atriplex, Gatierreaia, and Comandra.
4 Non-accumulator plants, such as most grasses, passively absorb much lower

amounts of selenium from the soil, resulting in trace amounts to a few hundred ppm.
In Punjab, the districts which are most prone to Selenium toxicity are Hoshiarpur
and Nawanshahr. All the affected villages of these districts lie in the foothills of the Shivalik
range. As per a study, it has been observed that for the past several years, selenium has
been transported through floodwaters from the Shivalik mountain to these areas. Also the
paths of seasonal rivulets in the region, which originate in the hills and end in the vicinity of
these villages have been traced which may account for the high selenium content of the
soil. For soil, the safe limit arrived at by PAU is 0.5 ppm and any amount above this would
lead to plants containing more than 5 ppm of the element. It has been evaluated that when
selenium levels in a plant go beyond 5 ppm, it becomes toxic for consumption. If the
amounts are in excess of 100 ppm, white patches start to appear on the plants (the
condition is described as snow-white chlorosis) which are common in crops grown in these
villages. Another factors that seem to have aggravated the problem is the cropping pattern
of the region. Significantly, though crops such as maize, sorghum and oat are relatively
safe, certain others are known to attract high amounts of selenium. Over the past 10-12
years, areas which have switched from the maize-wheat pattern to that of rice and wheat
are the worst-hit.
Toxicity
Excess selenium produces three general toxic effects :
1 The direct inhibition of cellular oxidation reduction reactions by depleting glutathione

and S-adenosyl methionine reserves.
2 The production of free radicals that cause oxidative tissue damage.

3 The replacement of sulphur containing amino acids in the body with selenium or
seleno- amino acids.
Loss of these disulfide bonds can alter the three-dimensional configuration of pro-
teins potentially resulting in loss off or diminished enzyme activity. The most commonly
altered sulphur containing amino acids are methionine and cysteine, which are replaced
with selenomethionine and selenocysteine respectively. Replacement of these amino acids
with selenium containing amino acids also effects cell division and growth especially sus-
ceptible are the keratinocytes and the sulphur containing keratin molecule itself. Thus
Selenium weakens the hooves and hair which tend to fracture when subjected to mechani-
cal stress.
Acute Selenium Poisoning
Acute oral selenium poisoning due to consumption of plants or diets with concen-
trations >50 ppm is not common but if occurs can result in large losses in cattle, sheep,
and pigs. It occurs rarely because animals usually avoid plants with high selenium content
because of their offensive odor but during drought conditions or when pasture is limited,
accumulator plants may be the only food available. Young animals are most susceptible to
acute parenteral selenium toxicosis with dosages of 0.2–0.5 mg/kg. Clinical signs are char-
acterized by abnormal behavior, respiratory difficulty, GI upset, and sudden death. Abnor-
mal posture and depression, anorexia, unsteady gait, diarrhea, colic, increased pulse and
respiration rates, frothy nasal discharge, moist rales, and cyanosis may be noted. Sheep
usually show these signs to a much lesser degree or just become depressed and die
suddenly.
Most deaths usually follow within a few hours to 2 days after an acutely toxic
consumption or injection of selenium. The major lesions are pulmonary edema, pulmonary
congestion, pulmonary hemorrhage, hepatic necrosis, myocardial necrosis, myocardial
hemorrhage, and potentially renal necrosis.
Treatment consists of symptomatic and supportive care. Acetyl cysteine to boost
systemic glutathione concentrations may be beneficial.
Subchronic Selenium Toxicosis

In pigs that are fed a diet supplemented with selenium >20–50 ppm for >3 days
develop a subchronic selenium toxicosis characterized by neurologic abnormalities. Ani-
mals are initially ataxic and uncoordinated, followed by anterior paresis, then quadriplegia.
Even though neurologic impairment is occurring, the pigs continue to eat, which would
indicate neurologic damage that is not centrally mediated. The hooves develop cracks and
impaired growth similar to those seen in cattle. In sows, conception rate decreases and the
number of stillborn births increases. Lesions of subchronic toxicosis include focal symmet-
ric poliomyelomalacia, which is most prominent in the cervical and thoracic spinal cord.
Death may result from complications of permanent paralysis. Hoof and hair damage is
similar to but in most cases less severe than that seen in chronic selenium toxicosis.
Chronic Selenium Toxicosis

(Alkali disease)
Chronic selenium poisoning usually develops when livestock consume seleniferous
forages and grains containing 5–50 ppm of selenium for many weeks or months, although
chronic exposure to high concentrations of inorganic selenium can also produce chronic
selenosis. Naturally occurring seleno-amino acids in plants are readily absorbed and in-
serted into proteins in place of their corresponding sulfur-containing amino acids (ie,
selenomethionine in place of methionine or selenocysteine in place of cysteine). Hitherto,
two types of chronic selenium poisoning were discussed in the literature: alkali disease and
blind staggers. Blind staggers is no longer believed to be caused by selenium but by sulfate
toxicity due to consumption of high-sulfate alkali water and/or high sulfur-containing for-
ages. Excess sulfate (>1% of diet) leads to polioencephalomalacia and the classical signs
of blind staggers.
Alkali disease has been reported in cattle, sheep, and horses and animals become
inactive, weak, anorexic, lame, emaciated, anemic, and lack vitality. The most important
and distinctive lesions are those produced by damage of the keratin of the hair and
hooves. For horses, the predominant clinical manifestation is lameness due to founder.
The animal has a rough hair coat, and the long hairs of the mane and tail break off, giving a
“bob” tail and “roached” mane appearance. Abnormal growth and structure of horns and
hooves result in circular ridges and cracking of the hoof wall at the coronary band. Ex-
tremely long, deformed hooves that turn upward at the ends leading to subsequent lame-
ness which is compounded by degeneration of joint cartilage and bone. Reduced fertility
and reproductive performance occurs, especially in sheep and cattle. Reproductive per-
formance may be impaired with a dietary selenium content lower than that required to
produce the other typical signs of alkali disease. Other lesions may include liver cirrhosis,
ascites and myocardial necrosis.
Birds also may be affected with chronic selenium toxicosis. Eggs with >2.5
ppm selenium from birds in high selenium areas have low hatchability and embryos that
are usually deformed. Developmental and teratological effects including underdeveloped
feet and legs, malformed eyes, crooked beaks and ropy feathers are also observed.
In selenium-poisoned animals, some alterations in blood chemistries occur like de-
creased prothrombin activity, fibrinogen, and glutathione, as well as increased serum alka-
line phosphatase, ALT, AST, and succinic dehydrogenase.
Treatment and Control

There is no specific treatment for selenium toxicosis. Eliminating the source and
exposure, as well as symptomatic and supportive care of the animal, should be started as
soon as possible. Addition of substances that antagonize or inhibit the toxic effects
of selenium in the diet may help reduce the risk of selenium toxicosis. A high-protein diet,
linseed oil meal, sulfur, arsenic, silver, copper, cadmium, and mercury have
reduced selenium toxicity in laboratory animals, but their use under field conditions is lim-
ited. However, some of the poor reproductive performance associated
with selenium poisoning can be decreased by copper supplementation. Addition of arsenic
salt at 0.00375% to enhance biliary excretion of selenium or a high-protein diet to bind
free selenium has historically been used to reduce incidence of selenium poisoning in cat-
tle. However, this has minimal to poor overall efficacy. Chronically selenium-poisoned ani-
mals are less likely to thrive even after exposure has been stopped.
Forages should be tested regularly in high-selenium areas to evaluate year-to-year

risk. Also in high-selenium zones, farmers should be recommended to apply one tonne of
gypsum per hectare every alternate year which may slow the selenium absorption by
crops by up to 70 per cent.
AN OVERVIEW ON REPRODUCTIVE MANAGEMENT

PRACTICES IN SWINE
A K SINGH, P SINGH, JASWINDER SINGH AND H K VERMA
Management techniques, nutrient requirements and reproductive technologies, which

affect gilt development and sow longevity, require continuous updating. Failure to detect
estrus accurately has the greatest impact on farrowing rate and litter size. Even accurate
estrus detection will not compensate for the variability in the interval between onset of
estrus and actual time of ovulation. Moreover, seasonal infertility mediated by temperature
and photoperiod, is a persistent problem in swine. Real-time ultrasonography should be
used to determine pregnancy 3-5 weeks post-service. Farrowing is usually induced by
administration of prostaglandin. Assistance at farrowing is important especially to ensure
adequate colostrum consumption by piglets immediately after birth. Furthermore, prostag-
landin is also used for induction of estrus in pre-pubertal gilts to overcome seasonal
anestrous. Ovulation synchronization, artificial insemination and induced parturition may
lead to farrowing synchronization, which facilitates supervision and reduces stillbirths and
piglet mortality. The current manuscript is to review the literature and existing industry
practices employed for reproductive management of swine.
Management remains a critical step in governing reproductive efficiency of swine

and is subsequently related to profitable/lossmaking pig farming. Adoption of scientific man-
agement practices and technologies, provided the foundation for development of highly
prolific females which have significantly increased efficiency of reproduction in the breeding
herd. Eventually, obtaining maximum farrowing rate, litter size, and number of pigs weaned
is essential to achieving maximum profits in a swine enterprise. Pig farmers generally
appreciate time and input costs required to grow animals from birth to market weight.
Numerous factors viz. season, nutrition, disease, embryo mortality affect reproductive
performance in breeding sow (Foxcroft et al 2006). Nutritional deficit during lactation in-
creased weaning to estrus interval in sow with lower conception rate and reduced litter size
(Campos et al 2012). Refining management practices of gilts/sows improved their lifetime
reproduction and production traits (Foxcroft et al 2010). Further, Oliviero (2013) also showed
that appropriate management of piglet before and after weaning affected its livability and
future reproduction. Moreover, accurate monitoring of management practices and tech-
nologies along with past performance is essential to identify problems quickly and to initiate
solutions for development of highly prolific females in a swine enterprise. Although, some
causes of variation in reproductive measures can be attributed to single sources, most are
complex and multi-factorial. The heritability of such reproductive traits is generally low.
Therefore, much of the phenotypic variation of reproductive performance is due to environ-
mental effects, of which a major portion would be considered management. In addition,
artificial insemination (AI) in swine is a tool to obtain a high conception rate and good litter
size. AI requires a higher level of management as compared to natural service mating
systems. The purpose of this paper is to summarize results from basic and applied re-
search that may be applied to optimize management of gilts and sows in the breeding herd.
Development and management of gilt/sow: Sow longevity refers to the total

number of offspring produced in the lifetime of sow and is important because litter size and
piglet weight increase until fourth or fifth parity, and number of pigs weaned per sow per
year increase till sixth or seventh parity. Breeding and selection of gilts is generally based
on growth rate, body composition, disease status, sexual development and dam’s repro-
ductive history (Gill 2007). The ability to express estrus and continue to cycle should be the
key reproductive trait for selection of replacement gilts (Table 1). Sterning et al (1998)
reported that heritability of the ability to display estrus at puberty and ovulate within 10 days
after weaning a litter is 0.31. Average sow replacement rate is about 45% (PigChamp
2012). Since large number of piglets per litter are farrowed by sows, often there are not
enough functional nipples for all piglets. Therefore, number (14 or more teats) and function-
ality of mammary glands are critical for survival of piglets. Feet and legs are important
because sows live on solid concrete floors (Stalder 2009). Lameness due to incorrect
structure of feet and legs hinder sows from getting up and down which results in reduced
feed intake and poor reproductive performance. In general, selected gilts are moved from a
growing and finishing facility to a development facility at 150-180 days of age when daily
boar exposure begins (Filha et al 2009).
Table 1: Goals for reproductive management in swine
Sr. No. Parameter Target

