316 Types of Computers

Page 2 of 44
1 TYPES OF COMPUTERS
Since the advent of the first computer different types and sizes of computers are offering different
services. Computers can be as big as occupying a large building and as small as a laptop or a
microcontroller in mobile & embedded systems.
1.1 The four basic types of computers
Supercomputer
Mainframe Computer
Minicomputer
Microcomputer
Supercomputer
Microcomputers (personal computers)

The term “microcomputer” was introduced with the advent of systems based on single
chip microprocessors. The best-known early system was the Altair 8800, introduced in 1975. The
term "microcomputer" has practically become an anachronism.
These computers include:
 Desktop computers – A case put under or on a desk. The display may be optional,
depending on use. The case size may vary by much, determined by the required expansion
slots. Very small computers of this kind may be integrated into the monitor.
 Rackmount computers – Their cases fit into 19-inch racks, and may be space-optimized
and very flat. A dedicated set of display, computer and mouse may not exist, but a KVM
switch or built-in remote control (via LAN or other means) can be used to gain console
access.
 In-car computers (carputers) – Built into a car, for entertainment, navigation, etc.
 Game consoles – Fixed computers specialized for entertainment purposes (video games).
 Smaller microcomputers are also called mobile devices:
 Laptops and notebook computers – Portable and all in one case.
 Tablet computer – Like laptops, but with a touch-screen, entirely replacing the physical
keyboard.
 Smartphones, smartbooks, PDAs and palmtop computers – Small handheld computers
with limited hardware.
 Programmable calculator– Like small handhelds, but specialized on mathematical work.
 Handheld game consoles – The same as game consoles, but small and portable.
Computer Installation and Maintenance Ambali, M. J.

Page 3 of 44
Minicomputers (midrange computers)

Minicomputers (colloquially, minis) are a class of multi-user computers that lie in the middle
range of the computing spectrum, in between the smallest mainframe computers and the largest
single-user systems (microcomputers or personal computers). The
term superminicomputer or supermini was used to distinguish more powerful minicomputers that
approached mainframes in capability. Superminis (such as the DEC VAX or Data General Eclipse
MV/8000) were usually 32-bit at a time when most minicomputers (such as the PDP-11 or Data
General Eclipse or IBM Series/1) were 16-bit. These traditional minicomputers in the last few
decades of the 20th Century, found in small to medium-sized businesses, laboratories and
embedded in (for example) hospital CAT scanners, often would be rack-mounted and connect to
one or more terminals or tape/card readers, like mainframes and unlike most personal computers,
but require less space and electrical power than a typical mainframe. The contemporary term for
minicomputer is midrange computer, such as the higher-end SPARC, POWER and Itanium-based
systems from Oracle Corporation, IBM and Hewlett-Packard, and the size is now typically
smaller, such as a tower case. Popular Minicomputers are K-202, Texas Instrument TI-990, IBM
Midrange computers and SDS-92.
Mainframe computers
The term mainframe computer was created to distinguish the traditional, large, institutional
computer intended to service multiple users from the smaller, single user machines. These
computers are capable of handling and processing very large amounts of data quickly. Mainframe
computers are used in large institutions such as government, banks and large corporations. They
are measured in MIPS (million instructions per second) and can respond to hundreds of millions
of users at a time. Popular Mainframe computers are Fujitsu’s ICL VME and Hitachi’s Z800.
Supercomputers
A Supercomputer is focused on performing tasks involving intense numerical calculations such as
weather forecasting, fluid dynamics, nuclear simulations, theoretical astrophysics, and complex
scientific computations. A supercomputer is a computer that is at the front-line of current
processing capacity, particularly speed of calculation. The term supercomputer itself is rather fluid,
and the speed of today's supercomputers tends to become typical of tomorrow's ordinary computer.
Supercomputer processing speeds are measured in floating point operations per second, or FLOPS.
An example of a floating point operation is the calculation of mathematical equations in real
numbers. In terms of computational capability, memory size and speed, I/O technology, and
topological issues such as bandwidth and latency, supercomputers are the most powerful, are very
expensive, and not cost-effective just to perform batch or transaction processing. Transaction
processing is handled by less powerful computers such as server computers or mainframes. The
supercomputers are very expensive and very large in size. It can be accommodated in large air-
conditioned rooms; some super computers can span an entire building. They are mainly kept in a
cool environment for proper functions.

Page 4 of 44
Exascale Supercomputer
On 29th July, 2015, President of the United States, Barack Obama, approved the development of
an Exascale Super Computer. The Exascale Super computer will be 30 times faster and more
powerful than today’s fastest Super Computers. The need to develop such a high performance
Supercomputer comes after China’s surge in high performance computing. However, the US still
tops the list of Supercomputers with 233 high performance machines. China has 37
Supercomputers but they lead the list of the most powerful and high performance supercomputers
since June 2013.
1.2 CLASSES BY FUNCTIONS

Servers
Server usually refers to a computer that is dedicated to providing one or more services. For
example, a computer dedicated to a database may be called a "database server". "File servers"
manage a large collection of computer files. "Web servers" process web pages and web
applications. Many smaller servers are actually personal computers that have been dedicated to
provide services for other computers. A server is expected to be reliable (e.g. error-correction of
RAM; redundant cooling; self-monitoring, RAID), fit for running for several years, and giving
useful diagnosis in case of an error. For even increased security, the server may be mirrored
Terminal servers
These provide GUI sessions that can be used by client PCs that work someway like a remote
control. Only the screen (and audio) output is shown on the client. The GUI applications run on
the server, data (like in files) would be stored in the same LAN, thus avoiding problems, should a
client PC be damaged or stolen.
Virtual machines
A server may run several virtual machines (VMs) for different activities, supplying the same
environment to each VM as if it ran on dedicated hardware. Different operating systems (OS) can
therefore be run at the same time. This technology approach needs special hardware support to be
useful and was first the domain of mainframes and other large computers. Nowadays, most
personal computers are equipped for this task, but for long-term operation or critical systems,
specialized server hardware may be needed.
Another approach is to implement VMs on the operating system level, so all VMs run on the same
OS instance (or incarnation), but are fundamentally separated to not interfere with each other.
Workstations
Workstations are computers that are intended to serve one user and may contain special hardware
enhancements not found on a personal computer. By the mid 1990s personal computers reached
the processing capabilities of mini computers and workstations. Also, with the release of multi-
tasking systems such as OS/2, Windows NT and Linux, the operating systems of personal
computers could do the job of this class of machines.

Page 5 of 44
Information appliances
Information appliances are computers specially designed to perform a specific "user-friendly"
function—such as playing music, photography, or editing text. The term is most commonly
applied to mobile devices, though there are also portable and desktop devices of this class.
Embedded computers
Embedded computers are computers that are a part of a machine or device. Embedded computers
generally execute a program that is stored in non-volatile memory and is only intended to operate
a specific machine or device. Embedded computers are very common. Embedded computers are
typically required to operate continuously without being reset or rebooted, and once employed in
their task the software usually cannot be modified. An automobile may contain a number of
embedded computers; however, a washing machine and a DVD player would contain only one.
The central processing units (CPUs) used in embedded computers are often sufficient only for the
computational requirements of the specific application and may be slower and cheaper than CPUs
found in a personal computer.
1.3 CLASSES BY USAGE
Public computer
Computers that are open for public uses, possibly as an Interactive kiosk. They are normally fire-
walled to prevent abuse. Most are restricted to run only some pre-installed software. There are
many places one can use them, such as cybercafes, schools and libraries. There are normally
maintained in such a way that the operating system is difficult to change and/or resides on a file
server (in the case of, for example, "thin client" machines in educational establishments where the
system should be reset to its original state between classes). Public computers are not expected to
keep an individual's data files stored.
Personal computer
These are computers that are solely for one user (although the term has also come also mean any
computer hardware somewhat like the original IBM PC, irrespective of how it is used). This user
often may use all hardware resources, has complete access to any part of the computer and
has rights to install/remove software. Personal computers normally store person files on its disk or
non-volatile memory, and often the owner/user is responsible for routine maintenance such as
removing unwanted files and virus-scanning, but a personal computer in a business setting would
have staff and protocols to ensure important maintenance is carried out.
Shared computer
These are computers where different people might log on at different times; unlike public
computers, they would have usernames and passwords assigned on a long-term basis, with the
files they see and the computer's settings adjusted to their particular account. Often the important
data files will reside on a central file server, so a person could log onto different computers yet
still see the same files. The computer (or workstation) might be a "thin client" or X terminal,