1 Weaning to estrus (Days) <7
2 Non-productive sow (Days) < 50
3 Age at first mating (Months) < 7.5
4 Farrowing rate (%) > 85
5 Sow mortality (%) <2
6 Post-weaning loss (%) <2
7 Finishing loss (%) < 1.5
8 Piglets weaned/sow/year > 22
9 Piglets weaned/litter > 9.5
10 Litters/sow/year > 2.4
11 Piglets born live/litter >10.9
12 Stillborn piglets (%) <5
13 Mummified piglets (%) < 0.5
14 Pre-weaning mortality (%) <8
Generally, age at puberty is positively associated with age at onset of boar expo-
sure (Singh et al 2019). Exposure of peripubertal gilts to boars for 20 minutes/day stimu-
lates expression of estrus. The boars must be mature (>10 months of age) and express
full complement of male mating characteristics. For best results, gilts are brought to boars
where they experience sight, sound and odor of boar with fence line contact. However,
constant exposure to boar sound and scent causes habituation and hinders heat detection,
but not necessarily onset of sexual maturity. Moving, mixing, transport and boar exposure
induces first estrus in a high percentage of gilts within 10-20 days. Gilts that respond to
boar exposure at an early age tend to remain in production longer than gilts that respond at
a later age (Hoge and Bates 2011). After the first estrus, gilts should be acclimated to stalls
or breeding and gestation housing at least 16 d prior to breeding. Stimulating gilts to cycle
and breed on second or third estrus is a well-established practice. It is important at first
mating that adequate fat stores are available for good lactation which is determined by
back fat measurement of 12-18 mm (Wiedmann 2010).
Gilt/sow nutrition: For sustained herd fertility adequate and balanced feed intake
is essential. Diet for replacement gilts should contain higher concentrations of vitamin A
and E, selenium, chromium and zinc. Concentrations of calcium and phosphorus must be
high enough for maximum bone mineralization, which is mobilized for fetal growth and
lactation (Whitney and Masker 2010). Nutritional deficit during early growth period is asso-
ciated with delayed puberty. Replacement gilts are typically fed ad lib a diet lower in energy
to avoid excessive body fat. This also allows for slightly slower growth, which limits mature
body size, thereby preventing feet and leg problems and excessive fat gain. Highly prolific
gilts reach puberty with limited reserves of protein and body fat and they continue to grow
during their first gestation. Therefore, lean tissue mass is a key consideration for correct
management of the gilt (Foxcroft et al 2005). Gill (2007) proposed that a nutrition program
should result in a body condition score of three at first service.
Sows should be fed based on an objective measure of individual body weight, body
condition and measurement of back fat depth. Feeding high energy sources for 10-14 days
before first service, increases ovulation rate and litter size (Young et al 2004). Feed intake
during the last 2 to 3 weeks should be adjusted to at least avoid a negative energy balance
prior to farrowing and to promote higher feed intake in early lactation, easier farrowing and
adequate birth weight of newborn piglets. Restriction of feeding prior to parturition signifi-
cantly reduces the risk of postpartum dysgalactia syndrome. Peltoniemi et al (2007) re-
ported that feeding low energy and high fiber diets during peripartum period appeared to
improve intestinal function and initiation of lactation. They further noticed that sows with
back fat depths of 23 mm or more at farrowing have depressed appetite during lactation.
Eventually, highly prolific sows of today produce large litters of fast growing piglets. Thus,
lactation puts a great nutritional demand on sows. Adequate feed intake, especially during
the first 7 to 10 days of lactation is important to replenish body reserves, and re-establish
secretion of hormones which control subsequent reproductive performance (Kauffold et al
2008). Most lactation feeders today include a reservoir that hold a minimum of 9 kg of feed.
Ensuring sows have access to full feed 24 h/d results in optimum return to estrus and piglet
weight at weaning. Getting sows up 2-3 times per day stimulates sows to urinate and
defecate, resulting in drinking and eating, thus optimizing feed intake, lactation perform-
ance and return to estrus. Fat as a high density energy source is incorporated into lactation
diets to compensate for depressed appetite during heat stress. It is essential to have good
quality water (Leibbrandt et al 2001). Lack of water limits milk production. High performing
sows have a water intake of up to 40 liters/d when milk production is at its highest three
weeks after farrowing. Sows experience the stress of piglet removal, change of location,
transition of mammary tissue into dry period and follicular development and subsequent
ovulation all within 4-5 days. These events require a high level of energy and nutrients.
Maintaining ad lib feed and water consumption optimizes these events as measured by
consequent fertility. Boar exposure of sows should start on the day of weaning for at least
10 minutes/d. Weaned sows are typically exposed to boars within two days; most com-
monly once per day (Knox et al 2013).
Housing and environment: Purchased gilts should be quarantined for at least
four weeks, during which time they should be observed for and serologically tested for
infectious diseases. Both purchased gilts following quarantine and internally selected gilts
should be acclimated in small groups in the breeding barn to allow them to build immunity to
organisms present in the breeding herd. Gilts reared in individual pens have more silent
heats and irregular estrous cycles and reach puberty later than gilts reared in group pens
(Knox 2014). Breeding and gestation sows should be kept in standard gestation stalls.
Well-designed farrowing crates, floors and ergonomic feeders and water nipples, gut fill and
lying comfort are important for sow health, performance and longevity. Any stress in the
first three weeks of gestation may result in loss of pregnancy or reduced litter size. Moving
sows early in gestation should be done gently in small groups (Knox et al 2013).
Estrus detection and time of insemination: Failure to detect estrus accurately
has the greatest impact on farrowing rate and litter size. Estrus normally lasts 24 to 48 h in
gilts and up to 72 h in sows. Nearly, 90% of sows express estrus 3-6 days after weaning
(Soede et al 2011). Sows which are mated at estrus 4-6 days after weaning have greater
farrowing rates and litter sizes. Ovulation occurs approximately 36-48 h after onset of
estrus and optimum time of insemination is 6-12 h prior to ovulation (Soede et al 1995). If
the female still accepts the boar and/or is still showing a positive (standing) response to
back pressure test, mate 24 h after initiation of standing heat and rebreed 8-16 hours later.
Farrowing rate and litter size will be lower if insemination occurs more than 24 h before
ovulation because sperm live approximately 24 h after insemination and eggs can be ferti-
lized for only 12 h after ovulation (Soede et al 1995). The best way to predict ovulation is to
detect estrus frequently. Generally, sows are inseminated on the day of detected estrus
and the morning of following day. Less time is required to elicit standing response and a
greater percentage of females are detected when gilts are moved to the boar area. Some
general recommendations viz. checking estrus after feeding, removing all distractions from
the area, detecting estrus in same place and same way each time, keeping animals calm
and allowing sufficient time for interaction can improve efficiency of estrus detection.
Tips for detecting estrus
• Swelling and reddening of vulva
• Ears erect
• Change boar regularly
• Group housing is preferred for breeding females
• Allow vigorous courtship of 15-20 seconds

• Characteristic grunt
• Reduce feed intake after breeding
• Introduce the sexually mature boar directly into pen containing females to be
tested
• Keep accurate record of mating dates
• Standing reflex (response to pressure on back)
• Keep animals calm
Use of current management technologies: Impact of reproductive technolo-
gies on pig production have dramatically changed the way pigs are raised and made the pig
the most efficient livestock species for food production in the world. Many of the technolo-
gies developed during the past 2–4 decades have been incorporated into modern pork
production systems. In most cases, producers have adapted and are utilizing the technolo-
gies for applications or objectives that differ from the original or approved use or claim.
Artificial insemination technology: Artificial insemination is potentially a very
hygienic means of fertilizing a gilt/sow to improve genetics, reduce labor, breed more sows
with semen from superior sires and fewer sires needed to produce that semen (Wilson
2012). It eliminates the possible transfer of infection from direct contact with boar which
improves time management compared to natural service. Prominent procedures during AI
are back pressure, boar exposure, flank rubbing and gravity semen flow. During the past
few years, interest in and implementation of AI technology has experienced a dramatic
increase with a high success rate and may soon become the most prevalent assisted
reproductive technique in swine.
Pregnancy detection using ultrasound scanning: The most common strategy
for identifying non-pregnant females is detection of estrus by daily boar exposure from 17
to 23 d after breeding followed by examination through ultrasonography between days 28
and 35 of gestation (Knox 2014). Real-time (B-mode) ultrasonography is accurate when
used after the first three weeks of gestation (Knox et al 2013).
Farrowing management: Farrowing is usually induced by administration of pros-
taglandin analog (250 ìg). High prolific females commonly have 14-16 piglets born alive with
piglet pre-weaning mortality ranging from 11 to 24% during first five days of age (Foxcroft
2012). A larger litter generally means smaller and weaker pigs. The rate of stillborn piglets
increases as duration of farrowing and interval between births increases. Generally, far-
rowing supervision/birth assistance includes following practices:
• Thoroughly clean and disinfect all farrowing crates.
• Treat females with anthelmintic about 3-4 weeks before farrowing.
• Feed a laxative diet for a week before moving into farrowing pen.
• Manually deliver piglets when birth interval becomes longer than 30 minutes.
• Remove placenta around piglets and clear airways to prevent suffocation.
• Ligate the umbilical cord.
• Keep piglets under heat lamp immediately after birth to prevent chilling.
• Place low-viable piglets in a heated box away from sow.
• Prevent savaging of piglets by sow.
• Feed colostrum or milk replacer orally to low-viable piglets.
• Split suckling or cross-fostering to ensure piglets from large litter consuming
adequate colostrum.
The most important factor for ensuring piglet survival is adequate colostrum con-
sumption immediately after birth since colostrum production by sow occurs for only 24 h
after farrowing.
Seasonal infertility: Most farms experience seasonal infertility caused by estrus
failure in gilts and weaned sows which is mediated by temperature and photoperiod. Pu-
berty is delayed in summer months and ovulation rate, conception rate and litter size are
lower in summer than in winter. First parity sows have reduced reproductive performance
than older sows. Photoperiod is the only environmental factor which is highly repeatable
from year to year. Pigs may not be able to respond to sudden changes in photoperiod
(Peltoniemi and Virolainen 2005). High environmental temperature decreases feed intake,
delays puberty, disrupts behavioral estrus, lowers ovulation and conception rate, increases
embryonic mortality and decreases milk production in sows. Heat stress is most detrimen-
tal to reproductive performance during the first 30 days due to increased embryonic death
and last 30 days of gestation due to increased stillborn piglets (Peltoniemi and Virolainen
2005). Strategies to reduce heat stress are:
• Feed high energy diets with lower fiber and crude protein content
• Decrease group size to 15 or less in gestation
• Use air cooling or water dripping equipment
• Feed multiple times a day
• Use individual gestation stalls to reduce social stress
Decreasing photoperiod and high temperatures generally occur at same seasonal
time frame. To optimize sow production producers should minimize heat stress and adapt
light and dark cycles to avoid either excessive light or dark periods. Additionally, prostag-
landin can effectively be used for induction of estrus in pre-pubertal gilts and as a treatment
to overcome seasonal anestrous (Knox 2014).
Conclusion
Genetics, nutrition, housing, age at first mating, assistance at farrowing, growth
rate, body condition, performance of parity, adequate colostrum consumption by piglets
immediately after birth and adoption of artificial insemination technology impact sow longev-
ity which will enhance reproductive performance of herd and subsequently improve overall
pork production.
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CHEMOTHERAPEUTIC INTERVENTIONS FOR CANCER

PATIENTS
RAJDEEP KAUR AND S.K.SHARMA
DEPARTMENT OF PHARMACOLOGY & TOXICOLOGY
Cancer is a class of diseases characterized by out-of-control cell growth. There

are over 100 different types of cancer, and each is classified by the type of cell that is
initially affected. The main lines of cancer treatment are surgery, radiation and chemo-
therapy either solo or in combination.
1 Chemotherapy is appropriate when:
2 Disease is wide spread
3 The risk of undetectable diagnosis is high

4 The tumor can’t be resected and is resistant to radiation
5 Neoadjuvant: shrink a large tumor and lower the stage of the tumor so it can be
surgically removed or cured.
6 Adjuvant: given to prevent growth of stray cancer cells remaining after surgery or
radiation.
The primary focus of chemotherapy is to prevent cancer cells from multiplying,

invading adjacent tissue or developing metastasis.Thus the main goal of chemotherapy
must be realistic so as to destroy all malignant cells without excessive destruction of
normal cells.Factors to consider when choosing patient’s chemotherapy treatment include
1 Type of cancer
2 Stage of Cancer (TNM System)

3 Patient’s Age
4 General State of Health
5 Other health problems (liver, renal )

6 Types of anticancer treatments in the past
Determination of dose
Dose of antineoplastic agents is determined on the basis of body surface and can
be calculated from the following formula:
Surface area =Body weight0.67 ´ K/104
Where surface area is given in square metres (m2) and body weight in grams. For
cats and dogs, K is constant with value of 10.0 and 10.1, respectively.
Chemotherapeutic Agents
• Cell Cycle Specific: mostly affect the S phase & some the M phase. Adminis-
tered in minimal concentrations by continuous dosing routes.
• Cell Cycle Non-Specific: affects dividing and resting cells in all phases of the
cell cycle. Administered in single bolus injection.
• Combination: agents that differ in both cell cycle specificity and their toxicities
are combined to maximize tumor cell kill with minimal toxicity.Administered in
repeated courses
There are three major Groups of Antineoplasticdrugs:
1. Cytotoxic Drugs (largest group)
a Alkylating agents - Nitrogen mustards, Alkyl sulphonates, Nitrosoureas,

Triazenes
b Antimetabolites - methotrexate, 6-mercaptopurine, 6-thioguanine, 5-fluor-
ouracil, floxuridine
c Antitumor antibiotics - Actinomycins, doxorubicin, daunorubicin, bleomycin,
mitomycin
d Plant alkaloids - vincristine, vinblastine
e Miscellaneous cyt ot oxic drugs – mitotane, bexarotene, tretinoin,

demecolcine
2. Hormones and hormone antagonists:

These are among the besttolerated chemotherapeutics because they target spe-
cific receptors.
- diethylstilboestrol, tamoxifen, testosterone, flutamide, leuprolide

3. Immunomodulators
a Immunostimulants- interferons and interleukins

b Immunosuppressant - corticosteroids, azathioprine
Cell Kill hypothesis – only a percentage of cancer cells are killed with each
course of chemo so repeated doses or cycles are used. The length of the cycle is deter-
mined by the recovery of the patient’s healthy cells as well as the characteristics of the
agents. Myelosuppression is a common dose-limiting toxicity and determines the length of
the chemo cycles. It generally takes 21-28 days for neutrophils to recover after treatment
with amyelosuppressive chemotherapy.
Schematic diagram showing the site of action of antineoplastic drugs

Problems Associated with Chemotherapy
Several problems associated with clinical use of antineoplastic drugs may
result in treatment failure. These include generally drug resistance and toxicity.
1. Drug resistance
Failure of a tumour to respond to a drug or development of acquired drug
resistance is a major problem with antineoplastic chemotherapy. Some neoplastic cells, for
example melanoma are inherently resistant (natural resistance) to most anticancer drugs.
Acquired drug resistance is common and may occur due to a variety of reasons including
altered biochemical mechanisms, increased drug biotransformation, etc. The development
of drug resistance may be minimised by short-term, intensive intermittent therapy with
combination drugs.
2. Toxicity
Toxicity is the major treatment-limiting factor in antineoplastic chemotherapy.
Important adverse effects of cancer therapy may include direct tissue/organ toxicity, hy-
persensitivity, drug induced tumours and superinfection.
Chemotherapeutic agents are apt to impair or damage cells in the marrow
than other normal cells in the body (myelosuppression).Myelosuppression decreases the
number of WBCs (leukopenia), red blood cells (anemia), and platelets (thrombocytopenia)
and increases the risk for infection and bleeding. Only actively dividing cells in the bone
marrow are affected (i.e. stem cells). Cells with shorter life span are more affected (white
vs. red blood cell). The damage to the bone marrow is directly proportional to the drug
dosage. Depression of these cells is the usual reason for limiting the dose of the chemo-
therapeutic agents. Monitoring blood cell counts frequently is essential, as is protecting the
patient from infection and injury, particularly while the blood cell counts are depressed.
However, low count doesn’t occur immediately after administration of an antineoplastic
agent because these drugs donot destroy cells already in the blood stream. Drugs tempo-
rarily prevent formation of new blood cells in the marrow.
Contraindications and Precautions
Many antineoplastic drugs, particularly cytotoxic drugs, are potentially toxic
agents with narrow margins of safety. Several drugs are irritant to skin and mucous mem-
branes and are reported to have teratogenic, carcinogenic or mutagenic effects. There-
fore, extreme care should be exercised during handling, preparation and administration of
these drugs. Injectable preparations should always be prepared by trained staff wearing
protective clothing and gloves. Tablets must not be broken or crushed. Animals must be
properly restrained before administration of cytotoxic drugs. Pregnant women are advised
not to handle these drugs. Peripheral blood counts should be monitored periodically to
assess myelosuppression and other blood abnormalities. The dosage of drug should be
reduced or therapy withheld if blood counts are drastically reduced. Appropriate supportive
and nursing therapy must be instituted to support vital body systems, if required.
The potential benefit to the patient of treatment as an option must always

outweigh the toxic effects.
AN UPDATE ON THE CANINE UROLITHIASIS

HARMANPREET SINGH SODHI AND ASHWANI KUMAR
DEPARTMENT OF VETERINARY SURGERY AND RADIOLOGY
Urinary obstruction due to urolithiasis is a common medical emergency is dogs.

Various factors play an important role in the pathogenesis of urolithiasis which are consid-
ered while making a decision of medicinal dissolution or surgical removal of uroliths. Inter-
national recommendations on the treatment and prevention of uroliths are published from
time to time. This article discusses updates on the canine urolithiasis with particular refer-
ence to pathophysiology of various types of uroliths, their prevention and treatment.
Urolithiasis is defined as the presence of urinary calculi anywhere in the urinary

system starting from the kidney, ureter, urinary bladder or urethra (Tion et al 2015). When
urine becomes supersaturated with dissolved salts, the salts may precipitate to form crys-
tals (crystalluria). If the crystals are not excreted, they may aggregate into solid concre-
tions known as urinary calculi or urolith. Various factors play an important role in the
pathogenesis of urolithiasis which are considered while making a decision of medicinal
dissolution or surgical removal of uroliths. International recommendations on the treatment
and prevention of uroliths are published from time to time (Lulich et al 2016). This article
discusses updates on the canine urolithiasis with particular reference to pathophysiology of
various types of uroliths, their prevention and treatment.
General Considerations and Clinically Relevant Pathophysiology:
 Most canine uroliths are found in the urinary bladder or urethra (Tion et al
2015).
 Struvite (magnesium ammonium phosphate) and calcium oxalate calculi are

the most common canine uroliths, followed by urate, silicate, cystine, and
mixed types.
 Struvite:-
 Urinary tract infections with urease-producing bacteria are an important

cause in the formation of struvite calculi in dogs (Lulich et al 2016).
 Bacterial cystitis also increases organic debris, which can serve as a

nidus for crystallization and calculi formation.
 Female dogs tend to have more struvite-containing calculi than male

dogs. Shorter, more dilatable and straight urethra in female dogs makes
them more vulnerable to urinary tract infection.
 Alkaline urine favors struvite calculi formation.
 Calcium oxalate calculi:-
 It occurs most commonly in dogs with transient, postprandial

hypercalcemia and hypercalciuria.
 Many affected dogs have low-to-normal serum parathormone concen-

trations. Although rare, these calculi may also occur in dogs with defec-
tive tubular resorption of calcium, primary hyperparathyroidism, lym-
phoma, vitamin D intoxication, decreased urine concentrations of citrate,
or increased dietary oxalate (Tion et al 2015).
 Concurrent urinary tract infection, in cases of calcium oxalate calculi, is

rare.
 Acidic urine favors calcium oxalate crystal formation.
 Dogs eating canned diets with a high amount of carbohydrate were