Page 6 of 44
otherwise it may have its own disk for some or all system files, but usually will need to be
networked to the rest of the system for full functionality. Such systems normally require a system
administrator to set up and maintain the hardware and software.
Display computer
Computers that are used just to display selected material (usually audio-visual, or simple slide
shows) in a shop, meeting or trade show. These computers may have more capabilities than they
are being used for; they are likely to have WiFi and so be capable of Internet access, but are rarely
firewalled (but have restricted port access or monitored in some way). Such computers are used
and maintained as appliances, and not normally used as the primary store for important files.
1.4 CLASSED BY GENERATION

 First generation computers used vacuum tubes such as the 6J6[1] or specially designed tubes -
or even mechanical arrangements, and were relatively slow, energy-hungry and the earliest
computers were less flexible in their programmability.
 Second generation computers used discrete transistors, and so were smaller and consumed less
power.
 Third generation computers use Integrated Circuits, the main difference between hardware in
computers of the 1960s and today being the density of transistors in each IC (beginning
with Small Scale Integration chips like the Transistor-transistor
logic (TTL) SN7400 gates with 20 transistors, through Medium Scale Integration and Large
Scale Integration to Very-large-scale integration (VLSI) with over ten billion transistors in a
single IC "chip".
2 TROUBLESHOOTING
Troubleshooting requires an organized and logical approach to problems with computers and other
components. A logical approach to troubleshooting allows you to eliminate variables in a
systematic order. Asking the right questions, testing the right hardware, and examining the right
data helps in understanding the problem. This helps you form a proposed solution to try.
The following troubleshooting process is a guideline that can be modified to fit specific needs.
■ Explain the purpose of data protection.
■ Identify the problem.
■ Establish a theory of probable causes.
■ Test the theory to determine an exact cause.
■ Establish a plan of action to resolve the problem and implement the solution.

Page 7 of 44
■ Verify full system functionality, and if applicable, implement preventive measures.

■ Document findings, actions, and outcomes.
2.1 TOOLS USED IN TROUBLESHOOTING PROCESS

The instruments commonly used in electrical maintenance and repair are Ammeter, Voltmeter,
Wattmeter, Ohmmeter, Multimeter and The Cathode Ray Oscilloscope
THE AMMETER
An Ammeter measured current. Ammeter is connected in series as shown in Fig 6 - 1 and not
across the circuit. Current flowing through the circuit will thus flow through the ammeter.
Ammeter has a low resistance and should never be connected directly across the supply voltage.
Since there will be nothing to limit the current flow, the instrument could be damaged.
Fig 2 – 1: Ammeter connected in series with load

+ load
-
THE VOLTMETER
A voltmeter measured Electromotive Force E.M.F. and potential difference. The voltmeter is
therefore connected in parallel with the resistance as shown as fig.7.5. Voltmeter has high
resistance.
 +
-
load V
Fig 2 – 2: Voltmeter connected in parallel with the resistance

THE OHMMETER
An ohmmeter is a means of measuring resistance and is incorporated into most Multimeters. It
uses the same meter movement as the ammeter and voltmeter but zero is at opposite end of the
scale.
20
10
0 100
Fig 2 – 3: Scale for Ammeter
20
40
100 0
Fig 2 – 4: Scale for Ohmmeter

Page 8 of 44
 Meter
M
R
x y
Fig 2 – 5: Ohmmeter configuration (circuit for measuring resistance)
The circuit for ohmmeter is shown in figure 6 - 5 above it, incorporates a cell E and a variable
resistance R. A resistor connected across the terminal XY allowed current to flow, causing the
meter pointer to deflect, the amount by which the pointer deflect varies inversely with the value of
the resistance, for this reason, the resistance scale has zero at right hand side and the pointer deflect
more towards the left with increasing value of resistance.
Methods of using ohmmeter
The terminals XY are first shorted together and variable resistor R is adjusted until the resistance
reading on the meter is zero, the short is then removed and the unknown resistance is connected
across the terminal XY. The resistance value may be read directly from the scale.
THE MULTIMETER
This is a single instrument used for general faultfinding and to measure current (ac and dc), voltage
and resistance. A switch or plug on the meter enables the various full-scale values of current or
voltage to be chosen. The terminals of a meter or Multimeter are usually marked + and - (i.e.
positive and negative). Two types of Multimeter are available for use in electrical measurement
and instrumentation: the analogue Multimeter and Digital Multimeter.
Analogue Multimeter
This type of Multimeter employs the principles of electromagnetic induction where solenoid coil
is wound over a laminated iron core in a magnetic field. This is produced by two permanent
magnets and is enveloped in a casing that has a glass where deflection of a pointer can be observed.
The pointer is deflected to the right when current passes through the meter from + to -
Digital Multimeter
This type of Multimeter displays discrete values on a screen of Liquid Crystal Display (LCD),
which are arranged as a seven-segment display connected adjacently to one another depending on
the maximum number of digits the meter can display.
Precautions
a. To get the best results from the Multimeter, the following 'rules' must be observed:
b. For accurate readings, the meter should be used lying horizontal.
c. Do not tap the glass covering the scale.
d. When the meter is not in use, set the selector switch to either 'D.C' or 'A.C'.

Page 9 of 44
e. When the range of measurement is not known, set the meter to the highest range and work
downwards if necessary. This protect against measuring above ratings.
f. Always set to zero on the appropriate ohms range before measuring resistance and make
sure the circuit under test is not 'live'.
g. Ensure that the polarity of the D.C voltage or current to be measured is the right way round
for the meter movement.
2.2 GRAPHICAL MEASURING INSTRUMENTS

THE CATHODE RAY OSCILLOSCOPE
To be able to observe the waveform of an alternating quantity rather than measure its value in a
system, the cathode ray oscilloscope is employed. The oscilloscope is a translator of electrical
waveform into visual form. It also incorporates the dimension of time and makes possible time-
related measurements that are beyond the capability of simple meters. The oscilloscope can be
used to measure the rise time, fall time, and period of a waveform. It can be used to determine if
the waveform is a sine wave, square wave, or other form of time-varying pulse.
Oscilloscope Operating Sequence
a. Plug in the AC line cord
b. Turn on the Oscilloscope
c. Turn the SYNC SELECTOR to the external +ve position
d. Set the SWEEP SELECTOR to resisted frequency range
e. Centre the trance by adjusting the position controls
f. Adjust the brightness to a viewable level
g. Adjust the focus to a fine trace
h. Adjust the horizontal and vertical gain controls to the desired size
i. Readjust control as required.
Phosphorescent
Intensity control
screen
grid
Possible
electron
trajectory
Electron
Accelerator
source
And focusing Deflection plates
grids (only one pair shown)
Fig 2 – 6: Schematic Diagram of a Cathode Ray Tube