found to be at increased risk for calcium oxalate urolith formation;
whereas, dogs fed dry diets formulated to contain high concentrations
of protein, calcium, phosphorus, magnesium, sodium, potassium, and
chloride appeared to have fewer calcium oxalate calculi.
 Urate calculi:-
 Dalmatians have defective hepatic transport of uric acid, resulting in

decreased production of allantoin and increased urinary excretion of
uric acid and also have decreased proximal tubular resorption and distal
tubular secretion of uric acid, making urate urolithiasis common in this
breed (Tion et al 2015).
 Dogs with hepatic insufficiency (e.g., congenital portosystemic shunts)

are also predisposed to form ammonium acid urate calculi as the result
of increased renal excretion of ammonium urates.
 Secondary urinary tract infection may occur as a result of mucosal

irritation.
 Silicate uroliths:-
 They are often jack shaped and probably are related to increased di-
etary intake of silicates, silicic acid, or magnesium silicate .
 Male German Shepherd dogs are at increased risk for formation of

silica-containing urinary calculi.
 Cystine uroliths:-
 Cystine uroliths form because of an inherited disorder of decreased

proximal renal tubular reabsorption of cysteine, consequently, cystine
crystalluria.
 Cystine stones usually occur in acidic urine.
Although dissolution of some stones is possible but surgical removal is often nec-
essary initially to allow a diagnosis of stone type. Appropriate medical management may
help decrease the recurrence of canine uroliths. Supersaturation of urine with salts ap-
pears to be the primary factor favoring calculi formation. Other factors include presence of
a nidus on which the stone can form, decreased concentrations of urine crystallization
inhibitors also appear to contribute to stone formation.
As struvite calculi in dogs are frequently associated with infection; it is advised to

culture the urine, bladder wall, and/or stone. Mucosal cultures may be positive in some
patients when urine cultures are negative.
DIAGNOSIS
Clinical Presentation and Signalment:-
 Struvite calculi are more common in female than in male dogs because females
more commonly have urinary tract infection; however, urethral obstruction from
stones is more common in males.
 Calculi in dogs younger than 1 year of age are often struvite secondary to urinary
tract infection. Calcium oxalate uroliths are more common in male dogs.
 Middle-aged to older dogs are most commonly affected with urolithiasis.

 In cats, calcium oxalate uroliths occur nearly as frequently as struvite uroliths. Ap-
proximately one-third of cats with calcium oxalate uroliths also have increased total
serum calcium concentrations.
 Urate uroliths most commonly occur in Dalmatians.

 Middle aged, male German Shepherds seem to be at increased risk for silicate
urolithiasis, although these stones occur in small-breed dogs as well.
 Cystine uroliths most frequently occur in middle-aged male Dachshunds.

History:-
 Clinical signs of urinary tract infection (i.e. hematuria, pollakiuria, and stranguria) are
common in dogs with cystic or urethral calculi.
 Small stones lodging in the urethra of male dogs may cause partial or complete
obstruction.
 Bladder distention, abdominal pain, stranguria, perceived incontinence due to partial

obstruction, and/or signs due to postrenal azotemia (i.e., anorexia, vomiting, and
depression) may develop.
 Rupture of urinary bladder associated with urolithiasis is extremely rare in dogs.

Physical Examination Findings
 The bladder wall is often thickened, and stones are occasionally palpable.
 Signs consistent with urinary tract infection may be noted.
 Abdominal pain, anorexia, vomiting, and/or depression may be noted if urinary tract
obstruction occurs.
Diagnostic Imaging
 Survey abdominal radiographs or ultrasonography is indicated in all animal with uro-

lithiasis. These procedures are required to localize the calculi in the kidney, ureter,
bladder and/or ureter.
 Calcium-containing uroliths (i.e., calcium phosphate and calcium oxalate) are the
most radio-opaque calculi in dogs and cats.
 Cystine and urate uroliths are the least radio-opaque, so are likely to be missed,
radiographically.
 Struvite calculi are normally radio-opaque and usually are observed with survey
radiography.
 Double contrast cystography and/or retrograde urethrography may identify radiolu-

cent stones in the bladder or urethra; however, ultrasonography can detect all types
of calculi and can evaluate the kidneys and ureters for concurrent abnormalities.
Laboratory Findings
 Complete blood count, serum chemistry profile (including electrolytes), urinalysis,

and urine culture should be performed to assess the health status and severity of
the condition.
DIFFERENTIAL DIAGNOSIS
 Uroliths should be considered in any animal presenting with chronic urinary tract
infection, hematuria, stranguria, pollakiuria, obstructive uropathy, or urinary inconti-
nence.
 Other differentials include neoplasia and granulomatous inflammation.

MEDICAL MANAGEMENT
 Bladder decompression: Using a finger inserted into the rectum and massaging a
urethral urolith toward the vagina may dislodge the urolith in female dogs.
 Retrohydropropulsion: It may be used to propel urethral stones back into the

bladder in both male and female dogs. A catheter is placed in the urethra distal to the
stone, and sterile saline or a combination of sterile saline and a 1 : 1 mixture of
aqueous lubricant (e.g., Liquid paraffin) is injected while the urethra between the
stone and the bladder is occluded by a finger in the rectum (or the vagina in fe-
males). Once the urethra is dilated, digital pressure is removed in the hope of flush-
ing the stone into the bladder. A urethral catheter is left in place until the animal can
be taken to surgery for a cystotomy. Stones that cannot be hydropropulsed into the
bladder are removed via urethrotomy (Bojrab et al 2014).
 Voiding urohydropropulsion: It may remove small cystoliths in male or female

dogs. Under general anesthesia, a urethral catheter is placed and the bladder filled
with sterile saline. The dog is then held upright for several minutes to allow stones to
settle in the trigone and the proximal urethra. The bladder is then forcefully ex-
pressed.
 Cystoscopic retrieval: By using a flexible endoscope and basket can be per-

formed for small stones in male and female dogs, but its use is dependent on the
size of the animal and the availability of equipment. Laparoscopically assisted
cystotomy allows removal of stones with a smaller skin incision than occurs in
traditional cystotomy (Lulich et al 2016).
 It is always preferred to flush the urethral calculi into the bladder so that cystotomy
(rather than urethrotomy) can be performed.
TREATMENT AND PREVENTION
S. Urolith Treatment Options Prevention

No. Type
1. Struvite • Surgical removal (control infection • Monitor urine pH and urine
first, if possible) sediment
• Voiding hydropropulsion if stones are • Must prevent and eliminate
small enough urinary tract infection.
• Keep urine pH <6.5, BUN <10
mg/dl, and urine specific
gravity <1.020
2. Calcium • Surgical removal • Administer potassium citrate
oxalate • Voiding hydropropulsion if stones are to achieve urine pH ≥7.0; do not
small enough supplement vitamins C or D
• Resistant to dissolution • Increase water consumption
Reduce protein intake
3. Urate • Surgical removal • Allopurinol if necessary
• Voiding hydropropulsion if stones are • Correct congenital Porto
small enough Systemic Shunt or lower blood
• Dissolve stones using alkalinization ammonia concentrations
with sodium bicarbonate or potassium
citrate; administer allopurinol
4. Silicate • Surgical removal • Prevent consumption of dirt
5. Cystine • Surgical removal • Reducing protein intake with
Dissolve cysteine stones by urine alkalization, pH > 7.5
administering D-penicillamine or N-(2- (using potassium citrate or other
mercaptopropionyl)-glycine. alkalizing drugs) helps in
increasing cysteine solubility in
urine.
In conclusions, obstructive urolithiaisis is an emergency clinical entity. History,

clinical signs, hemato-biochemical alteration, radiography and ultrasonography helps in making
the diagnosis. Depending upon the type and site of urolith, medicinal or surgical intervention
is recommended.
References
Bojrab MJ, Waldron DR and Toombs JP (2014) Current techniques in small animal sur-
gery. 5th edition, Teton Newmedia, USA, pp: 464.
Lulich JP, Berent AC, Adams LG, Westropp JL, Bartges JW and Osborne CA (2016).
ACVIM Small Animal Consensus recommendations on the treatment and prevention of
uroliths in dogs and cats. Journal of Veterinary Internal Medicine, 30: 1564-1574.
Tion MT, Dvorska J and Saganuwan SA (2015). A review on urolithiasis in dogs and cats.
Bulgarian Journal of Veterinary Medicine 18(1): 1-18.
A SIMPLE METHOD OF PRESERVING RUMINANT STOMACH

OF GOAT FOR TEACHING AND DEMONSTRATION
DEVENDRA PATHAK, OPINDER SINGH, NEELAM BANSAL,
VARINDER UPPAL AND ANURADHA GUPTA
DEPARTMENT OF VETERINARY ANATOMY
Teaching of anatomy requires fresh specimen, teaching models and visual aids. A
simple method was developed for preparation of air-dried inflated three-dimensional model
of rumen. Stomach was fixed, washed and dehydrated. Dehydrated samples were inflated
using bicycle pump and air-dried. A rectangular-shaped area was removed to make win-
dows in rumen, reticulum, omasum and abomasum. The prepared specimen was similar to
the fresh specimen with respect to external surface features and internal surface struc-
tures. The method involved few chemicals. Dried specimen can be stored for longer period
of time without any change in their appearance. This method is very easy and also cost
effective.
Introduction
Anatomy is one of the most important and core subjects of veterinary curriculum
because understanding the structure and function of anatomical structures form the foun-
dation of the veterinary science. To be a qualified veterinarian, it is essential to know the
anatomical structures at various developmental stages of the animals. Knowledge of gross
anatomy forms the basis of physical examination, age determination, collection of blood
samples, per rectal examination, artificial insemination, pregnancy diagnosis, and various
surgical procedures. However, it has always been a difficult subject to teach and under-
stand anatomy, as it includes study of organs and systems with lot of descriptive
terminologies. The use of appropriate models, visual aids, or samples in the classroom
may be very valuable in teaching. With respect to the ruminantstomach, fresh specimens
are quite useful,but those of some species such as goats or With respect to the ruminant
stomach, fresh specimens are quite useful,but those of some species such as goats or
deer may be difficult to obtain orthe desired the normal shape is not alwayseasy to visual-
ize after fresh specimens have been partially dissected. Present method aimed at develop-
ing a simple method of preserving stomach of goat for teaching and demonstration.
Materials and methods
Fresh stomach of goat along with part of oesophageal tube and duodenal tubewas
collectedfrom slaughterhouse. It was cleaned properly both from outside and inside using
tap water. After cleaning stomach samples were fixed in 10 percent formalin solution for
four days. Fixed stomach was again washed with tap water to remove adhered formalin.
Stomach specimen was dehydrated with alcohol two changes for two hours each. The
oesophageal end of the tube was tied with valve which is used for bicycle wheel tyre. The
duodenal end of the digestive tube was tightly tied to ensure no leakage of the air. The
bicycle pump was used to inflate the stomach through the valve tied toward the oesopha-
geal end.The inflated stomach was left on the dissection table to get air-dried. The speci-
men became dried in five to seven days. A regular examination was made to the drying
specimen and the any deflation due to slow leakage of air was compensated with further
pumping of air. Air-dried specimen was ready for making opening in all the four compart-
ments to make it enable to visualize the internal structures. A layer of varnish was applied
over the surface to make it durable. A rectangular-shaped area was removed to make
windows in rumen, reticulum, omasum, and abomasum.
Results and discussion
The present method resulted in a three-dimensional model of ruminant stomach of

goat with all the four compartments (Fig.1a). External surface features and counters of
rumen were clearly visible. The rumen papillae were seen similar to normal fresh ruminal
internal surface (Fig.1b). The honeycomb pattern of the reticulum was exactly similar to the
fresh specimen (Fig.1c). The omasal leaves (Fig.1d) and abomasal folds (Fig.1e) were
also seen similar to the original fresh specimen.
The present preparation of model was very simple and required only limited low-
cost chemicals. The specimen can be used for the study purpose whenever required. It
has an advantage over the formalin-fixed specimen as it is free from any chemical which is
toxicant. Similar methods had been reviewed by Church (1968). Updike and Holladay (1986)
described the method of preparation of flexible models of hollow gastrointestinal organs by
coating air-dried organs with a commercially available clear plastic compound. The plastic
infiltrated the full thickness of organ walls to support and protect internal as well as external
structures. Models prepared by them were flexible, resistant to fluids, and lightweight. This
technique was similar to our but use of plastic compound increases the cost. Our method
was similar into the technique described by McKiernan and Kneller (1983) for the prepara-
tion of inflated air dried Lung specimens. Slightly modified method was reported by Ramkrishna
and Leelavathy (2017) for hollow organs like stomach, intestine and lungs. The method
described the use simple balloons to prepare stomach and intestine; and air compressor
pump for lung.
Fig.1. Ruminant stomach model: a. whole stomach depicting all the compartments, b. rumen with ruminal papillae,
c. reticulum with honey comb like interior structure, d. Omasum with omassal leaves, e. Abomasum with folds in
interior surface.
Many of the anatomists described the plastination method of preserving the hollow
gastrointestinal organs. Holladay (1989) described the technique for plastination of large
animal hollow gastrointestinal organs in a life-like, inflated position. Pond et al., (1992)
concluded that preservation by plastic coating or plastinationwill permit permanent docu-
mentation of the effectsof experimental treatments or diseases onwhole organs and tis-
sues. In addition, bothtechniques were found to be valuable tools for thesubsequent study
of organs and tissues fromresearch specimens.Plastination based preservation technique
was also developed by Benevengaet al. (1969) for ruminant stomach model preparation
and fibreglass technique for preparation of natural models of ruminant stomach was devel-
oped by Kitchellet al. (1961).
Present method of rumen model was simple, very easy and also cost effective and
resulted in a good teaching and demonstration medel.
References
Benevenga NJ, Schmidt SP, Laben RC. 1969. Preparation of the ruminant stomach for
classroom demonstration. Journal of dairy science. 52(8):1294-1295.
Church DC. 1968. A simple method for preserving the ruminant stomach. Journal of Animal
Science. 27(6):1525-1526.
Holladay SD. 1989. Plastination of inflated hollow gastrointestinal organs from large ani-
mals. J Int Soc Plastination. 3(1):34-37.
Kitchell RL, Turnbull J, Nordine RA, Edgell SC. 1961. Fiberglass technique for preparation
of natural models of the ruminant stomach. Journal of the American Veterinary Medical
Association.138:329.
McKiernan BC, Kneller SK. 1983. A simple method for the preparation of inflated air dried
Lung specimens. Veterinary Radiology. 24(2):58-62.
Pond KR, Holladay SD, Luginbuhl JM. 1992. Preservation of tissues and gastrointestinal
tract portions by plastic coating or plastination. Journal of animal science. 70(4):1011-
4.
Ramkrishna V and Leelavathy N. 2017.New innovative method to prepare dry hollow or-
gans and lungs.Journal of Dental and Medical Sciences.16(9):81-83.
Updike SJ, Holladay SD. 1986.Preparation of flexible models of hollow gastrointestinal
organs. The Anatomical Record. 216(2):207-10.
MEETING DRINKING WATER REQUIREMENTS OF ANIMALS

JASMINE KAUR, R.S. GREWAL AND JASWINDER SINGH
DEPARTMENT OF ANIMAL NUTRITION
Water is by far most critical of nutrients and an indispensable necessity for body.
Animal will succumb to water deprivation sooner than to starvation.Animal can shed almost
all fat and about half of its protein and yet live but losing 10 per cent of body water will cause
restlessness, trembling, weakness, and 20 per cent loss will cause death.An adequate
drinking water supply is an essential component of cattle production. Producers need to be
concerned with the amount of water supplied and the quality of that water. The water needs
of livestock are filled from three major sources:
1 Free drinking water
2 Water contained in feed

3 Metabolic water produced by oxidation of organic nutrients
The catabolism of 1 kg of fat, carbohydrate, or protein produces 1190, 560, or 450

g of water, respectively. Metabolic water is important to all animals, particularly those
residing in dry environments. The first two sources are of major concern in the manage-
ment of livestock, although in periods of negative energy balance, i.e., when depot fat and
tissue protein are being utilized, metabolic water would be important. Water contained in the
feed is extremely variable. It may range from a low of 5 percent in dry grains to about 90
percent in young, fast-growing grasses/fodders. In addition, the amount of dew or precipi-
tation on the grass at the time of grazing is subject to wide fluctuations. In the case of swine
and poultry, diets are blended from dry ingredients and intake of water in a feed accounts
for about 10 percent of the total feed intake.
Factors Affecting Water Intake
There are numerous factors that influence the intake of free water, such as animal
species, physiological condition of the animal, level of dry matter intake, physical form of
the diet, water availability, quality of water, temperature of the water offered, and ambient
temperature.Zebu cattle may have a lower intake of water than European breeds. Water
intake per kilogram of dry matter consumed may be as much as 40 percent less for sheep
than cattle. Young calves generally have higher intakes of water per kilogram of DM con-
sumed than the older cattle . During the last 4 months of pregnancy, cows may consume
30 percent more water than when dry and open. When cattle on grazing have water
available free choice, they drink 2 to 5 times per 24 h. Physical form of the diet influences
water consumption. When the same forage crop was made into both hay and silage,
Holstein heifers on the silage diet had higher total water intake (free + feed) and secreted
more urine than heifers on hay alone. Protein and salt levels in the diet will also influence
water consumption.
Factors Affecting Water Quality
Some of the most common factors that reduce water quality are described below:
1 Bacteria, Viruses and Parasites

Bacteria, viruses and parasites are common in reservoirs that collect runoff from a
manure source to which livestock have direct access. There is a large variety of these
organisms that can cause a number of different symptoms and production losses. Calves
are provided some immunity through their mother’s milk, but are still susceptible to high
concentrations of pathogens. Mature cattle often have built-in resistance to many of these
contaminants, but the introduction of an uncommon pathogen can rapidly spread through
the herd causing very serious diseases. Water contaminated by feces can transmit many
disease-causing organisms such as E. coli, Cryptosporidia, Salmonella, and Leptospira
The easiest way to minimize pathogens in water is to prevent inflow from manure sources
and prevent direct entry of animals. The sun’s ultraviolet rays are effective in killing patho-
gens in water that is relatively clear.
2 Total Dissolved Solids

Total dissolved solids (TDS), or salinity, refers to the mineral quantities in water.
TDS includes common salts such as sodium chloride, calcium, magnesium, sulphates and
bicarbonates. Livestock have an ability to adapt to saline water to some extent, but abrupt
changes may cause harm. The main symptom from ingesting saline water is diarrhea. If
TDS is high enough, cattle may avoid drinking the water for several days, followed by a
period of high consumption, which causes illness or even death. Water with TDS higher
than 5,000 milligrams/litre should not be used for lactating or pregnant cows. Most animals
will reduce intake at this level. Water with TDS greater than 7,000 mg/L is unsuitable for
cattle.
3 Nitrates
Nitrates are occasionally found in groundwater that has been contaminated by

manure or fertilizer. Nitrates themselves are not very toxic, but bacteria in ruminant ani-
mals convert the nitrates to nitrite which reduces the blood’s ability to metabolize oxygen
and effectively causes shortness of breath and eventual suffocation. Nitrate toxicity result-
ing exclusively from water is rare, but is primarily of concern when combined with forages
having high nitrate levels. A combination of nitrates in feed and water can reach toxic levels
and result in death as quickly as three to five hours after consumption. Recommended
limits of total nitrates plus nitrites in water for cattle is 100 mg/L as nitrogen (N) or 450 mg/
L as nitrates (NO3).
Water Requirements
Water requirements are influenced by the species, dietary and environmental fac-
tors. Water consumption is related to dry matter intake. The larger the proportion of
indigestedmatter the greater is the loss of faces and water along with faces. Water require-
ments increase with the level of roughage. In general, water requirement in the tropics
varies between 3.0 to 6.0 litres for each kg of dry matter consumed by the non-lactating
animals, depending upon the ambient temperature varying from 5°C to 42°C. These amounts
are higher in pregnant and lactating animals. Water consumption increases due to the
presence of mineral salts, particularly sodium chloride in the feed and ingestion of high
protein feed because of increased urinary excretion. Demand for water intake increases
with increasing air temperature to counteract the respiratory and sweat losses.
Voluntary intake of drinking water includes following purposes:
i Maintenance :28 kg approx..

ii For milk production: 3.0 liter water for every litre of milk.
Washing, cleaning of barn, animal and utensils requires 50-70 litre/day. Total need
of water per cow is about 110 litre/day. Total need of water per buffalo is about 130 to 150
litre/day. Some researchers speculate that cattle are sensitive to certain taste and odour.
Manure in the water will impact its taste and odour. Cattle have shown a preference to drink
at clean water sources over contaminated ones. Cattle will not reduce consumption of
contaminated water until manure exceeds 0.25 per cent in the water. Iron and manganese
can also affect the odour and taste of water. Thus, it is crucial to maintain a clean, fresh
water supply to maintain health and performance of animals.
References
Anonymous. 2015. Water Quality Impacts on Livestock. I:\water quality\Water Quality Im-
pacts on Livestock - Agriculture and Agri-Food Canada (AAFC).mht
Anonymous.Water Supply to Dairy Animals on Farm.http://www.yourarticlelibrary.com/dairy-

farm-management/water-supply-to-dairy-animals-on-farm/36207.
NRC.1981. Effect of environment on nutrient requirements of domestic animals. National