Page 10 of 44
Cathode Ray Oscilloscope Control
S/no Control Functions

1. Power Switch Powered on when this switch is pushed in.
2. Pilot lamp Lights red when power is supplied.
3. Intensity Used to adjust the brightness of the display. When this knob is rotated clockwise, the display
control become brighter.
4. Focus control Used to adjust the focus of the trace or spot.
5. Rotation Trace rotation screwdriver adjustment. Aligns trace with the horizontal lines.
control
6. Calibrator .5V Provides a square wave signal of approximately 0.5 Vp-p at the line frequency for compensation of
voltage probes.
7. Level control Level of triggering point is adjusted.
In the fully counterclockwise position, sweep mode is AUTO.
8 Source select Selects the source of trigger signal
INT;
Trigger signal is derived from a signal displayed on the screen. Used for ordinary observation.
LINE;
Trigger signal is derived from a line signal applied to the instrument. Used for measurement of DC
voltage as well as observation of noise from the line.
EXT;
Trigger signal is derived from an external signal applied to EXT INPUT terminal, so that sweep is
triggered regardless of fluctuation of a signal observed on the screen.
9. Slope selector -VE selects the positive – or negative going slope of the trigger wave form.
+VE the sweep starts from the positive – going portion of the trigger signal.
-VE The sweep starts from the negative-going portion of the trigger signal.
10. Mode selector Selectors the operating mode for the trigger circuit.
NORM;
A trigger signal selected by source switch is directly applied to the TRIG circuit.
TV-V; A trigger signal selected by the SOURCE switch is applied to the TRIG circuit through a
low-pass filter. This is useful for triggering a sweep on the TV vertical signal.
11. EXT INPUT Input terminal for external trigger signals or for x signals in the x-y display.
12. Ground Grounded to the housing.
terminal
13. Time /Div Selects calibrated sweep rates from 0.1 sec/DIV to 0.1 sec/DIV in 7 ranges.
selector
14. Variable Varies the sweep rates between the steps. The sweep rates are calibrated in the fully clockwise
control position,
15. H-position Controls the horizontal position of the display.

control
16. Volts/DIV Selectors the vertical deflection factor form 10mV/DIV to 5V/DIV in 1-2-5 sequences in 9 ranges.
selector
17. Variable Varies the vertical deflection factor between the steps. Extends the maximum deflection factor to
control 12.5V/DIV in the 5V/DIV position. Provides calibrated deflection factor in the fully clockwise
position, CAL.
18. V-Position Controls the vertical position of the display.
control
19. Input Connector for applying an input signal to the vertical deflection system.
connector
20. AC-GND-DC Selects the input coupling mode
selector AC;
Signals are coupled capacitively and any dc signal component is blocked.
GND; Connects an input signal to ground to provide a ground reference display.
DC;
All components of input signal are provided to the vertical amplifier.
21. STEP ATT Screwdriver adjustment. When properly set, it prevents trace shift when switching the VOLT/DIV
BAL Control selector 16 between the steps.

Page 11 of 44
Maintenance and Calibration of Cathode Ray Tube (CRT)
Preventive Maintenance on CRT

 Clean the panel and the outside of the case with cloth dampened with diluted neutral
detergent or alcohol, then with a dry cloth.
 Do not use organic solvents such as benzene or thinner.
 Clean the cabinet interior of dust with a dry brush, compressed air from a compressor or
exhaust of a vacuum cleaner.
WAVE ANALYZER
There are two types of wave analyzer, namely:
1. Frequency-selective wave analyzer
2. Heterodyne wave analyzer
A wave analyzer is an instrument which can be used to measure the relative amplitudes of single-frequency
components in a complex or distorted wave form.
Basically the instrument acts as a frequency-selective voltmeter which is tuned to the frequency of one
signal component while rejecting all the other signal components. For instance, for measuring the audio
frequency range (from 20Hz-20 KHz), the analyzer has a filter section with a narrow pass band that can be
tuned to the frequency component of interest.
The wave form to be analyzed in terms of its separate frequency component is applied to an input attenuator
that is set by the meter range switch on the front panel. A driver amplifier feeds the attenuated wave form
to a high-Q active filler. The filler consists of a cascade arrangement of RC resonant sections and filler
amplifiers.
The pass band of the total filler section is converted in decade steps over the entire avoid range by switching
capacitors in the RC sections. For selecting the frequency ranges, close-tolerance polystyrene types of
capacitor are generally used. Potentiometers are used to tune the filler to any desired frequency within the
selected pass band. A final amplifier stage supplies the selected signal to the meter circuit to an unturned
buffer amplifier.
The buffer amplifier can be used to drive a recorder or an electronic counter. The meter is driven by an
average-type detector and usually with several voltage ranges and a described scale. The bandwidth of the
instrument is very narrow usually around 1% of the selected frequency. Distortion occurs as a result of the
inherent nonlinear characteristics of the transistors in the circuit.
The Nonlinear behavior of the circuit elements introduces Harmonics of the fundamental frequency in the
output wave from, this type of distortion is often referred to as Harmonics Distortion.
There are three main types of Harmonic Distortion Analyzer these are
1. Turned-circuit Harmonics Analyzer
2. Heterodyne Harmonic Analyzer or (wave meter).
3. Fundamental-suppression Harmonic analyzer.

Page 12 of 44
TUNED-CIRCUIT HARMONIC ANALYZER

One of the oldest methods of determines the harmonic content of a wave form uses a turned circuit. A series
resonant circuit, consisting of inductor L and capacitor C, is turned to a specific harmonic frequency. This
harmonic component is transformer-coupled to the input of an amplifier. The output of the amplifier in
rectified is applied to a meter circuit. After a reading is obtained on the meter, the resonant circuit is
required to another harmonic frequency and the next reading is taken, and so on. The parallel resonant
circuit consisting of L1, R1 and C1 provides compensation for the variation in the resistance of the series-
resonant circuit and also for the variation in the amplifier gain over the frequency range of the instrument.
Fig 2 – 7: Graph of a waveform and some distorted versions of the same waveform
2.3 RECORDERS
ANALOG (GRAPHICAL) INSTRUMENTS
The majority of the instruments described so far, while giving a continuous indication of the measured,
have required the presence of an operator to observe variation in reading magnitude. This limitation is
overcome in some of the graphical recording instruments, in particular those designed to record permanent
variation in the level of a quantity, and with the ever-increasing emphasis on automation, continuously
recording instrument are finding many applications, temperature recorders being but one example.
Other forms of graphical recorder produce a temporary record, possible only a display of the instantaneous
values of an input signal, and these instrument which facilitate the detailed study of waveforms and analysis
of circuit performance are essential for any laboratory.

Page 13 of 44
MOVING COIL RECORDERS

These are an adaptation of the moving coil instrument, the scale of the instrument being modified so that a
chart may be driven at constant speed by an electric or clockwork motor, under the modified pointer. The
type of chart used in a moving coil recorder will depend on the form of movement.
Some instrument uses a chart whose horizontal axis consists of a series of circular arcs, allowing direct use
of the simple moving clock movement (figure 13 - 1). Some instruments employ a linkage system in the
movement which results in a horizontal movement of approximately straight lines. The moving coil
recorder is a comparatively inexpensive instrument having a narrow bandwidth (D.C. 10Hz) and a
maximum sensitivity of about 4 mv/cm, or for an instrument with a 10cm chart width a f.s.d. of 40-mv
without amplification. Multichannel instruments are manufacture in which a number of movements operate
side by side over a multitrack chart. To obtain the permanent tract on the chart one of the following mat be
used.
3 COMPONENT FAILURE ANALYSIS
3.1 COMPONENT FAILURE

Component failure can be defined as a loss, by a system or system element, of functional integrity
to perform as intended, e.g., relay contacts corrode and will not pass rated current closed, or the
relay coil has burned out and will not close the contacts when commanded –the relay has failed; a
pressure vessel bursts –the vessel fails.
3.2 FAULT
An abnormal undesirable state of a system or a system element induced by either a presence of an
improper command or absence of a proper one, or by a failure. All failures cause faults; not all
faults are caused by failures. A system which has been shut down by safety features has not faulted.
The job of a technician frequently entails “troubleshooting” (locating and correcting a problem) in
malfunctioning circuits. Good troubleshooting is a demanding and rewarding effort, requiring a
thorough understanding of the basic concepts, the ability to formulate hypotheses (proposed
explanations of an effect), the ability to judge the value of different hypotheses based on their
probability (how likely one particular cause may be over another), and a sense of creativity in
applying a solution to rectify the problem. While it is possible to distill these skills into a scientific
methodology, most practiced troubleshooters would agree that troubleshooting involves a touch of
art, and that it can take years of experience to fully develop this art.
An essential skill to have is a ready and intuitive understanding of how component faults affect
circuits in different configurations. We will explore some of the effects of component faults in
both series and parallel circuits here, then to a greater degree at the end of the “Series-Parallel
Combination Circuits” chapter. Let’s start with a simple series circuit:

Page 14 of 44
Figure 3 – 1: Simple series circuit

With all components in this circuit functioning at their proper values, we can mathematically
determine all currents and voltage drops.
Table 3 - 1: Current and voltage drops in the simple circuit
Now let us suppose that R2 fails shorted. Shorted means that the resistor now acts like a straight
piece of wire, with little or no resistance. The circuit will behave as though a “jumper” wire was
connected across R2 (in case you were wondering, “jumper wire” is a common term for a
temporary wire connection in a circuit). What causes the shorted condition of R2 is no matter to
us in this example; we only care about its effect upon the circuit:
Figure 3 – 2: Simple series circuit with R2 shorted

Page 15 of 44
With R2 shorted, either by a jumper wire or by an internal resistor failure, the total circuit
resistance will decrease. Since the voltage output by the battery is a constant (at least in our ideal
simulation here), a decrease in total circuit resistance means that total circuit current must increase:
Table 3 -1: Current and voltage drops in the R2 short circuit
As the circuit current increases from 20 milliamps to 60 milliamps, the voltage drops across R1
and R3 (which haven’t changed resistances) increase as well, so that the two resistors are dropping
the whole 9 volts. R2, being bypassed by the very low resistance of the jumper wire, is effectively
eliminated from the circuit, the resistance from one lead to the other having been reduced to zero.
Thus, the voltage drops across R2, even with the increased total current, is zero volts.
Figure 3 – 3: Simple series circuit with R2 shorted (B)
On the other hand, if R2 were to fail “open”—resistance increasing to nearly infinite levels—it
would also create wide-reaching effects in the rest of the circuit:

Page 16 of 44
Table 3 - 2: Current and voltage drops in the R2 short circuit (B)
With R2 at infinite resistance and total resistance being the sum of all individual resistances in a
series circuit, the total current decreases to zero. With zero circuit current, there is no electron flow
to produce voltage drops across R1 or R3. R2, on the other hand, will manifest the full supply
voltage across its terminals.
We can apply the same before/after analysis technique to parallel circuits as well. First, we
determine what a “healthy” parallel circuit should behave like.
Figure 3 – 4: Simple parallel circuit
Supposing that R2 opens in this parallel circuit, here’s what the effects will be:
Table 2 -3: Current and voltage drops in the parallel circuit

Page 17 of 44
Notice that in this parallel circuit, an open branch only affects the current through that branch and
the circuit’s total current. Total voltage—being shared equally across all components in a parallel
circuit, will be the same for all resistors. Due to the fact that the voltage source’s tendency is to
hold voltage constant, its voltage will not change, and being in parallel with all the resistors, it will
hold all the resistors’ voltages the same as they were before: 9 volts. Being that voltage is the only
common parameter in a parallel circuit, and the other resistors haven’t changed resistance value,
their respective branch currents remain unchanged.
Figure 3 – 5: Simple parallel circuit with R2 shorted (B)
This is what happens in a household lamp circuit: all lamps get their operating voltage from power
wiring arranged in a parallel fashion. Turning one lamp on and off (one branch in that parallel
circuit closing and opening) doesn’t affect the operation of other lamps in the room, only the
current in that one lamp (branch circuit) and the total current powering all the lamps in the room.
Table 3 - 4: Current and voltage drops in the R2 short circuit (parallel)
In an ideal case (with perfect voltage sources and zero-resistance connecting wire), shorted
resistors in a simple parallel circuit will also have no effect on what’s happening in other branches
of the circuit. In real life, the effect is not quite the same, and we’ll see why in the following
example.

Page 18 of 44
Figure 3 – 6: Simple parallel circuit (Ideal circuit)
A shorted resistor (resistance of 0 Ω) would theoretically draw infinite current from any finite
source of voltage (I=E/0). In this case, the zero resistance of R2 decreases the circuit total
resistance to zero Ω as well, increasing total current to a value of infinity. As long as the voltage
source holds steady at 9 volts, however, the other branch currents (IR1 and IR3) will remain
unchanged.
Figure 3 – 7: Simple parallel circuit with R2 shorted (Ideal circuit)
The critical assumption in this “perfect” scheme, however, is that the voltage supply will hold
steady at its rated voltage while supplying an infinite amount of current to a short-circuit load. This
is simply not realistic. Even if the short has a small amount of resistance (as opposed to absolutely
zero resistance), no real voltage source could arbitrarily supply a huge overload current and
maintain steady voltage at the same time. This is primarily due to the internal resistance intrinsic
to all electrical power sources, stemming from the inescapable physical properties of the materials
they’re constructed of:

Page 19 of 44
Table 3 - 5: Current and voltage drops in the R2 short circuit (Ideal Circuit)
These internal resistances, small as they may be, turn our simple parallel circuit into a series-
parallel combination circuit. Usually, the internal resistances of voltage sources are low enough
that they can be safely ignored, but when high currents resulting from shorted components are
encountered, their effects become very noticeable. In this case, a shorted R2 would result in almost
all the voltage being dropped across the internal resistance of the battery, with almost no voltage
left over for resistors R1, R2, and R3:
Figure 3 – 8: Internal resistance of a battery
Suffice it to say, intentional direct short-circuits across the terminals of any voltage source is a bad
idea. Even if the resulting high current (heat, flashes, sparks) causes no harm to people nearby, the
voltage source will likely sustain damage, unless it has been specifically designed to handle short-
circuits, which most voltage sources are not.

Page 20 of 44
Figure 3 – 9: Internal resistance of a battery in normal circuits
This text will consider analysis of circuits without the use of any numbers that is, analyzing the
effects of component failure in a circuit without knowing exactly how many volts the battery
produces, how many ohms of resistance is in each resistor, etc. This section serves as an
introductory step to that kind of analysis.
Whereas the normal application of Ohm’s Law and the rules of series and parallel circuits is
performed with numerical quantities (“quantitative”), this new kind of analysis without precise
numerical figures is called qualitative analysis. In other words, we will be analyzing the qualities
of the effects in a circuit rather than the precise quantities. The result, for you, will be a much
deeper intuitive understanding of electric circuit operation.
3.3 TYPES OF ELECTRONIC FAILURE

At the component level, electronic failures fall into four categories:
Catastrophic failures
Catastrophic failure occurs where the failure of function is total, as with diodes that conduct in
both directions, transistors without gain, or capacitors which become short-circuit.

Page 21 of 44
Parametric failures
Parametric failure is where the component functions in the intended manner, but outside normal
operating limits. Examples of this are passive components which have drifted outside tolerance,
perhaps altering the response curve of filters.
Intermittent failures
Intermittent failure is a situation where the function is correct for the majority of the time, but
occasionally becomes for a short time either a catastrophic or parametric failure. Such faults are
commonly caused by poor connections.
Related to the parametric failure is the failure of the component to work correctly over the
intended range of environments – circuits may malfunction at low or high temperature, or under
conditions of vibration.
The effect that component failures will have on the system depends on the fault tolerance of the
system, and the degree and type of failure. With high-reliability requirements, it is not uncommon
for designs to be deliberately made to tolerate degrees of failure, particularly at a system level. An
example of this might be a critical server application, where the operation of one system is mirrored
by a second fully-functioning machine which takes over automatically if the main system fails.
Causes electronic failure

A range of conditions cause electronic failures. Sometimes the mechanism is simple overload, but
often misuse, misapplication, lack of full testing, or defects in manufacture can play a part. At the
system level, failures can be caused by:
 drift in component parameters

 short or open circuits due to solder defects
 connectors, switches or relays going high resistance
 mismatches in component tolerances
 electromagnetic interference disturbing circuit function.
In considering the potential for failure, it is important to keep in mind that the majority of
components used in electronic assemblies do not have mechanisms that would cause the part to
degrade sufficiently to fail during storage or normal use, provided that they:
• have been selected correctly for the application as regards performance, protection against the
environment, and the level of thermal, electrical and mechanical stress applied
• were not defective when manufactured, and have not been damaged during assembly and test.
These are important provisos, but remember that the quality of manufacture of modern electronic
components is high, with typically fewer than 10 defective parts per million for complex
components such as integrated circuits, and even less for simpler components.