Academy Press, Washington, DC.
GENDER MAINSTREAMING IN LIVESTOCK FARMING: A KEY

STRATEGY FOR SUSTAINABLE LIVESTOCK DEVELOPMENT
Y.S JADOUN, JASWINDER SINGH, KULVINDER SINGH, H K VERMA AND
SK KANSAL
“If you want something said, ask a man; if you want something done, ask a woman.”
Margaret Thatcher
FAO (1998) defines gender as the relation between men and women, both percep-
tual and material. Gender is not determined biologically as a result of sexual characteristics
of either women or men, but it is constructed socially. It is a central organising principle of
societies, and often governs the processes of production and reproduction, consumption
and distribution. India is an agriculture based country and livestock sector is an integral
component of it. It is a source of food, income, employment and foreign exchange. For
small income producers, it provides draught power and organic fertilizer for crop produc-
tion; serves as store of wealth and means of transportation as well (Garcia, et al., 2006).
About 90% of livestock is owned by small farmers and landless rural households. These
small holders, especially the landless livestock holders, are extensively dependent on in-
come from the sale of milk an d animals to meet their daily household expenses. Even in
the mixed farming systems, livestock is the main source of income for rural households
and a source of productive employment for the poor.
The livestock production is largely in the hands of women and they are performing
phenomenal work in the rural areas (Waters Bayers, 1985). Most of the livestock activities
are incomplete without the assistance of women. Economic Survey 2017-18 says that with
growing rural to urban migration by men, there is ‘feminisation’ of agriculture sector, with
increasing number of women in multiple roles as cultivators, entrepreneurs, and labourers.
In fact animal husbandry is becoming feminized and they contribute 60 to 80% of labour in
the animal husbandry (Younas et al., 2007). They undertake various activities of livestock
management such as fodder collection, grazing of animals, care of animals, feeding, water-
ing, and health care, management, milking, cleaning of animal sheds etc. Their involvement
in the post-harvest operations like household-level processing, value addition is the exclu-
sive responsibilities of women. They also prepare cooking fuel by mixing dung with twigs
and crop residues. So one can say rural women remain busy from dawn to dusk in various
agricultural activities and livestock management.
Women constitute around 50% of the global population. A large number of women
around the world are unwaged. The world economy suffers a lot because of a dispropor-
tionate opportunity for women at work places. In India, concept of gender sensitization is of
recent origin. Women have become aware about their rights and situations and entered in
different fields of business. They have established their own successful business empires.
They are contributing towards the growth of economy and improvement of their socio
economic conditions. Government of India has given due importance to gender sensitization
and women empowerment in the country (Borkar et al. 2017)
Concept of Gender Mainstreaming and Women Empowerment

Gender mainstreaming is an approach to policy-making that takes into account
both women’s and men’s interests and concerns. The concept of gender mainstreaming
was first introduced at the 1985 Nairobi World Conference on Women. Women have un-
dergone a radical transformation from merely a homemaker to a dynamic multifaceted
personality contributing to the socio-economic growth worldwide. As per NSSO, the present
share of workforce in agriculture, livestock, forestry and fishery is more than 50 % in all
states. Despite considerable involvement and contribution of women in the society, their
contribution has not been duly acknowledged. Significant gender inequalities also exist in
access to technologies, credit, information, inputs and services probably because of ineq-
uities in ownership of productive assets including land and livestock. The process of creat-
ing this knowledge and awareness ‘of’ and responsibility ‘for’ gender among professionals
enabling them to address gender issues in appropriate and most effective ways is called
‘gender mainstreaming’. Mainstreaming is not about adding a “woman’s component” or
even a “gender equality component” into an existing activity. It goes beyond increasing
women’s participation; it means bringing the experience, knowledge, and interests of women
and men in any policy, programme, reform or activity or any developmental agenda.
Similarly, women empowerment refers to the creation of an environment for women

where they can take decisions of their own for their personal benefits as well as society. It
is an active, multidimensional process which enables women to realize their potential and
powers in all spheres of life including economic empowerment. Economic empowerment is
nothing but making women aware about their role /importance in economic development
and provide them space for attaining financial independence and account their significant
contributions in an enterprise.
Livestock & Rural Women
In India, women in animal husbandry and livestock sector constitute 69 percent of

the labor force as against 35 percent in crop farming (Economic Survey 2002-03).They
form the backbone of agriculture & allied activities, comprising the majority of agricultural
labourers and play a significant & crucial role in agriculture and livestock developmental
activities. Livestock production is largely in the hands of women. In fact animal husbandry
is becoming feminized Women do a bulk of livestock related activities like fodder collection,
feeding, health care of animals, watering, milking and household level processing (Planning
Commission, 2012). Women accounted for 93% of total employment in dairy production
(Qureshi et al. 2016). Depending upon the economic status, women perform the tasks
Such as fodder collection, feeding, watering, and health care, management, milking and
household-level processing, value addition and marketing etc. are performed by women.
Despite of their significant role & considerable involvement and contribution in livestock
management & production, women’s control over livestock and its products is negligible
and there is significant gender inequalities exist in access to technologies, credit, informa-
tion, inputs and services probably because of inequities in ownership of productive assets
including land and livestock. Therefore, there is a need to correct gender bias in livestock
sector, veterinary education, research and service delivery systems as to enhance the
effectiveness of women-oriented livestock development programs.
How to develop women entrepreneurs through livestock sector?

Right efforts on from all areas are required in the development of women entrepre-
neurs and their greater participation in the livestock based entrepreneurial activities. Fol-
lowing efforts can be taken into account for effective development of women entrepreneurs
in livestock sector.
• Consider women as specific target group for livestock based developmental program-
mers.
• Vocational training to be extended to women community that enables them to under-

stand the production process and production management.
• Adequate training programmed on management skills to be provided to women commu-

nity.
• Encourage women’s participation in decision-making.

• Training on professional competence and leadership skills should be given to women
entrepreneurs.
• Training and counselling on a large scale of existing livestock related women entrepre-
neurs to remove psychological causes like lack of self-confidence and fear of success.
• Better educational facilities and schemes should be extended to women folk from gov-
ernment part.
• Continuous monitoring and improvement of animal husbandry related training program-
mers.
• Activities in which women are trained should focus on their marketability and profitability.
• To encourage more passive women entrepreneurs the women training programs should
be organized.
• Counselling through the aid of committed NGOs, psychologists, managerial experts and
technical personnel should be provided to existing and emerging livestock women entre-
preneurs.
Gender Mainstreaming through Livestock Entrepreneurship
Entrepreneur associated to livestock farming /business, production of livestock

related raw materials and livestock related processing industries is considered as
livestock entrepreneur. In other terms, a person who is linked directly or indirectly to the
animal husbandry or livestock sector is referred as livestock entrepreneur.
1 Dairy Sector
Since the dairy industry has become more consumer oriented due to health con-
sciousness and increase in purchasing power leads to development of innovative practices
of organized retailing, supply chain management, balanced product portfolio, product de-
velopment. It leads to increase demand for milk and milk products in recent years. Dairy
farming is one of the important enterprises which dominate the economic activities of the
woman in the rural areas of India. Women accounted for 93% of total employment in dairy
production. Depending upon the economic status, women perform the tasks of collecting
fodder, watering, feeding and other animal management activities. Therefore, it serves as a
profitable enterprise for rural women as they are well aware about animal behaviour and
production characteristics.
Women can be guided for small scale dairy farming and commercial dairy busi-
ness. They can start their own dairy farms by rearing small number of animals and with
proper business plan, scientific management and care can ensure maximum production
and profit from dairy farming business. If woman has to expand her dairy enterprise on a
commercial basis successfully, she has to adopt new and modern dairy farming tools, time
and energy saving tools/ drudgery reducing technologies, etc. As there is more than 60%
fodder deficit in India, they can also start seed /fodder banks in the potential areas. Women
can combine together, purchase fertile land and produce quality fodder and supply them to
the nearby livestock farmers. For this they need to undergo specialized trainings from
various organisations.
2 Goat Rearing
High demand for goat and its products with potential of good economic returns
have been deriving many progressive farmers to take up the goat enterprise on a commer-
cial scale. Goat is mainly reared for milk, meat, sale of breeding stock as an income
source. This versatility allows the producer to plan and operate a more stable economic
production unit. In many parts of the India, some of the goat breeds are raised for fiber,
meat, and milk and cheese production. In general, the role of women in goat keeping is very
significant in the rural families and goat is the most important means through which rural
women are able to contribute meaningfully to the cash needs for her and their family
members. Most of the activities like sale/purchase of goat, grazing of goats, feeding and
watering, care of kids, cleaning of pen and household maintenance, milking of goats, health
management and breeding management of goats were performed mainly by women. Thus,
goat rearing is the most useful way of women’s earning those who stay at home. Among
the livestock livelihood, goats are more economical than cattle as they are less investment
oriented. An increased level of adoption of technologies and availability of good quality