Page 22 of 44
4 BASIC PRINCIPLE OF PERIPHERAL INTERFACE
A peripheral is a device attached to a host computer, but not part of it, and is more or less dependent
on the host. It expands the host's capabilities, but does not form part of the core computer
architecture.
The Input / output organization of computer depends upon the size of computer and the peripherals
connected to it. The I/O Subsystem of the computer, provides an efficient mode of communication
between the central system and the outside environment
The most common input output devices are:
a. Monitor
b. Keyboard
c. Mouse
d. Printer
e. Magnetic tapes
The devices that are under the direct control of the computer are said to be connected online.
4.1 INPUT - OUTPUT INTERFACE

Input Output Interface provides a method for transferring information between internal storage and
external I/O devices. Peripherals connected to a computer need special communication links for
interfacing them with the central processing unit. The purpose of communication link is to resolve
the differences that exist between the central computer and each peripheral. The Major Differences
are:
1. Peripherals are electromechanical and electromagnetic devices while CPU and memory are
electronic devices. Therefore, a conversion of signal values may be needed.
2. The data transfer rate of peripherals is usually slower than the transfer rate of CPU
and consequently, a synchronization mechanism may be needed.
3. Data codes and formats in the peripherals differ from the word format in the CPU and
memory.
4. The operating modes of peripherals are different from each other and must be controlled
so as not to disturb the operation of other peripherals connected to the CPU.
To Resolve these differences, computer systems include special hardware components between
the CPU and Peripherals to supervises and synchronizes all input and out transfers These
components are called Interface Units because they interface between the processor bus and the
peripheral devices.

Page 23 of 44
4.2 I/O BUS and Interface Module

It defines the typical link between the processor and several peripherals. The I/O Bus consists of
data lines, address lines and control lines. The I/O bus from the processor is attached to all
peripherals interface. To communicate with a particular device, the processor places a device
address on address lines. Each Interface decodes the address and control received from the I/O
bus, interprets them for peripherals and provides signals for the peripheral controller. It is also
synchronizes the data flow and supervises the transfer between peripheral and processor. Each
peripheral has its own controller. For example, the printer controller controls the paper motion, the
print timing.
The control lines are referred as I/O command. The commands are as following:
 Control command- A control command is issued to activate the peripheral and to inform it
what to do.
 Status command- A status command is used to test various status conditions in the
interface and the peripheral.
 Data Output command- A data output command causes the interface to respond by
transferring data from the bus into one of its registers.
Data Input command- The data input command is the opposite of the data output. In this case the
interface receives on item of data from the peripheral and places it in its buffer register.
Fig 4 - 1: Connection of I/O bus to input-output devices

To communicate with I/O, the processor must communicate with the memory unit. Like the I/O
bus, the memory bus contains data, address and read/write control lines. There are 3 ways that
computer buses can be used to communicate with memory and I/O:
1. Use two Separate buses, one for memory and other for I/O.
2. Use one common bus for both memory and I/O but separate control lines for each.
3. Use one common bus for memory and I/O with common control lines.

Page 24 of 44
4.3 INPUT/OUTPUT PROCESSOR

In the first method, the computer has independent sets of data, address and control buses one for
accessing memory and other for I/O. This is done in computers that provides a separate I/O
processor (IOP). The purpose of IOP is to provide an independent pathway for the transfer of
information between external device and internal memory.
Asynchronous Data Transfer

This Scheme is used when speed of I/O devices do not match with microprocessor, and timing
characteristics of I/O devices is not predictable. In this method, processor initiates the device and
check its status. As a result, CPU has to wait till I/O device is ready to transfer data. When device
is ready CPU issues instruction for I/O transfer. In this method two types of techniques are used
based on signals before data transfer.
1. Strobe Control
2. Handshaking
Strobe Signal
The strobe control method of Asynchronous data transfer employs a single control line to time
each transfer. The strobe may be activated by either the source or the destination unit.
Data Transfer Initiated by Source Unit
Fig 4 - 2: Source-Initiated strobe for Data Transfer

In the block diagram fig. (a), the data bus carries the binary information from source to destination
unit. Typically, the bus has multiple lines to transfer an entire byte or word. The strobe is a single
line that informs the destination unit when a valid data word is available.
The timing diagram fig. (b) the source unit first places the data on the data bus. The information
on the data bus and strobe signal remain in the active state to allow the destination unit to receive
the data.

Page 25 of 44
Data Transfer Initiated by Destination Unit

In this method, the destination unit activates the strobe pulse, to informing the source to provide
the data. The source will respond by placing the requested binary information on the data bus.
The data must be valid and remain in the bus long enough for the destination unit to accept it.
When the data is accepted, the destination unit then disables the strobe and the source unit removes
the data from the bus.
Fig 4 - 3: Destination-Initiated strobe for Data Transfer
Disadvantage of Strobe Signal

The disadvantage of the strobe method is that, the source unit that initiates the transfer has no way
of knowing whether the destination unit has actually received the data item that was places in the
bus. Similarly, a destination unit that initiates the transfer has no way of knowing whether the
source unit has actually placed the data on bus. The Handshaking method solves this problem.
Handshaking
The handshaking method solves the problem of strobe method by introducing a second control
signal that provides a reply to the unit that initiates the transfer.
Principle of Handshaking
One control line is in the same direction as the data flows in the bus from the source to destination.
It is used by source unit to inform the destination unit whether there is a valid data on the bus. The
other control line is in the other direction from the destination to the source. It is used by the
destination unit to inform the source whether it can accept the data. The sequence of control during
the transfer depends on the unit that initiates the transfer.
Source Initiated Transfer using Handshaking

The sequence of events shows four possible states that the system can be at any given time. The
source unit initiates the transfer by placing the data on the bus and enabling its data valid signal.
The data accepted signal is activated by the destination unit after it accepts the data from the bus.
The source unit then disables its data accepted signal and the system goes into its initial state.

Page 26 of 44
Fig 4 - 4(a): Source-Initiated Transfer Using Handshaking
The name of the signal generated by the destination unit has been changed to ready for data to
reflects its new meaning. The source unit in this case does not place data on the bus until after it
receives the ready for data signal from the destination unit. From there on, the handshaking
procedure follows the same pattern as in the source initiated case. The only difference between the
Source Initiated and the Destination Initiated transfer is in their choice of Initial sate.
Fig 4 - 4(b): Destination-Initiated Transfer Using Handshaking

Page 27 of 44
Advantage of the Handshaking method
 The Handshaking scheme provides degree of flexibility and reliability because the successful
completion of data transfer relies on active participation by both units.
 If any of one unit is faulty, the data transfer will not be completed. Such an error can be detected
by means of a Timeout mechanism which provides an alarm if the data is not completed within
time.
Asynchronous Serial Transmission

The transfer of data between two units is serial or parallel. In parallel data transmission, n bit in
the message must be transmitted through n separate conductor path. In serial transmission, each
bit in the message is sent in sequence one at a time. Parallel transmission is faster but it requires
many wires. It is used for short distances and where speed is important. Serial transmission is
slower but is less expensive.
In Asynchronous serial transfer, each bit of message is sent a sequence at a time, and binary
information is transferred only when it is available. When there is no information to be transferred,
line remains idle. In this technique each character consists of three points.
1. Start bit
2. Character bit
3. Stop bit
Start Bit- First bit, called start bit is always zero and used to indicate the beginning character.
Stop Bit- Last bit, called stop bit is always one and used to indicate end of characters. Stop bit is
always in the 1- state and frame the end of the characters to signify the idle or wait state.
Character Bit- Bits in between the start bit and the stop bit are known as character bits. The
character bits always follow the start bit.
Fig 4 - 5: Asynchronous Serial Transmission
Serial Transmission of Asynchronous is done by two ways
a) Asynchronous Communication Interface b) First In First out Buffer