breeding stock would be essential to make the commercial goat farming more successful.
Simultaneously, emerging favourable market conditions and easy accessibility to improved
goat technologies are also making this enterprise a profitable venture for these women.
3 Poultry Sector
Poultry farming is an important livestock activity for rural women as it generates
cash income and provides employment opportunities and improves household nutrition.
Rural women are primarily responsible for the care and management of the bird under
backyard poultry systems. Poultry rearing has significant advantages over other livestock
activities to rural women, because: it is easy to manage and can be taken up under diver-
sified agro-climatic conditions. It can provide quick returns and constant source of income
throughout the year, as it enjoys good market demand and prices. Backyard Poultry Farm-
ing (BYPF) enhances women’s social status and decision-making power in the household
by increasing women’s income and can be used as a tool to reduce poverty in rural areas.
The BYPF rearing had shown a remarkable impact on women’s livelihoods across the
country. Since women got to deal with different people while purchasing and marketing
birds or eggs, these women slowly gained confidence. Various centrally and state govern-
ment sponsored schemes are promoted for empowering the BPL families mainly the women
farmers e.g National Livestock Mission (NLM), Rural Backyard Poultry Development (RBPD)
which covers beneficiaries from BPL families to enable them to gain supplementary income
and nutritional
4 Aquaculture
The Indian aquaculture is mainly male-dominated and that is largely because it
involves fieldwork, travel and living in remote areas. But it has increased significantly with
the emergence of fish processing as a growth area within the manufacturing sector in the
past years. A recent FAO study found that women’s involvement in rural aquaculture had
led to a 10- 20% increase in fish production and almost all women fish farmers shown a
significant improvement in their socioeconomic conditions. Women play a major role in
aquaculture production as labourers and managers of the production process: fishing,
processing and marketing. Women form the core of the industrial fisheries labour force
through their involvement in postharvest or processing activities. The involvement of women
in these activities generates supplemental income to support their families. Some of the
government agencies, NGOS, NABARD, NFDB have identified several fisheries technolo-
gies, which could facilitate women to become entrepreneurs and enhance their incomes.
The various fields that can be chosen by women entrepreurs in this sector are mainly
composite fish culture prawn culture, integrated fish culture along with horticulture and
animal husbandry, backyard hatcheries, fish-feed manufacturing, fish marketing (whole-
sale/retail), fish processing and packaging, value addition, net mending/repairs, ornamental
fish farming etc. Financial support to these enterprises is provided by NABARD through a
rural credit system which provides capital for short-term production/marketing activities,
and medium term and long-term loans for technically feasible and financially viable projects
through State Cooperative Banks, State Cooperative Agriculture, and Rural Development
Banks, Regional Rural Banks and Commercial Banks.
Approaches and Strategies for Gender Mainstreaming through Livestock Sector
1 Access to financial services and financial literacy
Lack of access to credit was a major constraint for poor women workers to de-
velop any economic activity. Public banks were not adapted to these women who were
mainly illiterate, had no collateral and little knowledge about how to use or manage credit
efficiently. Rural Bank or cooperative-type bank are the right choice that targets poor
women from the informal sector. Its main objective is to help women come out of poverty
by providing them with financial services adapted to their situation and capacities. These
Bank designed financial products to meet the women’s needs and the bank created a door-
to-door service so that savings could be collected regularly without requiring the women to
travel to the bank. The services provided by the bank help women avoid exploitative mon-
eylenders build their own savings, assets and learn about financial and business manage-
ment. Along with this awareness should be created about various credit facilities, financial
incentives and subsidies through various channels. Government and NGOs offered vari-
ous schemes and opportunity to the rural entrepreneurs. But, they are unaware of these
schemes and opportunities due to their illiteracy. So they should to be educated by the
conducting workshops and seminars related to their business. Financial institutions like
ICICI, SIDBI, IDBI, IFCI, and SFC should also be encouraged to provide finance to rural
entrepreneurs with low rate of interest and limited collateral security with liberal terms and
conditions. Simulteously, rural women could be motivated to avail finances from these
kinds of institutions for starting the entrepreneurial activities.
2 Promotion of Livestock based Self Help Groups (SHGs)
The SHGs are voluntary associations of people formed to attain some common
goals. Members in SHG agree to save regularly and convert their savings into a common
fund and to use this common fund for management and business activities. The biggest
problem with the SHGs is increasing substantially in rural areas as majority of them are
unorganized. These groups are mobilizing thrift deposits, but unable to receive timely,
matching and revolving funds to generate employment activities to earn their livelihood. To
overcome these constrains SHGs are being actively promoted by government of India
through Ministry of Rural Development and Employment, RBI, NABARD, DRDA, Line De-
partments of State Governments, NGOs, etc at various capacities. NABARD has been
working as a catalyst in promoting and linking more and more SHGs to the banking sys-
tem. Simultaneously the SHG should be promoted to adopt latest technologies to thrive in
various market and that could be only possible if they are provided with extension and
training support on a sustained manner. Therefore, there is a need for the extension work-
ers, researchers and technologists to provide a helping hand to them.
3 Establishing milk cooperative societies for women at village level
Women dairy Cooperatives (WDC) may serve as good option for rural women to
become more empower as they are authorised to make their own decision outside the
home. Most of the women dairy co-operatives in India are based on the principle of
maximization of farmer profit and productivity through cooperative effort. This pattern,
known as the Anand Pattern, is an integrated cooperative structure that procures, proc-
esses, and markets produce. (Datta and Ganguly, 2002). The dairy activity is now largely
based upon a three tier system under which, the primary village cooperative societies of
women are linked with district union and state federation which are guided by the national
co-operative dairy federation in India. For eg. Gujarat Co-Operative Milk Marketing Federa-
tion – AMUL, Karnataka Milk Federation – NANDINI, Rajasthan Co-Operative Dairy Fed-
eration– SARAS, Bihar Milk Federation– SUDHA, Tamilnadu Co-operative Milk Producers’
Federation Limited–Aavin.
4. Women based Producer’s Organizations
A Producer Organisation (PO) is a legal entity formed by primary producers, viz.
farmers, milk producers, fishermen, weavers etc. A PO can be a producer company, a
cooperative society or any other legal form which provides sharing of benefits among the
members. As small producers are not able to harness the benefit of economies of scale.
Besides in livestock marketing, there is a long chain of intermediaries who very often work
non-transparently leading to the situation where the producer receives only a small part of
the value that the ultimate consumer pays. Therefore, through aggregation the groups of
women producer can avail the benefit of economies of scale. They will also have better
bargaining power vis-à-vis the bulk buyers of produce and bulk suppliers of inputs. Promot-
ing Livestock based producers organization run by women ensures investment of various
stake holders involved in animal husbandry sector to improve the production and profitabil-
ity. Creation of a separate label for women’s products which can give women greater
recognition for their work, and develop a sense of pride and ownership of their products.
Similarly, Promotion of value addition to the livestock products such as milk, egg, meat,
and fish has huge profit potential. Value of the products get increased many folds during
processing, and thereby provide excellent returns. Women can start their own milk parlour,
where they can sell processed milk and milk products like flavoured milk, khoa, ice cream,
paneer, shrikhnad, curd, gulabjamun, whey milk, ghee etc. or meat centre where fried
chicken, chicken, mutton keema, etc. could be sold. Marketing of these values added
products could be done in their own brand name and they can start chain of parlours/hotels
thereafter. Women may also opt for converting farm wastes (dung, urine, wasted fodder
etc.) especially of local or deshi cows to produce biogas, vermicompost plant elixirs and
pesticides etc. and sold as products that have higher market values. NABARD provides
financial support to these POs through “Producers Organisation Development Fund”. Gov-
ernment of India provides budgetary support to these POs for its Equity Grant and Credit
Guarantee Fund Scheme for the Farmer Producer Company. For creation of storage and
other agricultural marketing infrastructure under the Integrated Scheme for Agricultural
Marketing (Ministry of Agriculture, Government of India), FPOs are eligible to get higher
subsidies. CAPART, Ministry of Rural Development also operates schemes through which
support for some activities can be obtained by the PO.
5 Promotion of organized farm and dairy/meat/egg market

Understanding the market and preparing it to respond to emerging market trends
would be the prime instrument for enhancing the women livelihood opportunities in the
livestock sector. Rural women entrepreneurs are facing tough competition from the large
scale organizations and urban entrepreneurs. The women producers are not collective in
their approach for marketing their products because they are to widely scattered and
mostly uneducated. The women entrepreneurs are heavily dependent on middlemen for
marketing of their products who pocket large amount of profit. Government should take
steps to provide market information of different products and finance to the rural entrepre-
neurs at concessional rates. They should be encouraged to have a regular income by
providing market-related and technical support and identifying local and national marketing
opportunities. Innovative technology should be publicly announced in order to get its ac-
ceptance among the rural entrepreneurs. Assess to infrastructural and storage facilities
and means of transport are other means of marketing to be supported to these women in
rural areas. Integrated marketing services should be provided to the rural producers through
exploring, developing and establishing first the internal (local market) and then the national
market for their products. Various models like rural haat, trade fairs, livestock fairs etc
facilitate linkages with markets and private companies should be promoted for showcasing
their products. The promotion, protection and branding of women products is an important
strategy to increase female participation and benefits within an organization. The various
market charges recovered from livestock dealers were registration fee, sales tax, toll tax
and certificate charges are to be made at concessional rates.
6 Support services
Information about support system is a must for an enterprise. In short-term it is the
information which helps in-sound decision making. The information could be on infrastruc-
ture facilities, incentives available, financial tie-ups, availability of raw materials, tax con-
cessions, etc. Innovative institutional and operational mechanisms and business models
need to be developed to enable small-scale producers, especially women, to seize market
opportunities along agricultural value chains, while taking into account issues of gender-
based power inequalities and access to choices and resources. As livestock products are
intrinsically difficult to trade because they are perishable, so require freezing, canning,
drying, or processing of some sort to allow adequate shelf life to send to distant markets.
Provision of State of Art- Abattoir cum meat processing plants and cold storage facilities at
field level, establishment of custom hiring centres for the women, availability of quality
inputs in bulk through authenticated sources can promote more women entrepreneur in
this sector. Regional feed-fodder banks needs to be encouraged for milk production in
summer months when most Indian cattle and buffaloes go dry.
7 Strengthening women’s capacity and leadership skills
One of the most significant barriers faced by Indian women is their low level of
literacy as education is key to achieving self-reliance and fighting poverty. Building wom-
en’s capacity, especially leadership skills, is crucial to build women’s self-confidence. Vari-
ous organization have been developing tools and methodologies for strengthening the ca-
pacity of women to ensure that gender goals can be achieved and sustained in the long
run. Capacity development enables women to access information about various organiza-
tions and to become members, and to participate more actively in their activities as well as
decision making processes. On-farm technical trainings and extension services including
trainings on veterinary health care, clean milk production, improved feeding practices in-
volving local feed resources, better breeding and animal husbandry integrating the helpful
traditional practices. In addition they also need the skills to run their own business. These
include accounting skills, managerial skills and, marketing skills. Marketing management
skills should be improved among the rural entrepreneurs to face the problems of entrepre-
neurship. Entrepreneurship development cell should be established at all the villages level
to provide guidance and counselling to motivate the rural entrepreneurs regarding the use
of modern technology. Training institutions supported by the Ministry of Agriculture & Farmers’
Welfare, Ministry or Rural Development, Government of India (www. rural.nic.in) also im-
part skill and capacity building training which can be made use by these women entrepreurs.
8 Creating an enabling policy environment
Governments play an important role in creating the enabling environment so that
effective, inclusive and gender equitable organizations can flourish and act as important
contributors to poverty reduction and the achievement of food security. An enabling envi-
ronment will be a gender sensitive one when policies and legislation that directly or indirectly
recognize that women and men from various social groups have differentiated roles and
priorities; and therefore, adopt the appropriate measures so that all rural women and men
can participate in, and benefit from emerging opportunities (FAO, 2000). Therefore various
schemes and plans of government for the encouragement of women entrepreneurs should
be strongly executed at different levels. Policies should be flexible to facilitate local circum-
stances. The nature of enterprises to be established in rural areas must be conducive to
those areas in economic, social and environmental terms. Rural enterprise policy should
cover all types of rural enterprise. There should be consistency and co-ordination with
respect to the choice of rural enterprise locations.
Strategies and Approaches to Develop Women Entrepreneurs in Livestock Sector
Right efforts on from all areas are required in the development of women entrepre-
neurs and their greater participation in the livestock based entrepreneurial activities. Fol-
lowing strategies can be taken into account for effective development of women entrepre-
neurs in livestock sector.
 Consider rural women as specific target group for livestock based developmental pro-
grammers.
 Encourage women’s participation in decision-making.

 Adequate trainings on management skills, professional competence and leadership skills
to be extended to women community that enables them to understand the production
process and production management.
 Activities in which women are trained should focus on their marketability and profitability.
 Counselling through the aid of committed NGOs, psychologists, managerial experts and
technical personnel should be provided to existing and emerging livestock women entre-
preneurs.
 Helping women farmers to identify their production, processing & market related con-
straints through awareness, exposure, exchange of information through other women
farmers, extension officers and other stakeholders.
 Continuous contact with women farmers shall be established to provide knowledge &
information empower & facilitate them to demand & access services; redress their
concerns & grievances; and capture ground reality for use in policy making & improving
delivery through; Farmers portal, Kisan Call Centers, Common Service Centers, Short
message services and Community radio stations etc.
 Assisting women farmers to make best use of livestock technologies and good prac-
tices of improving livestock produce through capacity building.
 Establishing linkages through information source on livestock produce, new technolo-

gies and market related information such as, demand, supply and prices.
 Knowledge generators (public & private, formal & informal systems) should develop
knowledge portals for capturing, collating and disseminating knowledge through all chan-
nels including print & electronic media, farm journals, regular meets etc. for the women
farmers.
 Reaching out to and connecting women farmers and other stakeholders so that they
communicate with each other.
 Test all indigenous technical know-how (ITKs), identify women farmer innovators, rec-
ognize their skills and leverage for field extension as farmer consultants.
 Promotion of Livestock based Farmers Field Schools for the women farmers
 Demand-Driven or Farmer-led & Market–Led Extension Approach & Farmer to Farmer
Extension
 Introduction of ICT in delivery of extension messages and market information to the

women farmers/entrepreneurs.
 Establishment of proper Research-Extension-Farmer-Market-Linkage for the existing

and emerging livestock women entrepreneurs.
 A mechanism may be put in place to provide weekly/ daily personalized information (thru
SMS/MMS) to the women farmers through Veterinary Universities/ Departments of Ani-
mal Husbandry/ KVKs.
 A stakeholder directory of Institutions/ Agencies, Experts / Livestock Magazines/ Jour-

nals/ Newspapers / channels shall be prepared and linked on to Farmers Portal.
 A comprehensive livestock-knowledge portal may be designed and developed to host

information about the happenings/innovations in Livestock sector.
 The e-procurement of inputs and services required by the women farmers may be
promoted to give them negotiating power to get the livestock inputs at the most competi-
tive rates without transaction costs.
 Path-breaking methods such as Kala Jathas, Extension Buses can be tried success-
fully to deliver the message effectively on a large scale.
 Promotion of group approach

 Focus on nutritional value and new or unknown products
 The technical skills and ability of the women entrepreneurs should be evaluated
 Extension Agencies and Women Farmers Organizations should give wider publicity
 Encourage the women entrepreneurs by introducing various concessions and incen-
tives.
 Networks of women entrepreneurs may be established

 Promotion of direct marketing by establishing close interaction between producers and
consumers
 Promote organized road side display models milk and meat products for the existing and
emerging livestock women entrepreneurs.
Conclusion
Gender mainstreaming and gender sensitization is a challenge but through live-
stock based enterprises /ventures in rural area can help to meet these challenges. These
enterprises not only enhance national productivity, generate employment but also help to
develop economic independence, personal and social capabilities like; economic empower-
ment, improved standard of living, improvement in leadership qualities, involvement in solv-
ing problems related to women, decision making capacity in family and community, build-up
self confidence, increased social relations, political participation, increased participation in
various developmental programs and enhance awareness etc. amongst rural women.
Livestock women entrepreneurs may contribute significantly in rural and economic

development in India. However, lacks of suitable gender mainstreaming and gender
sensitization policies, supportive network, financial and marketing prospects may hamper
their entrepreneurial activities. National policies should be resolute in tackling this issue and
local bodies should ensure the implementation of these policies at the community level and
at last but not the least the rural women needs to be motivated to take up entrepreneurship
as a career, with training and sustaining support systems providing all necessary assist-
ance.
References
Anon. 1997 Gender Development and NABARD: a brochure of NABARD. National Bank for
Agricultural and Rural Development, Mumbai, India
Borkar, Sonali D. Joy,Shiny. Lahamge, Madhuri and Thakare, Ankita. 2017.Women Em-
powerment in Veterinary Field: A Review. International Journal of Scientific Research
and Management 5(1):5075-78.
Datta and Ganguly (2002). 38 July 2004 Journal of Food Distribution Research 35(2).
Devendra, C and Chantalakhana, C. 2002. Animals, poor people and food security:
opportunites for improving livelihoods through efficient natural resource management.
Outlook on agriculture 31 (3): 161-175.
FAO. 2000. Agriculture Tow (Rangnekar, 1994, Pandey, 2001), ANTHRA, 2005.
FAO (Food and Agriculture Organization of the United Nations) 1998. Gender and partici-
pation in agricultural development planning, FAO, Rome. http://www.fao.org/docrep/
X0254E/X0254E00.htm
Garcia O, Saha A, Mahmood K, Ndambi A, and Hemme T. 2006. Dairy development

programs in Andhra Pradesh, India: impacts and risk for small-scale dairy farms. Pro-
poor Livestock Policy Initiative Working Paper No 38
IFAD 2009. Gender in agriculture sourcebook: Gender and livestock module – Overview.
International Fund for Agricultural Development (IFAD), World Bank and the Food and
Agriculture Organization of the United Nations, Rome
Kishor N. Choudhary. 2011 ,Opportunities and challenges for rural women entrepreneur-
ship in India ,Variorum Multi- Disciplinary e-Research Journal, Vol.-01, Issue-III, Febru-
ary 2011.
Planning Commission Govt. of India. 2012. The Working Group on Animal Husbandry &
Dairying - 12th Five Year Plan.
Qureshi, Mehar Afroz. Khan, Pervez Ahmed and Uprit, Sudhir. 2016. Empowerment of
rural women through agriculture and dairy sectors in India. Economic Affairs 61(1): 75-
79.
MOBILE APPS
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Punjabi & English Language.
VIDEO CD’s
 Repeat Breeding in Dairy Animals

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Contact: Farmers’ Information Centre
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GADVASU, Ludhiana
Ph.: 0161-2414026, 2414005
GADVASU PUBLICATIONS
For More Information

Head, Department of Vety. A.H. Extn. Education
GADVASU, Ludhiana
Ph.: 0161-2414026, 2414005

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Vet Alumnus Vol. XXXXI (No.

1&2) December, 2019 1

Office bearers of the Alumni Association, College of Veterinary Science,

Founder President Late Dr. Balwant Singh

Members of the Executive Committee

Dr. S.S. Sidhu Dr. J.K. Gupta

Dr. H.K. Verma

GOLDEN JUBILEE CELEBRATIONS OF COVS

Now, Alumni association is celebrating golden jubilee of the COVS, Ludhiana.

COLLEGE OF VETERINARY SCIENCE: GLORIOUS 50 YEAR

Parkash Singh Brar

SINGLE CONCEPT SINGLE TRAINEE INCULCATION

GURU ANGAD DEV VETERINARY & ANIMAL SCIENCES UNIVERSITY, LUDHIANA

Traditional livestock farming is undertaken by majority of farmers in India, which

Directorate of Extension Education, Guru Angad Dev Veterinary and Animal

Reproduction problems of the dairy animals mostly pertain to repeat breeding,

tures have an advantage over common farmer,invest in knowledge through practitioners,

The dissemination of knowledge and technology to the farmers/livestock owners is

Livestock population trends in Punjab (Lakh)

1997 61.71 18.28 8.11 26.39

2003 59.95 15.31 5.09 20.40

2007 50.02 12.60 5.03 17.62

2012 51.60 20.65 3.63 24.28

2019 39.99 NA NA 25.19

Share of livestock in agricultural GDP over time (Rs Crore)

*36.40 % Livestock, 1.25 % fisheries

Note: Figures in parentheses indicate percentage to total state GD

the whole week.

9 Handy tools: GADVASU has developed management calendars (calf rearing,

13 Fire brigade Veterinary Services: Emergency

Major digitalized strategies of GADVASU are-

2 Mass Media- Radio, TV, newspaper, Cable network, Pvt. Channels.

3 Messages- Flash, Short and Advisory

4 Videos CD -Repeat Breeding, Anoestrus, Abortion, Calf Management

(c) Dairy Prajanan App (d) Pig farming

Farmer Friendly Approach for Better Dairy Productivity

TIPS TO MANAGE COLD STRESS IN DAIRY COWS

GURU ANGAD DEV VETERINARY AND ANIMAL SCIENCES UNIVERSITY, LUDHIANA

12 Under-ventilation in winter is most serious threat to the environment of the animal.

We can’t control the weather but we can do everything reasonably possible to

Anonymous. 2019. Digestive, metabolic and production responses to cold stress.

FARMER’S PRODUCER ORGANIZATION (FPOS): A KEY

GURU ANGAD DEV VETERINARY & ANIMAL SCIENCES UNIVERSITY, LUDHIANA

Agriculture is the primary source of livelihood for about 58 % of Indian population.

 Improved bargaining power and social capital building.

 Farmers get better access to latest markets and technology.

SWOT Analysis of FPOs

Opportunities: 1. Potential of SHGs, Farmer’s clubs, Farmer’s association etc. to be

Madhusudhan L (2015) Agriculture Role on Indian Economy. Bus Eco J 6:176.

NUTRITIONAL APPROACHES TO OBTAIN DESIRED MILK

GURU ANGAD DEV VETERINARY & ANIMAL SCIENCES UNIVERSITY, LUDHIANA

Close to 70% of milk sold in India is considered adulterated as it doesn’t conform to

other than genetics.

i Reduction of saturated fat in the milk

Feeding of unsaturated fats in an encapsulated or protected form results in

Management Factor Milk Fat % Milk Protein %

APPLIED ANATOMY OF HOOF IN DIFFERENT ANIMALS

GURU ANGAD DEV VETERINARY AND ANIMAL SCIENCES UNIVERSITY, LUDHIANA

• The perioplic segment (stratum externum)

• The coronary segment (stratum medium)