Page 28 of 44
Asynchronous Communication Interface

It works as both a receiver and a transmitter. Its operation is initialized by CPU by sending a byte
to the control register. The transmitter register accepts a data byte from CPU through the data bus
and transferred to a shift register for serial transmission. The receive portion receives information
into another shift register, and when a complete data byte is received it is transferred to receiver
register.
CPU can select the receiver register to read the byte through the data bus. Data in the status register
is used for input and output flags.
First In First Out Buffer (FIFO)

A First In First Out (FIFO) Buffer is a memory unit that stores information in such a manner that
the first item in is the first item out. A FIFO buffer comes with separate input and output terminals.
The important feature of this buffer is that it can input data and output data at two different rates.
When placed between two units, the FIFO can accept data from the source unit at one rate, rate of
transfer and deliver the data to the destination unit at another rate. If the source is faster than the
destination, the FIFO is useful because source data arrive in bursts that fills out the buffer. FIFO
is useful in some applications when data are transferred asynchronously.
5 MODES OF DATA TRANSFER
Transfer of data is required between CPU and peripherals or memory or sometimes between any
two devices or units of your computer system. To transfer a data from one unit to another one
should be sure that both units have proper connection and at the time of data transfer the receiving
unit is not busy. This data transfer within the computer is internal operation. All the internal
operations in a digital system are synchronized by means of clock pulses supplied by a common
clock pulse Generator. The data transfer can be i. Synchronous or ii. Asynchronous
When both the transmitting and receiving units use same clock pulse then such a data transfer is
called Synchronous process. On the other hand, if the there is no concept of clock pulses and the
sender operates at different moment than the receiver then such a data transfer is called
Asynchronous data transfer.
The data transfer can be handled by various modes. Some of the modes use CPU as an intermediate
path, others transfer the data directly to and from the memory unit and this can be handled by 3
following ways:

Page 29 of 44
i. Programmed I/O
ii. Interrupt-Initiated I/O
iii. Direct Memory Access (DMA)
5.1 PROGRAMMED I/O MODE

In this mode of data transfer the operations are as a results of I/O instructions which is a part of
computer program. Each data transfer is initiated by an instruction in the program. Normally the
transfer is from a CPU register to peripheral device or vice-versa.
Once the data is initiated the CPU starts monitoring the interface to see when next transfer can be
made. The instructions of the program keep close tabs on everything that takes place in the
interface unit and the I/O devices.
Fig 5 – 1: Data transfer from I/O device to CPU
The transfer of data requires three instructions:
In this technique CPU is responsible for executing data from the memory for output and storing
data in memory for executing of Programmed I/O as shown in Flowchart below.

Page 30 of 44
Fig 5 – 2: Data transfer from I/O device to CPU flow chart
Drawback of the Programmed I/O

The main drawback of the Program Initiated I/O is that the CPU has to monitor the units all the
times when the program is executing. Thus the CPU stays in a program loop until the I/O unit
indicates that it is ready for data transfer. This is a time consuming process and the CPU time is
wasted a lot in keeping an eye to the executing of program.
To remove this problem an Interrupt facility and special commands are used.
5.2 INTERRUPT-INITIATED I/O

In this method, an interrupt command is used to inform the device about the start and end of
transfer. In the meantime, the CPU executes other program. When the interface determines that
the device is ready for data transfer it generates an Interrupt Request and sends it to the computer.
When the CPU receives such a signal, it temporarily stops the execution of the program and
branches to a service program to process the I/O transfer and after completing it returns back to
task, what it was originally performing.
 In this type of IO, computer does not check the flag. It continues to perform its task.
 Whenever any device wants the attention, it sends the interrupt signal to the CPU.
 CPU then deviates from what it was doing, store the return address from PC and branch to
the address of the subroutine.
 There are two ways of choosing the branch address: 1. Vectored Interrupt and 2. Non-
vectored Interrupt

Page 31 of 44
 In vectored interrupt the source that interrupt the CPU provides the branch information.
This information is called interrupt vectored.
 In non-vectored interrupt, the branch address is assigned to the fixed address in the
memory.
Priority Interrupt
 There are number of IO devices attached to the computer.
 They are all capable of generating the interrupt.
 When the interrupt is generated from more than one device, priority interrupt system is used
to determine which device is to be serviced first.
 Devices with high speed transfer are given higher priority and slow devices are given lower
priority.
 Establishing the priority can be done in two ways: 1. Using Software and 2. Using Hardware
 A pooling procedure is used to identify highest priority in software means.
Polling Procedure
 There is one common branch address for all interrupts.
 Branch address contain the code that polls the interrupt sources in sequence. The highest
priority is tested first.
 The particular service routine of the highest priority device is served.
 The disadvantage is that time required to poll them can exceed the time to serve them in large
number of IO devices.
Using Hardware
 Hardware priority system function as an overall manager.
 It accepts interrupt request and determine the priorities.
 To speed up the operation each interrupting devices has its own interrupt vector.
 No polling is required; all decisions are established by hardware priority interrupt unit.
 It can be established by serial or parallel connection of interrupt lines.
5.3 DIRECT MEMORY ACCESS (DMA)

In the Direct Memory Access (DMA) the interface transfers the data into and out of the memory
unit through the memory bus. The transfer of data between a fast storage device such as magnetic
disk and memory is often limited by the speed of the CPU. Removing the CPU from the path and
letting the peripheral device manage the memory buses directly would improve the speed of
transfer. This transfer technique is called Direct Memory Access (DMA).
During the DMA transfer, the CPU is idle and has no control of the memory buses. A DMA
Controller takes over the buses to manage the transfer directly between the I/O device and memory.

Page 32 of 44
The CPU may be placed in an idle state in a variety of ways. One common method extensively
used in microprocessor is to disable the buses through special control signals such as:
 Bus Request (BR)

 Bus Grant (BG)
These two control signals in the CPU that facilitates the DMA transfer. The Bus Request (BR)
input is used by the DMA controller to request the CPU. When this input is active, the CPU
terminates the execution of the current instruction and places the address bus, data bus,
Fig 5 – 3: CPU bus Signals for DMA Transfer

and read write lines into a high Impedance state. High Impedance state means that the output is
disconnected.
The CPU activates the Bus Grant (BG) output to inform the external DMA that the Bus Request
(BR) can now take control of the buses to conduct memory transfer without processor. When the
DMA terminates the transfer, it disables the Bus Request (BR) line. The CPU disables the Bus
Grant (BG), takes control of the buses and return to its normal operation. The transfer can be made
in several ways that are; i. DMA Burst, ii. Cycle Stealing.
i. DMA Burst: In DMA Burst transfer, a block sequence consisting of a number of memory
words is transferred in continuous burst while the DMA controller is master of the memory
buses.
ii. Cycle Stealing: Cycle stealing allows the DMA controller to transfer one data word at a time,
after which it must returns control of the buses to the CPU.
DMA Controller
The DMA controller needs the usual circuits of an interface to communicate with the
CPU and I/O device. The DMA controller has three registers: Address Register, ii. Word Count
Register, iii. Control Register

Page 33 of 44
i. Address Register: Address Register contains an address to specify the desired location in
memory.
ii. Word Count Register: WC holds the number of words to be transferred. The register is
incre/decre by one after each word transfer and internally tested for zero.
iii. Control Register: Control Register specifies the mode of transfer
The unit communicates with the CPU via the data bus and control lines. The registers in the DMA
are selected by the CPU through the address bus by enabling the DS (DMA select) and RS
(Register select) inputs. The RD (read) and WR (write) inputs are bidirectional. When the BG (Bus
Grant) input is 0, the CPU can communicate with the DMA registers through the data bus to read
from or write to the DMA registers. When BG =1, the DMA can communicate directly with the
memory by specifying an address in the address bus and activating the RD or WR control.
DMA Transfer
The CPU communicates with the DMA through the address and data buses as with any interface
unit. The DMA has its own address, which activates the DS and RS lines. The CPU initializes the
DMA through the data bus. Once the DMA receives the start control command, it can transfer
between the peripheral and the memory. When BG = 0 the RD and WR are input lines allowing
the CPU to communicate with the internal DMA registers. When BG=1, the RD and WR are output
lines from the DMA controller to the random access memory to specify the read or write operation
of data.
Fig 5 – 4: Block diagram of DMA controller

Page 34 of 44
6 PREVENTIVE MAINTENANCE
In engineering in general, the term maintenance has the following meanings:

i. Any activity – such as tests, measurements, replacements, adjustments and repairs — intended to
retain or restore a functional unit in or to a specified state in which the unit can perform its required
functions.
ii. For material — all action taken to retain material in a serviceable condition or to restore it to
serviceability. It includes inspection, testing, servicing, and classification as to serviceability,
repair, rebuilding, and reclamation.
6.1 PREVENTIVE MAINTENANCE
Preventive maintenance is a regular and systematic inspection, cleaning, and replacement of worn
parts, materials, and systems. Preventive maintenance helps to prevent failure of parts, materials,
and systems by ensuring that they are in good working order. Troubleshooting is a systematic
approach to locating the cause of a fault in a computer system. A good preventive maintenance
program helps minimize failures. With fewer failures, there is less troubleshooting to do, thus
saving an organization time and money. Preventive maintenance can also include upgrading
certain hardware or software such as a hard drive that is making noise, upgrading memory that is
insufficient, or installing software updates for security or reliability. Troubleshooting is a learned
skill. Not all troubleshooting processes are the same, and technicians tend to refine their
troubleshooting skills based on knowledge and personal experience. Use the guidelines in this
chapter as a starting point to help develop your troubleshooting skills. Although each situation is
different, the process described in this chapter will help you to determine your course of action
when you are trying to solve a technical problem for a customer.
Preventive maintenance reduces the probability of hardware or software problems by

systematically and periodically checking hardware and software to ensure proper operation.
6.2 HARDWARE
Check the condition of cables, components, and peripherals. Clean components to reduce the
likelihood of overheating. Repair or replace any components that show signs of damage or
excessive wear.
Use the following tasks as a guide to create a hardware maintenance program:
■ Remove dust from fan intakes.
■ Remove dust from the power supply.
■ Remove dust from components inside the computer.

Page 35 of 44
■ Clean the mouse and keyboard. ■ Check and secure loose cables.
6.3 SOFTWARE
Verify that installed software is current. Follow the policies of the organization when installing
security updates, operating system updates, and program updates. Many organizations do not allow
updates until extensive testing has been completed. This testing is done to confirm that the update
will not cause problems with the operating system and software. Use the tasks listed as a guide to
create a software maintenance schedule that fits the needs of your computer equipment:
■ Review security updates.

■ Review software updates.
■ Review driver updates.
■ Update virus definition files.

■ Scan for viruses and spyware.
■ Remove unwanted programs

■ Scan hard drives for errors.
■ Defragment hard drives
Benefits of Preventive Maintenance

Be proactive in computer equipment maintenance and data protection. By performing regular
maintenance routines, you can reduce potential hardware and software problems. Regular
maintenance routines reduce computer downtime and repair costs.
A preventive maintenance plan is developed based on the needs of the equipment. A computer
exposed to a dusty environment, such as a construction site, needs more attention than equipment
in an office environment. High-traffic networks, such as a school network, might require additional
scanning and removal of malicious software or unwanted files. Document the routine maintenance
tasks that must be performed on the computer equipment and the frequency of each task. This list
of tasks can then be used to create a maintenance program.
The following are the benefits of preventive maintenance:

■ Increases data protection
■ Extends the life of the components

■ Increases equipment stability
■ Reduces repair costs ■ Reduces the number of equipment failures|

Page 36 of 44
7 COMPUTER ASSEMBLAGE AND INSTALLATION
7.1 KEY COMPONENTS
Basic input/output system (BIOS) - the built-in software that determines what a computer can
do without accessing programs from a disk. On PCs, the BIOS contains all the code required to
control the keyboard, display screen, disk drives, serial communications, and a number of
miscellaneous functions.
Bus – A collection of wires through which data is transmitted from one part of a computer
to another. You can think of a bus as a highway on which data travels within a computer.
When used in reference to personal computers, the term bus usually refers to internal bus.
This is a bus that connects all the internal computer components to the CPU and main
memory. There's also an expansion bus that enables expansion boards to access the CPU
and memory.
Cards – Adapter boards or interface cards placed into expansion slots to expand the
function of a computer, allowing it to communicate with external devices such as monitors
or speakers.
CMOS RAM chip – (Same as the CMOS configuration chip) A chip on the motherboard
that contains a very small amount of memory, or RAM – enough to hold configuration, or
setup, information about the computer. The chip is powered by a battery when the PC is
turned off.
CMOS setup – (1) the CMOS configuration chip. (2) The program in system BIOS that
can change the values in the CMOS RAM.
Dual inline memory module (DIMM) – a miniature circuit board used in newer
computers to hold memory. DIMMs can hold up to 2 GB of RAM on a single module.
Dual inline package (DIP) switch – a switch on the circuit board or other device that can
be set on or off to hold configuration or setup information.
Expansion card – a circuit board inserted into a slot on the motherboard to enhance the
capability of the computer.
Expansion slot – a narrow slot on the motherboard where an expansion card can be
inserted. Expansion slots connect to a bus on the motherboard.
Firmware – Software that is permanently stored in a chip. The BIOS on a motherboard is
an example of firmware.
Hard drive – The main secondary storage device of a PC, a small case that contains
magnetic coated platters that rotate at high speed.
Jumper – Two wires that stick up side by side on the motherboard and are used to hold
configuration information. The jumper is considered closed if a cover is over the wires,
and open if the cover is missing.
Keyboard – a common input device through which data and instructions may be typed
into computer memory.
Main board – (Same as the motherboard.) the main board in the computer, also called the

Page 37 of 44
system board. The CPU, ROM chips, SIMMs, DIMMs, RIMMs, and interface cards are
plugged into the motherboard.
Microprocessor – (Same as the CPU.) The CPU is the brains of the computer. Sometimes
referred to simply as the processor or central processor, the CPU is where most calculations
take place. In terms of computing power, the CPU is the most important element of a
computer system.
Monitor – the most commonly used output device for displaying text and graphics on a
computer.
Mouse – A pointing and input device that allows the user to move a cursor around a screen
and select programs with the click of a button.
Power supply – a box inside the computer case that supplies power to the motherboard
and other installed devices. Power supplies provide 3.3, 5, and 12 volts DC.
Primary storage – Temporary storage on the motherboard used by the CPU to process
data and instructions. Memory is considered primary storage.
Random access memory (RAM) – Memory modules on the motherboard containing
microchips used to temporarily hold data and programs while the CPU processes both.
Information in RAM is lost when the PC is turned off.
Read-only memory (ROM) – Chips that contain programming code and cannot be erased.
Serial port – A male 9-pin or 25-pin port on a computer system used by slower I/O devices
such as a mouse or modem. Data travels serially, on bit at a time, through the port. Serial
ports are sometimes configured as COM1, COM2, COM3, or COM4.
Single inline memory module (SIMM) – A miniature circuit board used in older
computers to hold RAM. SIMMs hold 8, 16, 32, or 64 MB on a single module.
Software – Computer programs, or instructions to perform a specific task. Software may
be BIOS, OS, or application software such as a word processing or spreadsheet program.
7.2 ASSEMBLAGE OF A PERSONAL COMPUTER
Components Required
1. Processor (CPU)
2. Computer Case
3. Optical Drive (DVD RW and SATA capable)
4. Memory (RAM)
5. Power Supply
6. SATA Cables
7. Motherboard (SATA Capable)
8. Processor Fan
9. Case Fan
10. Hard Drive (SATA Capable)
Tools Required
 Screwdriver (for slotted and Phillips head screws)
 Wire cutters and strippers

Page 38 of 44
 Needle-nosed pliers
 Utility knife
 Small flashlight
 Adjustable wrench
 Small container to hold screws
 Heat sink compound
 Grounding Strap
Things to be done before assembly begins:
 Remove any parts or packaging materials that may have been shipped inside the case.
 Remove the cover for the optical drive.
 Make note of the cables pre-installed in the case.
 Put the grounding strap on your wrist and connect the other end to the computer case.
Installation of the motherboard
 Install the I/O bezel plate into the opening in the back of the case. It pushes in from the
inside.
 Install standoffs in the case. The standoffs screw into the motherboard mounting holes.
 Lower the motherboard into the case and align with the I/O bezel.
Installation of the hard drives
 Find a 3.5" drive bay to install the drive in.
 Slide the drive into place until the screw holes on the sides are lined up with the holes in
the case.
Installation of the optical drive
 Slide the drive into the drive bay until the screw holes are lined up and the front of the drive
is flush with the front of the case (figure 18). Make sure that it is orientated correctly.
Installation of the CPU
 Find the corner marking that designates pin 1 of the CPU.
 Lift the small metal rod next to the socket.
 Find the corresponding marking on the CPU socket and insert the CPU so that the
markings are lined up.
 Push the rod down to lock the processor in place.
Installation of the RAM
 Set the RAM board in the socket. Check to see that the notch in the board is in the correct
location. If it is not, turn it around 180º.
 Press firmly on both ends of the board to set it into the socket. Make sure the tabs lock
into place.
Installation of the CPU Fan
 Place thermal compound to the CPU following the instructions provided with the
compound.
 Set the fan assembly on the CPU with mounting tabs aligned.
 Pull the locking rod down on the fan assembly to lock into place.
 Connect the fan assembly's power connector to the motherboard.

Page 39 of 44
Installation of the CPU Fan

 Align the mounting holes by holding the fan to the mounting pad on the inside of the
case. The fan needs to be mounted so that it blows air out of the case.
 Insert the screws from the outside of the case and tighten.
Fig 7 - 1: The Motherboard
Installation of the Power Supply

 Align the mounting holes in the case and power supply.
 Insert screws and tighten.

Page 40 of 44
Fig 7 - 2: 3D View of the installation procedure

Page 41 of 44
8 TESTS AND SPECIFICATIONS

Computer diagnostics tools are pieces of software that gives the knowledge need to be able to
potentially repair a computer system. Some of these tools come built in to the operating system
while others come from third party software developers. Either way, these tools help save time and
money.
Computer diagnostic tools can be used to scan computer’s hard drive, check RAM for errors, check
CPU temperature and give information about any other devices connected to the computer. These
tools are made to find problems that may be disrupting computer’s normal performance. Once a
problem is found, a repair plan can be conceived.
8.1 SOME AVAILABLE DIAGNOSTIC SOFTWARE AND PROGRAMS

Windows Performance Monitor
The first one on our list is built right in to Windows operating systems. The performance monitor
gives you a quick view of vital information related your computers hardware. From here, you can
check out your CPU, Memory, Disk info and Ethernet information. You can use Performance
Monitor to examine the effects of your running applications in both real time and by collecting
data to check out for later analysis.
Windows Resource Monitor

Windows Resource Monitor is number two on our list. This diagnostic tool is more robust that
Windows Performance Monitor. It is better suited for tracking individual aspects of CPU,

Page 42 of 44
Network, memory and disk usage. This tool gives you an in depth look at what processes are
affecting your CPU, how much memory is being used what is using it, individual process disk
activity and network information like current TCP connections and what processes are listening
on what port.
Open Hardware Monitor

Open Hardware Monitor is a free open source application that runs on Windows and Linux
systems. This diagnostic tool monitors your computers temperature sensors, fan speeds, voltages,
load and clock speeds. If your computer is shutting down by itself, hanging or crashing, this tool
can come in real handy by telling you that your system is overheating or the fans aren’t working
properly.

Page 43 of 44

Page 44 of 44
Speccy
Speccy is another great computer diagnostic tool. This application gives information on just about
everything including software, hardware, peripherals, disk info, graphics & network data. Its easy
to use layout make troubleshooting and maintenance a breeze. Great application to start with when
you are looking for specific info about your computer.
HD Tune
HD Tune Pro is a great tool for HDD and SSD diagnostics. This utility allows you to benchmark
your storage device showing you the minimum, maximum and average transfer rates along with
many other useful tools. The other features of HD Tune include detailed drive info, error scanning,
& drive health. The pro version allows you to check the health status of multiple drives, offers
folder usage info, secure erase, file benchmark, disk monitor, cache test & extra tests.

Page 45 of 44
Computer diagnostics are meant to serve a vital purpose. They are important tools which work
automatically, with very little effort necessary from the end user. They help you discover and fix
problems within your hard disks and network configurations. Rather than manually searching for
small, hard-to-find problems on your own, you can simply allow computer diagnostics tools to
take care of your problems for you!

316 Types of Computers

Uploaded by

Copyright:

Available Formats

316 Types of Computers

Uploaded by

Document Information

Copyright

Available Formats

Share this document

Share or Embed Document

Sharing Options

Did you find this document useful?

Is this content inappropriate?

Copyright:

Available Formats

316 Types of Computers

Uploaded by

Copyright:

Available Formats

Page 2 of 44

1.1 The four basic types of computers

Microcomputers (personal computers)

Computer Installation and Maintenance Ambali, M. J.

Minicomputers (midrange computers)

Computer Installation and Maintenance Ambali, M. J.

1.2 CLASSES BY FUNCTIONS

Computer Installation and Maintenance Ambali, M. J.

Computer Installation and Maintenance Ambali, M. J.

1.4 CLASSED BY GENERATION

Computer Installation and Maintenance Ambali, M. J.

■ Verify full system functionality, and if applicable, implement preventive measures.

2.1 TOOLS USED IN TROUBLESHOOTING PROCESS

Fig 2 – 1: Ammeter connected in series with load

Fig 2 – 2: Voltmeter connected in parallel with the resistance

Fig 2 – 3: Scale for Ammeter

Fig 2 – 4: Scale for Ohmmeter

Computer Installation and Maintenance Ambali, M. J.

Computer Installation and Maintenance Ambali, M. J.

2.2 GRAPHICAL MEASURING INSTRUMENTS

Computer Installation and Maintenance Ambali, M. J.

Cathode Ray Oscilloscope Control

S/no Control Functions

15. H-position Controls the horizontal position of the display.

Computer Installation and Maintenance Ambali, M. J.

Maintenance and Calibration of Cathode Ray Tube (CRT)

Preventive Maintenance on CRT

Computer Installation and Maintenance Ambali, M. J.

TUNED-CIRCUIT HARMONIC ANALYZER

Computer Installation and Maintenance Ambali, M. J.

MOVING COIL RECORDERS

3 COMPONENT FAILURE ANALYSIS

3.1 COMPONENT FAILURE

Computer Installation and Maintenance Ambali, M. J.

Figure 3 – 1: Simple series circuit

Table 3 - 1: Current and voltage drops in the simple circuit

Figure 3 – 2: Simple series circuit with R2 shorted

Computer Installation and Maintenance Ambali, M. J.

Table 3 -1: Current and voltage drops in the R2 short circuit

Figure 3 – 3: Simple series circuit with R2 shorted (B)

Computer Installation and Maintenance Ambali, M. J.

Table 3 - 2: Current and voltage drops in the R2 short circuit (B)

Figure 3 – 4: Simple parallel circuit

Computer Installation and Maintenance Ambali, M. J.

Figure 3 – 5: Simple parallel circuit with R2 shorted (B)

Table 3 - 4: Current and voltage drops in the R2 short circuit (parallel)

Computer Installation and Maintenance Ambali, M. J.

Figure 3 – 6: Simple parallel circuit (Ideal circuit)

Figure 3 – 7: Simple parallel circuit with R2 shorted (Ideal circuit)

Computer Installation and Maintenance Ambali, M. J.

Figure 3 – 8: Internal resistance of a battery

Computer Installation and Maintenance Ambali, M. J.

Figure 3 – 9: Internal resistance of a battery in normal circuits

3.3 TYPES OF ELECTRONIC FAILURE

Computer Installation and Maintenance Ambali, M. J.

Causes electronic failure

 drift in component parameters

Computer Installation and Maintenance Ambali, M. J.

4 BASIC PRINCIPLE OF PERIPHERAL INTERFACE

The most common input output devices are: