Physics Grade 11 Physics Ch13 Geometrical Optics

FHSST Authors
The Free High School Science Texts: Textbooks for High School Students Studying the Sciences Physics Grades 10 - 12
Version 0 November 9, 2008
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FHSST Editors
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FHSST Contributors
Rory Adams ; Prashant Arora ; Richard Baxter ; Dr. Sarah Blyth ; Sebastian Bodenstein ; Graeme Broster ; Richard Case ; Brett Cocks ; Tim Crombie ; Dr. Anne Dabrowski ; Laura Daniels ; Sean Dobbs ; Fernando Durrell ; Dr. Dan Dwyer ; Frans van Eeden ; Giovanni Franzoni ; Ingrid von Glehn ; Tamara von Glehn ; Lindsay Glesener ; Dr. Vanessa Godfrey ; Dr. Johan Gonzalez ; Hemant Gopal ; Umeshree Govender ; Heather Gray ; Lynn Gree ; Dr. Tom Gutierrez ; Brooke Haag ; Kate Hadley ; Dr. Sam Halliday ; Asheena Hanuman ; Neil Hart ; Nicholas Hatcher ; Dr. Mark Horner ; Robert Hovden ; Mfandaidza Hove ; Jennifer Hsieh ; Clare Johnson ; Luke Jordan ; Tana Joseph ; Dr. Jennifer Klay ; Lara Kruger ; Sihle Kubheka ; Andrew Kubik ; Dr. Marco van Leeuwen ; Dr. Anton Machacek ; Dr. Komal Maheshwari ; Kosma von Maltitz ; Nicole Masureik ; John Mathew ; JoEllen McBride ; Nikolai Meures ; Riana Meyer ; Jenny Miller ; Abdul Mirza ; Asogan Moodaly ; Jothi Moodley ; Nolene Naidu ; Tyrone Negus ; Thomas ODonnell ; Dr. Markus Oldenburg ; Dr. Jaynie Padayachee ; Nicolette Pekeur ; Sirika Pillay ; Jacques Plaut ; Andrea Prinsloo ; Joseph Raimondo ; Sanya Rajani ; Prof. Sergey Rakityansky ; Alastair Ramlakan ; Razvan Remsing ; Max Richter ; Sean Riddle ; Evan Robinson ; Dr. Andrew Rose ; Bianca Ruddy ; Katie Russell ; Duncan Scott ; Helen Seals ; Ian Sherratt ; Roger Sielo ; Bradley Smith ; Greg Solomon ; Mike Stringer ; Shen Tian ; Robert Torregrosa ; Jimmy Tseng ; Helen Waugh ; Dr. Dawn Webber ; Michelle Wen ; Dr. Alexander Wetzler ; Dr. Spencer Wheaton ; Vivian White ; Dr. Gerald Wigger ; Harry Wiggins ; Wendy Williams ; Julie Wilson ; Andrew Wood ; Emma Wormauld ; Sahal Yacoob ; Jean Youssef Contributors and editors have made a sincere eort to produce an accurate and useful resource. Should you have suggestions, nd mistakes or be prepared to donate material for inclusion, please dont hesitate to contact us. We intend to work with all who are willing to help make this a continuously evolving resource!
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Contents
I Introduction 1
3
1 What is Physics?
II
Grade 10 - Physics
5
9 9 9 9
2 Units 2.1 2.2 Introduction . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . Unit Systems . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 2.2.1 2.2.2 2.3 2.4 2.5 SI Units . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . .
The Other Systems of Units . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 10
Writing Units as Words or Symbols . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 10 Combinations of SI Base Units . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 12 Rounding, Scientic Notation and Signicant Figures . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 12 2.5.1 2.5.2 2.5.3 2.5.4 Rounding O . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 12 Error Margins . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 13 Scientic Notation . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 13
Signicant Figures . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 15
2.6 2.7 2.8
Prexes of Base Units . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 15 The Importance of Units . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 17 How to Change Units . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 17 2.8.1 Two other useful conversions . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 19
2.9
A sanity test . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 19
2.10 Summary . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 19 2.11 End of Chapter Exercises . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 21 3 Motion in One Dimension - Grade 10 3.1 3.2 23
Introduction . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 23 Reference Point, Frame of Reference and Position . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 23 3.2.1 3.2.2 Frames of Reference . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 23 Position . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 25 Interpreting Direction . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 29 Dierences between Distance and Displacement . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 29
3.3
Displacement and Distance . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 28 3.3.1 3.3.2
3.4
Speed, Average Velocity and Instantaneous Velocity . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 31 v
CONTENTS 3.4.1 3.5 3.6
CONTENTS Dierences between Speed and Velocity . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 35
Acceleration . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 38 Description of Motion . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 39 3.6.1 3.6.2 3.6.3 Stationary Object . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 40 Motion at Constant Velocity . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 41 Motion at Constant Acceleration . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 46
3.7 3.8 3.9
Summary of Graphs . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 48 Worked Examples . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 49 Equations of Motion . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 54 3.9.1 Finding the Equations of Motion . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 54
3.10 Applications in the Real-World . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 59 3.11 Summary . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 61 3.12 End of Chapter Exercises: Motion in One Dimension . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 62 4 Gravity and Mechanical Energy - Grade 10 4.1 67
Weight . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 67 4.1.1 Dierences between Mass and Weight . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 68
4.2
Acceleration due to Gravity . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 69 4.2.1 4.2.2 Gravitational Fields . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 69 Free fall . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 69
4.3 4.4
Potential Energy . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 73 Kinetic Energy . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 75 4.4.1 Checking units . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 77 . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 78
4.5
Mechanical Energy 4.5.1 4.5.2
Conservation of Mechanical Energy . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 78 Using the Law of Conservation of Energy . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 79
4.6 4.7 4.8
Energy graphs . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 82 Summary . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 83 End of Chapter Exercises: Gravity and Mechanical Energy . . . . . . . . . . . . 84 87
5 Transverse Pulses - Grade 10 5.1 5.2 5.3
Introduction . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 87 What is a medium? . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 87 What is a pulse? . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 87 5.3.1 5.3.2 Pulse Length and Amplitude . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 88 Pulse Speed . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 89
5.4
Graphs of Position and Velocity . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 90 5.4.1 5.4.2 Motion of a Particle of the Medium . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 90 Motion of the Pulse . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 92
5.5 5.6
Transmission and Reection of a Pulse at a Boundary . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 96 Reection of a Pulse from Fixed and Free Ends . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 97 5.6.1 Reection of a Pulse from a Fixed End . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 97 vi
CONTENTS 5.6.2 5.7 5.8
CONTENTS Reection of a Pulse from a Free End . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 98
Superposition of Pulses . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 99 Exercises - Transverse Pulses . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 102 105
6 Transverse Waves - Grade 10 6.1 6.2
Introduction . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 105 What is a transverse wave? . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 105 6.2.1 6.2.2 6.2.3 6.2.4 6.2.5 Peaks and Troughs . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 106 Amplitude and Wavelength . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 107 Points in Phase . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 109 Period and Frequency . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 110 Speed of a Transverse Wave . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 111
6.3 6.4
Graphs of Particle Motion . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 115 Standing Waves and Boundary Conditions . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 118 6.4.1 6.4.2 6.4.3 6.4.4 6.4.5 6.4.6 Reection of a Transverse Wave from a Fixed End . . . . . . . . . . . . 118 Reection of a Transverse Wave from a Free End . . . . . . . . . . . . . 118 Standing Waves . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 118 Nodes and anti-nodes . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 122 Wavelengths of Standing Waves with Fixed and Free Ends . . . . . . . . 122 Superposition and Interference . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 125
6.5 6.6
Summary . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 127 Exercises . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 127 129
7 Geometrical Optics - Grade 10 7.1 7.2
Introduction . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 129 Light Rays . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 129 7.2.1 7.2.2 Shadows . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 132 Ray Diagrams . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 132
7.3
Reection . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 132 7.3.1 7.3.2 7.3.3 Terminology . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 133 Law of Reection . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 133 Types of Reection . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 135
7.4
Refraction . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 137 7.4.1 7.4.2 7.4.3 Refractive Index . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 139 Snells Law . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 139
Apparent Depth . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 143
7.5
Mirrors . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 146 7.5.1 7.5.2 7.5.3 7.5.4 7.5.5 Image Formation . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 146 Plane Mirrors . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 147 Ray Diagrams . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 148 Spherical Mirrors . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 150 Concave Mirrors . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 150 vii
CONTENTS 7.5.6 7.5.7 7.5.8 7.6
CONTENTS Convex Mirrors . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 153 Summary of Properties of Mirrors . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 154 Magnication . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 154
Total Internal Reection and Fibre Optics . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 156 7.6.1 7.6.2 Total Internal Reection . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 156 Fibre Optics . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 161
7.7 7.8
Summary . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 163 Exercises . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 164 167
8 Magnetism - Grade 10 8.1 8.2 8.3
Introduction . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 167 Magnetic elds . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 167
Permanent magnets . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 169 8.3.1 8.3.2 8.3.3 The poles of permanent magnets . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 169 Magnetic attraction and repulsion . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 169 Representing magnetic elds . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 170
8.4
The compass and the earths magnetic eld . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 173 8.4.1 The earths magnetic eld . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 175
8.5 8.6
Summary . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 175 End of chapter exercises . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 176 177
9 Electrostatics - Grade 10 9.1 9.2 9.3 9.4 9.5 9.6
Introduction . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 177 Two kinds of charge . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 177 Unit of charge . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 177 Conservation of charge . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 177 Force between Charges . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 178 Conductors and insulators . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 181 9.6.1 The electroscope . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 182
9.7
Attraction between charged and uncharged objects . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 183 9.7.1 Polarisation of Insulators . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 183
9.8 9.9
Summary . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 184 End of chapter exercise . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 184 187
10 Electric Circuits - Grade 10
10.1 Electric Circuits . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 187 10.1.1 Closed circuits . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 187 10.1.2 Representing electric circuits . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 188 10.2 Potential Dierence . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 192 10.2.1 Potential Dierence . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 192 10.2.2 Potential Dierence and Parallel Resistors . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 193 10.2.3 Potential Dierence and Series Resistors . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 194 10.2.4 Ohms Law . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 194 viii
CONTENTS
CONTENTS
10.2.5 EMF . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 195 10.3 Current . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 198 10.3.1 Flow of Charge . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 198 10.3.2 Current . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 198 10.3.3 Series Circuits . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 199 10.3.4 Parallel Circuits . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 200 10.4 Resistance . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 202 10.4.1 What causes resistance? . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 202 10.4.2 Resistors in electric circuits . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 202 10.5 Instruments to Measure voltage, current and resistance . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 204 10.5.1 Voltmeter . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 204 10.5.2 Ammeter . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 204 10.5.3 Ohmmeter . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 204 10.5.4 Meters Impact on Circuit . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 205 10.6 Exercises - Electric circuits . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 205
III
Grade 11 - Physics
209
211
11 Vectors
11.1 Introduction . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 211 11.2 Scalars and Vectors . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 211 11.3 Notation . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 211 11.3.1 Mathematical Representation . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 212 11.3.2 Graphical Representation . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 212 11.4 Directions . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 212 11.4.1 Relative Directions . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 212 11.4.2 Compass Directions . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 213 11.4.3 Bearing . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 213 11.5 Drawing Vectors . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 214 11.6 Mathematical Properties of Vectors . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 215 11.6.1 Adding Vectors . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 215 11.6.2 Subtracting Vectors . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 217 11.6.3 Scalar Multiplication . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 218 11.7 Techniques of Vector Addition . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 218 11.7.1 Graphical Techniques . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 218 11.7.2 Algebraic Addition and Subtraction of Vectors . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 223 11.8 Components of Vectors . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 228 11.8.1 Vector addition using components . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 231 11.8.2 Summary . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 235 11.8.3 End of chapter exercises: Vectors . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 236 11.8.4 End of chapter exercises: Vectors - Long questions . . . . . . . . . . . . 237 ix
CONTENTS 12 Force, Momentum and Impulse - Grade 11
CONTENTS 239
12.1 Introduction . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 239 12.2 Force . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 239 12.2.1 What is a force? . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 239 12.2.2 Examples of Forces in Physics . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 240 12.2.3 Systems and External Forces . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 241 12.2.4 Force Diagrams . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 242 12.2.5 Free Body Diagrams . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 243 12.2.6 Finding the Resultant Force . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 244 12.2.7 Exercise . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 246 12.3 Newtons Laws . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 246 12.3.1 Newtons First Law . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 247 12.3.2 Newtons Second Law of Motion . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 249 12.3.3 Exercise . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 261 12.3.4 Newtons Third Law of Motion . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 263 12.3.5 Exercise . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 267 12.3.6 Dierent types of forces . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 268 12.3.7 Exercise . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 275 12.3.8 Forces in equilibrium . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 276 12.3.9 Exercise . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 279 12.4 Forces between Masses . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 282 12.4.1 Newtons Law of Universal Gravitation . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 282 12.4.2 Comparative Problems . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 284 12.4.3 Exercise . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 286 12.5 Momentum and Impulse . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 287 12.5.1 Vector Nature of Momentum . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 290 12.5.2 Exercise . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 291 12.5.3 Change in Momentum . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 291 12.5.4 Exercise . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 293 12.5.5 Newtons Second Law revisited . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 293 12.5.6 Impulse . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 294 12.5.7 Exercise . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 296 12.5.8 Conservation of Momentum . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 297 12.5.9 Physics in Action: Impulse . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 300 12.5.10 Exercise . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 301 12.6 Torque and Levers . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 302 12.6.1 Torque . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 302 12.6.2 Mechanical Advantage and Levers . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 305 12.6.3 Classes of levers . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 307 12.6.4 Exercise . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 308 12.7 Summary . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 309 12.8 End of Chapter exercises . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 310 x
CONTENTS 13 Geometrical Optics - Grade 11
CONTENTS 327
13.1 Introduction . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 327 13.2 Lenses . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 327 13.2.1 Converging Lenses . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 329 13.2.2 Diverging Lenses . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 340 . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 343
13.2.3 Summary of Image Properties
13.3 The Human Eye . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 344 13.3.1 Structure of the Eye . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 345 13.3.2 Defects of Vision . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 346 13.4 Gravitational Lenses . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 347 13.5 Telescopes . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 347 13.5.1 Refracting Telescopes . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 347 13.5.2 Reecting Telescopes . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 348 13.5.3 Southern African Large Telescope . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 348 13.6 Microscopes . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 349 13.7 Summary . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 351 13.8 Exercises . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 352 14 Longitudinal Waves - Grade 11 355
14.1 Introduction . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 355 14.2 What is a longitudinal wave? . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 355 14.3 Characteristics of Longitudinal Waves . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 356 14.3.1 Compression and Rarefaction . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 356 14.3.2 Wavelength and Amplitude . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 357 14.3.3 Period and Frequency . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 357 14.3.4 Speed of a Longitudinal Wave . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 358 14.4 Graphs of Particle Position, Displacement, Velocity and Acceleration . . . . . . . 359 14.5 Sound Waves . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 360 14.6 Seismic Waves . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 361 14.7 Summary - Longitudinal Waves . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 361 14.8 Exercises - Longitudinal Waves . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 362 15 Sound - Grade 11 363
15.1 Introduction . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 363 15.2 Characteristics of a Sound Wave . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 363 15.2.1 Pitch . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 364 15.2.2 Loudness . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 364 15.2.3 Tone . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 364 15.3 Speed of Sound . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 365 15.4 Physics of the Ear and Hearing . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 365 15.4.1 Intensity of Sound . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 366 15.5 Ultrasound . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 367 xi
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15.6 SONAR . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 368 15.6.1 Echolocation . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 368 15.7 Summary . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 369 15.8 Exercises . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 369 16 The Physics of Music - Grade 11 373
16.1 Introduction . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 373 16.2 Standing Waves in String Instruments . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 373 16.3 Standing Waves in Wind Instruments . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 377 16.4 Resonance . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 382 16.5 Music and Sound Quality . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 384 16.6 Summary - The Physics of Music . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 385 16.7 End of Chapter Exercises . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 386 17 Electrostatics - Grade 11 387
17.1 Introduction . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 387 17.2 Forces between charges - Coulombs Law . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 387 17.3 Electric eld around charges . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 392 17.3.1 Electric eld lines . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 393 17.3.2 Positive charge acting on a test charge . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 393 17.3.3 Combined charge distributions . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 394 17.3.4 Parallel plates . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 397 17.4 Electrical potential energy and potential . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 400 17.4.1 Electrical potential . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 400 17.4.2 Real-world application: lightning . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 402 17.5 Capacitance and the parallel plate capacitor . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 403 17.5.1 Capacitors and capacitance . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 403 17.5.2 Dielectrics . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 404 17.5.3 Physical properties of the capacitor and capacitance . . . . . . . . . . . . 404 17.5.4 Electric eld in a capacitor . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 405 17.6 Capacitor as a circuit device . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 406 17.6.1 A capacitor in a circuit . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 406 17.6.2 Real-world applications: capacitors . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 407 17.7 Summary . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 407 17.8 Exercises - Electrostatics . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 407 18 Electromagnetism - Grade 11 413
18.1 Introduction . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 413 18.2 Magnetic eld associated with a current . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 413 18.2.1 Real-world applications . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 418 18.3 Current induced by a changing magnetic eld . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 420 18.3.1 Real-life applications . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 422 18.4 Transformers . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 423 xii
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18.4.1 Real-world applications . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 425 18.5 Motion of a charged particle in a magnetic eld . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 425 18.5.1 Real-world applications . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 426 18.6 Summary . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 427 18.7 End of chapter exercises . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 427 19 Electric Circuits - Grade 11 429
19.1 Introduction . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 429 19.2 Ohms Law . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 429 19.2.1 Denition of Ohms Law . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 429 19.2.2 Ohmic and non-ohmic conductors . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 431 19.2.3 Using Ohms Law . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 432 19.3 Resistance . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 433 19.3.1 Equivalent resistance . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 433 19.3.2 Use of Ohms Law in series and parallel Circuits . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 438 19.3.3 Batteries and internal resistance . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 440 19.4 Series and parallel networks of resistors . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 442 19.5 Wheatstone bridge . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 445 19.6 Summary . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 447 19.7 End of chapter exercise . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 447 20 Electronic Properties of Matter - Grade 11 451
20.1 Introduction . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 451 20.2 Conduction . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 451 20.2.1 Metals . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 453 20.2.2 Insulator . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 453 20.2.3 Semi-conductors . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 454 20.3 Intrinsic Properties and Doping . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 454 20.3.1 Surplus . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 455 20.3.2 Deciency . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 455 20.4 The p-n junction . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 457 20.4.1 Dierences between p- and n-type semi-conductors . . . . . . . . . . . . 457 20.4.2 The p-n Junction . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 457 20.4.3 Unbiased . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 457 20.4.4 Forward biased . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 457
20.4.5 Reverse biased . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 458 20.4.6 Real-World Applications of Semiconductors . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 458 20.5 End of Chapter Exercises . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 459
IV
Grade 12 - Physics
461
463
21 Motion in Two Dimensions - Grade 12
21.1 Introduction . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 463 xiii
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21.2 Vertical Projectile Motion . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 463 21.2.1 Motion in a Gravitational Field . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 463 21.2.2 Equations of Motion . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 464 21.2.3 Graphs of Vertical Projectile Motion . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 467 21.3 Conservation of Momentum in Two Dimensions . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 475 21.4 Types of Collisions . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 480 21.4.1 Elastic Collisions . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 480 21.4.2 Inelastic Collisions . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 485 21.5 Frames of Reference . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 490 21.5.1 Introduction . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 490 21.5.2 What is a frame of reference? . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 491 21.5.3 Why are frames of reference important? . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 491 21.5.4 Relative Velocity . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 491 21.6 Summary . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 494 21.7 End of chapter exercises . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 495 22 Mechanical Properties of Matter - Grade 12 503
22.1 Introduction . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 503 22.2 Deformation of materials . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 503 22.2.1 Hookes Law . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 503 22.2.2 Deviation from Hookes Law . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 506 22.3 Elasticity, plasticity, fracture, creep . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 508 22.3.1 Elasticity and plasticity . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 508 22.3.2 Fracture, creep and fatigue . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 508 22.4 Failure and strength of materials . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 509 22.4.1 The properties of matter . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 509 22.4.2 Structure and failure of materials . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 509 22.4.3 Controlling the properties of materials . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 509 22.4.4 Steps of Roman Swordsmithing . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 510 22.5 Summary . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 511 22.6 End of chapter exercise . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 511 23 Work, Energy and Power - Grade 12 513
23.1 Introduction . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 513 23.2 Work . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 513 23.3 Energy . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 519 23.3.1 External and Internal Forces . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 519 23.3.2 Capacity to do Work . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 520 23.4 Power . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 525 23.5 Important Equations and Quantities . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 529 23.6 End of Chapter Exercises . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 529 xiv
CONTENTS 24 Doppler Eect - Grade 12
CONTENTS 533
24.1 Introduction . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 533 24.2 The Doppler Eect with Sound and Ultrasound . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 533 24.2.1 Ultrasound and the Doppler Eect . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 537 24.3 The Doppler Eect with Light . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 537 24.3.1 The Expanding Universe . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 538 24.4 Summary . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 539 24.5 End of Chapter Exercises . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 539 25 Colour - Grade 12 541
25.1 Introduction . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 541 25.2 Colour and Light . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 541 25.2.1 Dispersion of white light . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 544 25.3 Addition and Subtraction of Light . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 544 25.3.1 Additive Primary Colours . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 544 25.3.2 Subtractive Primary Colours . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 545 25.3.3 Complementary Colours . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 546 25.3.4 Perception of Colour . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 546 25.3.5 Colours on a Television Screen . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 547 25.4 Pigments and Paints . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 548
25.4.1 Colour of opaque objects . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 548 25.4.2 Colour of transparent objects . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 548 25.4.3 Pigment primary colours . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 549 25.5 End of Chapter Exercises . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 550 26 2D and 3D Wavefronts - Grade 12 553
26.1 Introduction . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 553 26.2 Wavefronts . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 553 26.3 The Huygens Principle . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 554 26.4 Interference . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 556 26.5 Diraction . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 557 26.5.1 Diraction through a Slit . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 558 26.6 Shock Waves and Sonic Booms . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 562 26.6.1 Subsonic Flight . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 563 26.6.2 Supersonic Flight . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 563 26.6.3 Mach Cone . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 566 26.7 End of Chapter Exercises . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 568 27 Wave Nature of Matter - Grade 12 571
27.1 Introduction . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 571 27.2 de Broglie Wavelength . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 571
27.3 The Electron Microscope . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 574 27.3.1 Disadvantages of an Electron Microscope . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 577 xv
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27.3.2 Uses of Electron Microscopes . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 577 27.4 End of Chapter Exercises . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 578 28 Electrodynamics - Grade 12 579
28.1 Introduction . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 579 28.2 Electrical machines - generators and motors . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 579 28.2.1 Electrical generators . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 580 28.2.2 Electric motors . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 582 28.2.3 Real-life applications . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 582 28.2.4 Exercise - generators and motors . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 584 28.3 Alternating Current . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 585 28.3.1 Exercise - alternating current . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 586 28.4 Capacitance and inductance . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 586 28.4.1 Capacitance . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 586 28.4.2 Inductance . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 586 28.4.3 Exercise - capacitance and inductance . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 588 28.5 Summary . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 588 28.6 End of chapter exercise . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 589 29 Electronics - Grade 12 591
29.1 Introduction . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 591 29.2 Capacitive and Inductive Circuits . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 591 29.3 Filters and Signal Tuning . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 596 29.3.1 Capacitors and Inductors as Filters . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 596 29.3.2 LRC Circuits, Resonance and Signal Tuning . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 596 29.4 Active Circuit Elements . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 599 29.4.1 The Diode . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 599 29.4.2 The Light Emitting Diode (LED) . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 601 29.4.3 Transistor . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 603 29.4.4 The Operational Amplier . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 607 29.5 The Principles of Digital Electronics . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 609 29.5.1 Logic Gates . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 610 29.6 Using and Storing Binary Numbers . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 616 29.6.1 Binary numbers . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 616 29.6.2 Counting circuits . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 617 29.6.3 Storing binary numbers . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 619 30 EM Radiation 625
30.1 Introduction . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 625 30.2 Particle/wave nature of electromagnetic radiation . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 625 30.3 The wave nature of electromagnetic radiation . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 626 30.4 Electromagnetic spectrum . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 626 30.5 The particle nature of electromagnetic radiation . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 629 xvi
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30.5.1 Exercise - particle nature of EM waves . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 630 30.6 Penetrating ability of electromagnetic radiation . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 631 30.6.1 Ultraviolet(UV) radiation and the skin . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 631 30.6.2 Ultraviolet radiation and the eyes . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 632 30.6.3 X-rays . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 632 30.6.4 Gamma-rays . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 632 30.6.5 Exercise - Penetrating ability of EM radiation . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 633 30.7 Summary . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 633 30.8 End of chapter exercise . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 633 31 Optical Phenomena and Properties of Matter - Grade 12 635
31.1 Introduction . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 635 31.2 The transmission and scattering of light . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 635 31.2.1 Energy levels of an electron . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 635 31.2.2 Interaction of light with metals . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 636 31.2.3 Why is the sky blue? . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 637 31.3 The photoelectric eect . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 638 31.3.1 Applications of the photoelectric eect . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 640 31.3.2 Real-life applications . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 642 31.4 Emission and absorption spectra . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 643 31.4.1 Emission Spectra . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 643 31.4.2 Absorption spectra . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 644 31.4.3 Colours and energies of electromagnetic radiation . . . . . . . . . . . . . 646 31.4.4 Applications of emission and absorption spectra . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 648 31.5 Lasers . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 650 31.5.1 How a laser works . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 652 31.5.2 A simple laser . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 654 31.5.3 Laser applications and safety . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 655 31.6 Summary . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 656 31.7 End of chapter exercise . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 657
Exercises
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661
32 Exercises
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Essays
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665 671 673 675 xvii
Essay 1: Energy and electricity. Why the fuss? 33 Essay: How a cell phone works 34 Essay: How a Physiotherapist uses the Concept of Levers 35 Essay: How a Pilot Uses Vectors
CONTENTS A GNU Free Documentation License
CONTENTS 677
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Chapter 13
Geometrical Optics - Grade 11

13.1 Introduction
In Grade 10, we studied how light is reected and refracted. This chapter builds on what you have learnt in Grade 10. You will learn about lenses, how the human eye works as well as how telescopes and microscopes work.
13.2
Lenses
In this section we will discuss properties of thin lenses. In Grade 10, you learnt about two kinds of mirrors: concave mirrors which were also known as converging mirrors and convex mirrors which were also known as diverging mirrors. Similarly, there are two types of lenses: converging and diverging lenses. We have learnt how light travels in dierent materials, and we are now ready to learn how we can control the direction of light rays. We use lenses to control the direction of light. When light enters a lens, the light rays bend or change direction as shown in Figure 13.1.
Denition: Lens A lens is any transparent material (e.g. glass) of an appropriate shape that can take parallel rays of incident light and either converge the rays to a point or diverge the rays from a point.
Some lenses will focus light rays to a single point. These lenses are called converging or concave lenses. Other lenses spread out the light rays so that it looks like they all come from the same point. These lenses are called diverging or convex lenses. Lenses change the direction of light rays by refraction. They are designed so that the image appears in a certain place or as a certain size. Lenses are used in eyeglasses, cameras, microscopes, and telescopes. You also have lenses in your eyes!
Denition: Converging Lenses Converging lenses converge parallel rays of light and are thicker in the middle than at the edges.
Denition: Diverging Lenses Diverging lenses diverge parallel rays of light and are thicker at the edges than in the middle. 327
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CHAPTER 13. GEOMETRICAL OPTICS - GRADE 11
parallel rays of light enter the lens
rays are focused at the same point
(a) A converging lens will focus the rays that enter the lens
parallel rays of light enter the lens
rays are spread out as if they are coming from the same point
(b) A diverging lens will spread out the rays that enter the lens
Figure 13.1: The behaviour of parallel light rays entering either a converging or diverging lens.
Examples of converging and diverging lenses are shown in Figure 13.2.
converging lenses
diverging lenses
Figure 13.2: Types of lenses Before we study lenses in detail, there are a few important terms that must be dened. Figure 13.3 shows important lens properties: The principal axis is the line which runs horizontally straight through the optical centre of the lens. It is also sometimes called the optic axis. The optical centre (O) of a convex lens is usually the centre point of the lens. The direction of all light rays which pass through the optical centre, remains unchanged. The focus or focal point of the lens is the position on the principal axis where all light rays which run parallel to the principal axis through the lens converge (come together) at a point. Since light can pass through the lens either from right to left or left to right, there is a focal point on each side of the lens (F1 and F2 ), at the same distance from the optical centre in each direction. (Note: the plural form of the word focus is foci.) The focal length (f ) is the distance between the optical centre and the focal point. 328
13.2
Principal axis F1 Optical centre f

(a) converging lens
F2
Principal axis F1 Optical centre f

(b) diverging lens
F2
Figure 13.3: Properties of lenses.
13.2.1
Converging Lenses
We will only discuss double convex converging lenses as shown in Figure 13.4. Converging lenses are thinner on the outside and thicker on the inside.
Figure 13.4: A double convex lens is a converging lens.
Figure 13.5 shows a convex lens. Light rays traveling through a convex lens are bent towards the principal axis. For this reason, convex lenses are called converging lenses.
Principal axis F1 O F2
Figure 13.5: Light rays bend towards each other or converge when they travel through a convex lens. F1 and F2 are the foci of the lens.
The type of images created by a convex lens is dependent on the position of the object. We will 329
13.2 examine the following cases:
1. the object is placed at a distance greater than 2f from the lens 2. the object is placed at a distance equal to 2f from the lens 3. the object is placed at a distance between 2f and f from the lens 4. the object is placed at a distance less than f from the lens We examine the properties of the image in each of these cases by drawing ray diagrams. We can nd the image by tracing the path of three light rays through the lens. Any two of these rays will show us the location of the image. You can use the third ray to check the location.
Activity :: Experiment : Lenses A Aim: To determine the focal length of a convex lens. Method: 1. Using a distant object from outside, adjust the position of the convex lens so that it gives the smallest possible focus on a sheet of paper that is held parallel to the lens. 2. Measure the distance between the lens and the sheet of paper as accurately as possible. Results: The focal length of the lens is cm
Activity :: Experiment : Lenses B Aim: To investigate the position, size and nature of the image formed by a convex lens. Method: 1. Set up the candle, the lens from Experiment Lenses A in its holder and the screen in a straight line on the metre rule. Make sure the lens holder is on the 50 cm mark. From your knowledge of the focal length of your lens, note where f and 2f are on both sides of the lens. 2. Using the position indicated on the table below, start with the candle at a position that is greater than 2f and adjust the position of the screen until a sharp focused image is obtained. Note that there are two positions for which a sharp focused image will not be obtained on the screen. When this is so, remove the screen and look at the candle through the lens. 3. Fill in the relevant information on the table below Results: 330
13.2
Candle on same level as lens
lens and lens holder
screen that can be moved
metre stick 50 cm mark
Figure 13.6: Experimental setup for investigation.
Relative position of object

Beyond 2f cm At 2f cm Between 2f and f cm At f cm Between f and the lens cm
Relative position of image
Image upright or inverted
Relative size of image
Nature image
of
331
13.2 QUESTIONS:
1. When a convex lens is being used: 1.1 A real inverted image is formed when an object is placed 1.2 No image is formed when an object is placed 1.3 An upright, enlarged, virtual image is formed when an object is placed 2. Write a conclusion for this investigation.
Activity :: Experiment : Lenses C Aim: To determine the mathematical relationship between d0 , di and f for a lens. Method: 1. Using the same arrangement as in Experiment Lenses B, place the object (candle) at the distance indicated from the lens. 2. Move the screen until a clear sharp image is obtained. Record the results on the table below. Results:
f = focal length of lens d0 = object distance di = image distance
Object distance d0 (cm) 25,0 20,0 18,0 15,0
Image distance di (cm)
1 d0
1 di 1
(cm
(cm
1 + di 1 (cm )
1 d0
Average
Reciprocal of average =
1 d0
1 +
1 di
= =
(a) (b)
Focal length of lens QUESTIONS:
1. Compare the values for (a) and (b) above and explain any similarities or dierences 2. What is the name of the mathematical relationship between d0 , di and f ? 3. Write a conclusion for this part of the investigation.
Drawing Ray Diagrams for Converging Lenses The three rays are labelled R1 , R2 and R3 . The ray diagrams that follow will use this naming convention. 1. The rst ray (R1 ) travels from the object to the lens parallel to the principal axis. This ray is bent by the lens and travels through the focal point. 2. Any ray travelling parallel to the principal axis is bent through the focal point. 332
13.2
3. If a light ray passes through a focal point before it enters the lens, then it will leave the lens parallel to the principal axis. The second ray (R2 ) is therefore drawn to pass through the focal point before it enters the lens. 4. A ray that travels through the centre of the lens does not change direction. The third ray (R3 ) is drawn through the centre of the lens. 5. The point where all three of the rays (R1 , R2 and R3 ) intersect is the image of the point where they all started. The image will form at this point.
Important: In ray diagrams, lenses are drawn like this:
Convex lens:
Concave lens:
CASE 1: Object placed at a distance greater than 2f from the lens
R1 R3 Object F1 R2 O F2 Image
Figure 13.7: An object is placed at a distance greater than 2f away from the converging lens. Three rays are drawn to locate the image, which is real, smaller than the object and inverted. We can locate the position of the image by drawing our three rays. R1 travels from the object to the lens parallel to the principal axis and is bent by the lens and then travels through the focal point. R2 passes through the focal point before it enters the lens and therefore must leave the lens parallel to the principal axis. R3 travels through the center of the lens and does not change direction. The point where R1 , R2 and R3 intersect is the image of the point where they all started. The image of an object placed at a distance greater than 2f from the lens is upside down or inverted. This is because the rays which began at the top of the object, above the principal axis, after passing through the lens end up below the principal axis. The image is called a real image because it is on the opposite side of the lens to the object and you can trace all the light rays directly from the image back to the object. The image is also smaller than the object and is located closer to the lens than the object.
Important: In reality, light rays come from all points along the length of the object. In ray diagrams we only draw three rays (all starting at the top of the object) to keep the diagram clear and simple.
333
13.2
CASE 2: Object placed at a distance equal to 2f from the lens
R1 R3 Object F1 R2 O F2 Image
Figure 13.8: An object is placed at a distance equal to 2f away from the converging lens. Three rays are drawn to locate the image, which is real, the same size as the object and inverted. We can locate the position of the image by drawing our three rays. R1 travels from the object to the lens parallel to the principal axis and is bent by the lens and then travels through the focal point. R2 passes through the focal point before it enters the lens and therefore must leave the lens parallel to the principal axis. R3 travels through the center of the lens and does not change direction. The point where R1 , R2 and R3 intersect is the image of the point where they all started. The image of an object placed at a distance equal to 2f from the lens is upside down or inverted. This is because the rays which began at the top of the object, above the principal axis, after passing through the lens end up below the principal axis. The image is called a real image because it is on the opposite side of the lens to the object and you can trace all the light rays directly from the image back to the object. The image is the same size as the object and is located at a distance 2f away from the lens. CASE 3: Object placed at a distance between 2f and f from the lens
R1 R3 Object F1 O F2 Image
R2 f f f f
Figure 13.9: An object is placed at a distance between 2f and f away from the converging lens. Three rays are drawn to locate the image, which is real, larger than the object and inverted. We can locate the position of the image by drawing our three rays. R1 travels from the object to the lens parallel to the principal axis and is bent by the lens and then travels through the focal point. R2 passes through the focal point before it enters the lens and therefore must leave the lens parallel to the principal axis. R3 travels through the center of the lens and does not change direction. The point where R1 , R2 and R3 intersect is the image of the point where they all started. 334
13.2
The image of an object placed at a distance between 2f and f from the lens is upside down or inverted. This is because the rays which began at the top of the object, above the principal axis, after passing through the lens end up below the principal axis. The image is called a real image because it is on the opposite side of the lens to the object and you can trace all the light rays directly from the image back to the object. The image is larger than the object and is located at a distance greater than 2f away from the lens. CASE 4: Object placed at a distance less than f from the lens
R3 R1 R2
F2 Image F1 Object O
Figure 13.10: An object is placed at a distance less than f away from the converging lens. Three rays are drawn to locate the image, which is virtual, larger than the object and upright. We can locate the position of the image by drawing our three rays. R1 travels from the object to the lens parallel to the principal axis and is bent by the lens and then travels through the focal point. R2 passes through the focal point before it enters the lens and therefore must leave the lens parallel to the principal axis. R3 travels through the center of the lens and does not change direction. The point where R1 , R2 and R3 intersect is the image of the point where they all started. The image of an object placed at a distance less than f from the lens is upright. The image is called a virtual image because it is on the same side of the lens as the object and you cannot trace all the light rays directly from the image back to the object. The image is larger than the object and is located further away from the lens than the object.
Extension: The thin lens equation and magnication The Thin Lens Equation We can nd the position of the image of a lens mathematically as there is mathematical relation between the object distance, image distance, and focal length. The equation is: 1 1 1 + = f do di where f is the focal length, do is the object distance and di is the image distance. The object distance do is the distance from the object to the lens. do is positive if the object is on the same side of the lens as the light rays enter the lens. This 335
13.2
CHAPTER 13. GEOMETRICAL OPTICS - GRADE 11 should make sense: we expect the light rays to travel from the object to the lens. The image distance di is the distance from the lens to the image. Unlike mirrors, which reect light back, lenses refract light through them. We expect to nd the image on the same side of the lens as the light leaves the lens. If this is the case, then di is positive and the image is real (see Figure 13.9). Sometimes the image will be on the same side of the lens as the light rays enter the lens. Then di is negative and the image is virtual (Figure 13.10). If we know any two of the three quantities above, then we can use the Thin Lens Equation to solve for the third quantity. Magnication It is possible to calculate the magnication of an image. The magnication is how much bigger or smaller the image is than the object. m= di do
where m is the magnication, do is the object distance and di is the image distance. If di and do are both positive, the magnication is negative. This means the image is inverted, or upside down. If di is negative and do is positive, then the image is not inverted, or right side up. If the absolute value of the magnication is greater than one, the image is larger than the object. For example, a magnication of -2 means the image is inverted and twice as big as the object.
Worked Example 97: Using the lens equation Question: An object is placed 6 cm from a converging lens with a focal point of 4 cm. 1. Calculate the position of the image 2. Calculate the magnication of the lens 3. Identify three properties of the image Answer Step 1 : Identify what is given and what is being asked
f do di m
= = = =
4 cm 6 cm ? ?
Properties of the image are required. Step 2 : Calculate the image distance (di ) 1 f 1 4 1 1 4 6 32 12 di 1 1 + do di 1 1 + 6 di 1 di 1 di 12 cm
= = = = =
Step 3 : Calculate the magnication 336
13.2
di do 12 = 6 = 2
Step 4 : Write down the properties of the image The image is real, di is positive, inverted (because the magnication is negative) and enlarged (magnication is > 1)
Worked Example 98: Locating the image position of a convex lens: I Question: An object is placed 5 cm to the left of a converging lens which has a focal length of 2,5 cm. 1. What is the position of the image? 2. Is the image real or virtual? Answer Step 1 : Set up the ray diagram Draw the lens, the object and mark the focal points.
F2 Object F1 O
Step 2 : Draw the three rays R1 goes from the top of the object parallel to the principal axis, through the lens and through the focal point F2 on the other side of the lens. R2 goes from the top of the object through the focal point F1 , through the lens and out parallel to the principal axis. R3 goes from the top of the object through the optical centre with its direction unchanged.
R1 R3 Object F1 R2 O F2
Step 3 : Find the image The image is at the place where all the rays intersect. Draw the image. 337
13.2
F2 Object F1 O
Image
Step 4 : Measure the distance between the lens and the image The image is 5 cm away from the lens, on the opposite side of the lens to the object. Step 5 : Is the image virtual or real? Since the image is on the opposite side of the lens to the object, the image is real.
Worked Example 99: Locating the image position of a convex lens: II Question: An object, 1 cm high, is placed 2 cm to the left of a converging lens which has a focal length of 3,0 cm. The image is found also on the left side of the lens. 1. Is the image real or virtual? 2. What is the position and height of the image? Answer Step 1 : Draw the picture to set up the problem Draw the lens, principal axis, focal points and the object.
F2 F1 Object O
Step 2 : Draw the three rays to locate image R1 goes from the top of the object parallel to the principal axis, through the lens and through the focal point F2 on the other side of the lens. R2 is the light ray which should go through the focal point F1 but the object is placed after the focal point! This is not a problem, just trace the line from the focal point F1 , through the top of the object, to the lens. This ray then leaves the lens parallel to the principal axis. R3 goes from the top of the object through the optical centre with its direction unchanged. 338
CHAPTER 13. GEOMETRICAL OPTICS - GRADE 11 Do not write R1 , R2 and R3 on your diagram, otherwise it becomes too cluttered. Since the rays do not intersect on the right side of the lens, we need to trace them backwards to nd the place where they do come together (these are the light gray lines). Again, this is the position of the image. R1 R2 R3
13.2
F2 F1 Object O
Step 3 : Draw the image
F2 Image F1 Object O
Step 4 : Measure distance to image The image is 6 cm away from the lens, on the same side as the object. Step 5 : Measure the height of the image The image is 3 cm high. Step 6 : Is image real or virtual? Since the image is on the same side of the lens as the object, the image is virtual.
Exercise: Converging Lenses 1. Which type of lens can be used as a magnifying glass? Draw a diagram to show how it works. An image of the sun is formed at the principal focus of a magnifying glass. 339
13.2
CHAPTER 13. GEOMETRICAL OPTICS - GRADE 11 2. In each case state whether a real or virtual image is formed: 2.1 2.2 2.3 2.4 2.5 2.6 Much further than 2f Just further than 2f At 2f Between 2f and f At f Between f and 0
Is a virtual image always inverted? 3. An object stands 50 mm from a lens (focal length 40 mm). Draw an accurate sketch to determine the position of the image. Is it enlarged or shrunk; upright or inverted? 4. Draw a scale diagram (scale: 1 cm = 50 mm) to nd the position of the image formed by a convex lens with a focal length of 200 mm. The distance of the object is 100 mm and the size of the object is 50 mm. Determine whether the image is enlarged or shrunk. What is the height of the image? What is the magnication? 5. An object, 20 mm high, is 80 mm from a convex lens with focal length 50 mm. Draw an accurate scale diagram and nd the position and size of the image, and hence the ratio between the image size and object size. 6. An object, 50 mm high, is placed 100 mm from a convex lens with a focal length of 150 mm. Construct an accurate ray diagram to determine the nature of the image, the size of the image and the magnication. Check your answer for the magnication by using a calculation. 7. What would happen if you placed the object right at the focus of a converging lens? Hint: Draw the picture.
13.2.2
Diverging Lenses
We will only discuss double concave diverging lenses as shown in Figure 13.11. Concave lenses are thicker on the outside and thinner on the inside.
Figure 13.11: A double concave lens is a diverging lens.
Figure 13.12 shows a concave lens with light rays travelling through it. You can see that concave lenses have the opposite curvature to convex lenses. This causes light rays passing through a concave lens to diverge or be spread out away from the principal axis. For this reason, concave lenses are called diverging lenses. Images formed by concave lenses are always virtual. Unlike converging lenses, the type of images created by a concave lens is not dependent on the position of the object. The image is always upright, smaller than the object, and located closer to the lens than the object. We examine the properties of the image by drawing ray diagrams. We can nd the image by tracing the path of three light rays through the lens. Any two of these rays will show us the 340
13.2
F1
F2
Figure 13.12: Light rays bend away from each other or diverge when they travel through a concave lens. F1 and F2 are the foci of the lens.
location of the image. You can use the third ray to check the location, but it is not necessary to show it on your diagram.
341
13.2
Drawing Ray Diagrams for Diverging Lenses Draw the three rays starting at the top of the object. 1. Ray R1 travels parallel to the principal axis. The ray bends and lines up with a focal point. However, the concave lens is a diverging lens, so the ray must line up with the focal point on the same side of the lens where light rays enter it. This means that we must project an imaginary line backwards through that focal point (F1 ) (shown by the dashed line extending from R1 ). 2. Ray R2 points towards the focal point F2 on the opposite side of the lens. When it hits the lens, it is bent parallel to the principal axis. 3. Ray R3 passes through the optical center of the lens. Like for the convex lens, this ray passes through with its direction unchanged. 4. We nd the image by locating the point where the rays meet. Since the rays diverge, they will only meet if projected backward to a point on the same side of the lens as the object. This is why concave lenses always have virtual images. (Since the light rays do not actually meet at the image, the image cannot be real.) Figure 13.13 shows an object placed at an arbitrary distance from the diverging lens. We can locate the position of the image by drawing our three rays for a diverging lens. Figure 13.13 shows that the image of an object is upright. The image is called a virtual image because it is on the same side of the lens as the object. The image is smaller than the object and is closer to the lens than the object.
R1 R2 R3 F1 Object Image O F2
Figure 13.13: Three rays are drawn to locate the image, which is virtual, smaller than the object and upright.
Worked Example 100: Locating the image position for a diverging lens: I Question: An object is placed 4 cm to the left of a diverging lens which has a focal length of 6 cm. 1. What is the position of the image? 2. Is the image real or virtual? Answer Step 1 : Set up the problem Draw the lens, object, principal axis and focal points. 342
13.2
F1
Object
F2
Step 2 : Draw the three light rays to locate the image R1 goes from the top of the object parallel to the principal axis. To determine the angle it has when it leaves the lens on the other side, we draw the dashed line from the focus F1 through the point where R1 hits the lens. (Remember: for a diverging lens, the light ray on the opposite side of the lens to the object has to bend away from the principal axis.) R2 goes from the top of the object in the direction of the other focal point F2 . After it passes through the lens, it travels parallel to the principal axis. R3 goes from the top of the lens, straight through the optical centre with its direction unchanged. Just like for converging lenses, the image is found at the position where all the light rays intersect. R1 R2 R3 F1 Object O F2
Step 3 : Draw the image Draw the image at the point where all three rays intersect. R1 R2 R3 F1 Object Image O F2
Step 4 : Measure the distance to the object The distance to the object is 2,4 cm. Step 5 : Determine type of object The image is on the same side of the lens as the object, and is upright. Therefore it is virtual. (Remember: The image from a diverging lens is always virtual.)
13.2.3
Summary of Image Properties
The properties of the images formed by converging and diverging lenses depend on the position of the object. The properties are summarised in the Table 13.1.
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13.3
CHAPTER 13. GEOMETRICAL OPTICS - GRADE 11 Table 13.1: Summary of image properties for converging and diverging Image Properties Lens type Object Position Position Orientation Size Converging > 2f < 2f inverted smaller Converging 2f 2f inverted same size Converging > f, < 2f > 2f inverted larger Converging f no image formed Converging <f >f upright larger Diverging any position <f upright smaller lenses Type real real real virtual virtual
Exercise: Diverging Lenses 1. An object 3 cm high is at right angles to the principal axis of a concave lens of focal length 15 cm. If the distance from the object to the lens is 30 cm, nd the distance of the image from the lens, and its height. Is it real or virtual? 2. The image formed by a concave lens of focal length 10 cm is 7,5 cm from the lens and is 1,5 cm high. Find the distance of the object from the lens, and its height. 3. An object 6 cm high is 10 cm from a concave lens. The image formed is 3 cm high. Find the focal length of the lens and the distance of the image from the lens.
13.3
The Human Eye
Activity :: Investigation : Model of the Human Eye This demonstration shows that: 1. The eyeball has a spherical shape. 2. The pupil is a small hole in the front and middle of the eye that lets light into the eye. 3. The retina is at the back of the eyeball. 4. The images that we see are formed on the retina. 5. The images on the retina are upside down. The brain inverts the images so that what we see is the right way up. You will need: 1. a round, clear glass bowl 2. water 3. a sheet of cardboard covered with black paper 4. a sheet of cardboard covered with white paper 5. a small desk lamp with an incandescent light-bulb or a candle and a match You will have to: 1. Fill the glass bowl with water. 2. Make a small hole in the middle of the black cardboard. 3. Place the black cardboard against one side of the bowl and the white cardboard on the other side of the bowl so that it is opposite the black cardboard. 4. Turn on the lamp (or light the candle). 344
CHAPTER 13. GEOMETRICAL OPTICS - GRADE 11 5. Place the lamp so it is shining through the hole in the black cardboard. 6. Make the room as dark as possible. 7. Move the white cardboard until an image of the light bulb or candle appears on it. You now have a working model of the human eye. 1. The hole in the black cardboard represents the pupil. The pupil is a small hole in the front of the eyeball that lets light into the eye. 2. The round bowl of water represents the eyeball. 3. The white cardboard represents the retina. Images are projected onto the retina and are then sent to the brain via the optic nerve. Tasks 1. Is the image on the retina right-side up or upside down? Explain why. 2. Draw a simple labelled diagram of the model of the eye showing which part of the eye each part of the model represents.
13.3
13.3.1
Structure of the Eye
Eyesight begins with lenses. As light rays enter your eye, they pass rst through the cornea and then through the crystalline lens. These form a double lens system and focus light rays onto the back wall of the eye, called the retina. Rods and cones are nerve cells on the retina that transform light into electrical signals. These signals are sent to the brain via the optic nerve. A cross-section of the eye is shown in Figure 13.14.
Cornea Crystalline Lens
Retina
Optic Nerve Figure 13.14: A cross-section of the human eye. For clear vision, the image must be formed right on the retina, not in front of or behind it. To accomplish this, you may need a long or short focal length, depending on the object distance. How do we get the exact right focal length we need? Remember that the lens system has two parts. The cornea is xed in place but the crystalline lens is exible it can change shape. When the shape of the lens changes, its focal length also changes. You have muscles in your eye called ciliary muscles that control the shape of the crystalline lens. When you focus your gaze on something, you are squeezing (or relaxing) these muscles. This process of accommodation changes the focal length of the lens and allows you to see an image clearly. The lens in the eye creates a real image that is smaller than the object and is inverted (Figure 13.15). 345
13.3
Figure 13.15: Normal eye
Figure 13.16: Normal eye
13.3.2
Defects of Vision
In a normal eye the image is focused on the retina. If the muscles in the eye are unable to accommodate adequately, the image will not be in focus. This leads to problems with vision. There are three basic conditions that arise: 1. short-sightedness 2. long-sightedness 3. astigmatism
Short-sightedness Short-sightedness or myopia is a defect of vision which means that the image is focused in front of the retina. Close objects are seen clearly but distant objects appear blurry. This condition can be corrected by placing a diverging lens in front of the eye. The diverging lens spreads out light rays before they enter the eye. The situation for short-sightedness and how to correct it is shown in Figure 13.17.
(a)
Short-sightedness : Light rays are (b) focused in front of the retina.
Short-sightedness corrected by a diverging lens.
Figure 13.17: Short-sightedness 346
CHAPTER 13. GEOMETRICAL OPTICS - GRADE 11 Long-sightedness
13.4
Long-sightedness or hyperopia is a defect of vision which means that the image is focused in behind the retina. People with this condition can see distant objects clearly, but not close ones. A converging lens in front of the eye corrects long-sightedness by converging the light rays slightly before they enter the eye. Reading glasses are an example of a converging lens used to correct long-sightedness.
(a)
Long-sightedness : Light rays are (b) focused in behind the retina.
Long-sightedness corrected by a converging lens.
Figure 13.18: Long-sightedness
Astigmatism Astigmatism is characterised by a cornea or lens that is not spherical, but is more curved in one plane compared to another. This means that horizontal lines may be focused at a dierent point to vertical lines. Astigmatism is corrected by a special lens, which has dierent focal lengths in the vertical and horizontal planes.
13.4
Gravitational Lenses
Einsteins Theory of General Relativity predicts that light that passes close to very heavy objects like galaxies, black holes and massive stars will be bent. These massive objects therefore act as a kind of lens that is known as a gravitational lens. Gravitational lenses distort and change the apparent position of the image of stars. If a heavy object is acting as a gravitational lens, then an observer from Earth will see many images of a distant star (Figure 13.19).
13.5
Telescopes
We have seen how a simple lens can be used to correct eyesight. Lenses and mirrors are also combined to magnify (or make bigger) objects that are far away. Telescopes use combinations of lenses to gather and focus light. However, telescopes collect light from objects that are large but far away, like planets and galaxies. For this reason, telescopes are the tools of astronomers. Astronomy is the study of objects outside the Earth, like stars, planets, galaxies, comets, and asteroids. Usually the object viewed with a telescope is very far away. There are two types of objects: those with a detectable diameter, such as the moon, and objects that appear as points of light, like stars. There are many kinds of telescopes, but we will look at two basic types: reecting and refracting.
13.5.1
Refracting Telescopes
A refracting telescope like the one pictured in Figure 13.20 uses two convex lenses to enlarge an image. The refracting telescope has a large primary lens with a long focal length to gather a 347
13.5 apparent image 1
distant star
Heavy object acting as a gravitational lens
Earth
apparent image 2 Figure 13.19: Eect of a gravitational lens. lot of light. The lenses of a refracting telescope share a focal point. This ensures that parallel rays entering the telescope are again parallel when they reach your eye.
Primary Lens
Eyepiece
Figure 13.20: Layout of lenses in a refracting telescope
13.5.2
Reecting Telescopes
Some telescopes use mirrors as well as lenses and are called reecting telescopes. Specically, a reecting telescope uses a convex lens and two mirrors to make an object appear larger. (Figure 13.21.) Light is collected by the primary mirror, which is large and concave. Parallel rays traveling toward this mirror are reected and focused to a point. The secondary plane mirror is placed within the focal length of the primary mirror. This changes the direction of the light. A nal eyepiece lens diverges the rays so that they are parallel when they reach your eye.
13.5.3
Southern African Large Telescope
The Southern African Large Telescope (SALT) is the largest single optical telescope in the southern hemisphere, with a hexagonal mirror array 11 metres across. SALT is located in Sutherland in the Northern Cape. SALT is able to record distant stars, galaxies and quasars a billion times too faint to be seen with the unaided eye. This is equivalent to a person being able to see a candle ame at on the moon. 348
13.6
Secondary Mirror F1
F2
Primary Mirror
Eyepiece
Figure 13.21: Lenses and mirrors in a reecting telescope.
SALT was completed in 2005 and is a truly international initiative, because the money to build it came from South Africa, the United States, Germany, Poland, the United Kingdom and New Zealand.
Activity :: SALT : Investigate what the South African Astronomical Observatory (SAAO) does. SALT is part of SAAO. Write your investigation as a short 5-page report.
13.6
Microscopes
We have seen how lenses and mirrors are combined to magnify objects that are far away in a telescope. Lenses can also be used to make very small objects bigger. Figure 13.10 shows that when an object is placed at a distance less than f from the lens, the image formed is virtual, upright and is larger than the object. This set-up is a simple magnier. If you want to look at something very small, two lenses may work better than one. Microscopes and telescopes often use two lenses to make an image large enough to see. A compound microscope uses two lenses to achieve high magnication (Figure 13.22). Both lenses are convex, or converging. Light from the object rst passes through the objective lens. The lens that you look through is called the eyepiece. The focus of the system can be adjusted by changing the length of the tube between the lenses. 349
13.6 Objective Lens Object
CHAPTER 13. GEOMETRICAL OPTICS - GRADE 11 Eyepiece
First image
Final image Figure 13.22: Compound microscope Drawing a Ray Diagram for a Two-Lens System You already have all the tools to analyze a two-lens system. Just consider one lens at a time. 1. Use ray tracing or the lens equation to nd the image for the rst lens. 2. Use the image of the rst lens as the object of the second lens. 3. To nd the magnication, multiply: mtotal = m1 m2 m3 ...
Worked Example 101: The Compound Microscope Question: A compound microscope consists of two convex lenses. The eyepiece has a focal length of 10 cm. The objective lens has a focal length of 6 cm. The two lenses are 30 cm apart. A 2 cm-tall object is placed 8 cm from the objective lens. 1. Where is the nal image? 2. Is the nal image real or virtual? Answer We can use ray tracing to follow light rays through the microscope, one lens at a time. Step 1 : Set up the system To prepare to trace the light rays, make a diagram. In the diagram here, we place the image on the left side of the microscope. Since the light will pass through the objective lens rst, well call this Lens 1. The eyepiece will be called Lens 2. Be sure to include the focal points of both lenses in your diagram. 30 cm 8cm
6cm 6cm 10 cm 10 cm
Object f1
f1
f2
f2
Lens 1 (Objective)
Lens 2 (Eyepiece)
Step 2 : Find the image for the objective lens. 350
CHAPTER 13. GEOMETRICAL OPTICS - GRADE 11 30 cm
13.7
f1 Object f2
Image f2
Step 3 : Find the image for the eyepiece. The image we just found becomes the object for the second lens.
Object Image f1 f1 f2 Object f2
13.7
Summary
1. A lens is any transparent material that is shaped in such a way that it will converge parallel incident rays to a point or diverge incident rays from a point. 2. Converging lenses are thicker in the middle than on the edge and will bend incoming light rays towards the principal axis. 3. Diverging lenses are thinner in the middle than on the edge and will bend incoming light rays away from the principal axis. 4. The principal axis of a lens is the horizontal line through the centre of the lens. 5. The centre of the lens is called the optical centre. 6. The focus or focal point is a point on the principal axis where parallel rays converge through or diverge from. 7. The focal length is the distance between the focus and the optical centre. 8. Ray diagrams are used to determine the position and height of an image formed by a lens. The properties of images formed by converging and diverging lenses are summarised in Table 13.1. 9. The human eye consists of a lens system that focuses images on the retina where the optic nerve transfers the messages to the brain. 10. Defects of vision are short-sightedness, long-sightedness and astigmatism. 11. Massive bodies act as gravitational lenses that change the apparent positions of the images of stars. 12. Microscopes and telescopes use systems of lenses to create visible images of dierent objects. 351
13.8
13.8
Exercises
1.1 A . . . . . . . . . . . . (convex/concave) lens is thicker in the center than on the edges. 1.2 When used individually, a (diverging/converging ) lens usually forms real images. 1.3 When formed by a single lens, a . . . . . . . . . . . . (real/virtual) image is always inverted. 1.4 When formed by a single lens, a . . . . . . . . . . . . (real/virtual) image is always upright. 1.5 Virtual images formed by converging lenses are . . . . . . . . . . . . (bigger/the same size/smaller ) compared to the object. 1.6 A . . . . . . . . . . . . (real/virtual) image can be projected onto a screen. 1.7 A . . . . . . . . . . . . (real/virtual) image is said to be trapped in the lens. 1.8 When light passes through a lens, its frequency . . . . . . . . . . . . (decreases/remains the same/increases). 1.9 A ray that starts from the top of an object and runs parallel to the axis of the lens, would then pass through the . . . . . . . . . . . . (principal focus of the lens/center of the lens/secondary focus of the lens).
1. Select the correct answer from the options given:
1.10 A ray that starts from the top of an object and passes through the . . . . . . . . . . . . (principal focus of the lens/center of the lens/secondary focus of the lens) would leave the lens running parallel to its axis. 1.11 For a converging lens, its . . . . . . . . . . . . (principal focus/center/secondary focus) is located on the same side of the lens as the object. 1.12 After passing through a lens, rays of light traveling parallel to a lens axis are refracted to the lens . . . . . . . . . . . . (principal focus/center/secondary focus). 1.13 Real images are formed by . . . . . . . . . . . . (converging/parallel/diverging ) rays of light that have passed through a lens. 1.14 Virtual images are formed by . . . . . . . . . . . . (converging/parallel/diverging ) rays of light that have passed through a lens. 1.15 Images which are closer to the lens than the object are . . . . . . . . . . . . (bigger/the same size/smaller ) than the object. 1.16 . . . . . . . . . . . . (Real/Virtual) images are located on the same side of the lens as the object - that is, by looking in one direction, the observer can see both the image and the object. 1.17 . . . . . . . . . . . . (Real/Virtual) images are located on the opposite side of the lens as the object. 1.18 When an object is located greater than two focal lengths in front of a converging lens, the image it produces will be . . . . . . . . . . . . (real and enlarged/virtual and enlarged/real and reduced/virtual and reduced). 2. An object 1 cm high is placed 1,8 cm in front of a converging lens with a focal length of 0,5 cm. Draw a ray diagram to show where the image is formed. Is the nal image real or virtual? 3. An object 1 cm high is placed 2,10 cm in front of a diverging lens with a focal length of 1,5 cm. Draw a ray diagram to show where the image is formed. Is the nal image real or virtual? 4. An object 1 cm high is placed 0,5 cm in front of a converging lens with a focal length of 0,5 cm. Draw a ray diagram to show where the image is formed. Is the nal image real or virtual? 5. An object is at right angles to the principal axis of a convex lens. The object is 2 cm high and is 5 cm from the centre of the lens, which has a focal length of 10 cm. Find the distance of the image from the centre of the lens, and its height. Is it real or virtual? 6. A convex lens of focal length 15 cm produces a real image of height 4 cm at 45 cm from the centre of the lens. Find the distance of the object from the lens and its height. 352
13.8
7. An object is 20 cm from a concave lens. The virtual image formed is three times smaller than the object. Find the focal length of the lens. 8. A convex lens produces a virtual image which is four times larger than the object. The image is 15 cm from the lens. What is the focal length of the lens? 9. A convex lens is used to project an image of a light source onto a screen. The screen is 30 cm from the light source, and the image is twice the size of the object. What focal length is required, and how far from the source must it be placed? 10. An object 6 cm high is place 20 cm from a converging lens of focal length 8 cm. Find by scale drawing the position, size and nature of the image produced. (Advanced: check your answer by calculation). 11. An object is placed in front of a converging lens of focal length 12 cm. By scale diagram, nd the nature, position and magnication of the image when the object distance is 11.1 16 cm 11.2 8 cm 12. A concave lens produces an image three times smaller than the object. If the object is 18 cm away from the lens, determine the focal length of the lens by means of a scale diagram. (Advanced: check your answer by calculation). 13. You have seen how the human eye works, how telescopes work and how microscopes work. Using what you have learnt, describe how you think a camera works. 14. Describe 3 common defects of vision and discuss the various methods that are used to correct them.
353
13.8
354
Appendix A
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Physics Grade 11 Physics Ch13 Geometrical Optics

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FHSST Authors

Version 0 November 9, 2008

FHSST Core Team

The Other Systems of Units . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 10

2.6 2.7 2.8

Displacement and Distance . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 28 3.3.1 3.3.2

Speed, Average Velocity and Instantaneous Velocity . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 31 v

CONTENTS 3.4.1 3.5 3.6

CONTENTS Dierences between Speed and Velocity . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 35

3.7 3.8 3.9

Weight . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 67 4.1.1 Dierences between Mass and Weight . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 68

Acceleration due to Gravity . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 69 4.2.1 4.2.2 Gravitational Fields . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 69 Free fall . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 69

Mechanical Energy 4.5.1 4.5.2

Conservation of Mechanical Energy . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 78 Using the Law of Conservation of Energy . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 79

4.6 4.7 4.8

5 Transverse Pulses - Grade 10 5.1 5.2 5.3

CONTENTS 5.6.2 5.7 5.8

CONTENTS Reection of a Pulse from a Free End . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 98

Superposition of Pulses . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 99 Exercises - Transverse Pulses . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 102 105

6 Transverse Waves - Grade 10 6.1 6.2

Summary . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 127 Exercises . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 127 129

7 Geometrical Optics - Grade 10 7.1 7.2

Apparent Depth . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 143

CONTENTS 7.5.6 7.5.7 7.5.8 7.6

Summary . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 163 Exercises . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 164 167

8 Magnetism - Grade 10 8.1 8.2 8.3

Introduction . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 167 Magnetic elds . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 167

Summary . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 175 End of chapter exercises . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 176 177

9 Electrostatics - Grade 10 9.1 9.2 9.3 9.4 9.5 9.6

Summary . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 184 End of chapter exercise . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 184 187

10 Electric Circuits - Grade 10

CONTENTS 12 Force, Momentum and Impulse - Grade 11

CONTENTS 13 Geometrical Optics - Grade 11

13.2.3 Summary of Image Properties

21 Motion in Two Dimensions - Grade 12

21.1 Introduction . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 463 xiii

CONTENTS 24 Doppler Eect - Grade 12

27.1 Introduction . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 571 27.2 de Broglie Wavelength . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 571

CONTENTS A GNU Free Documentation License

Geometrical Optics - Grade 11

CHAPTER 13. GEOMETRICAL OPTICS - GRADE 11

parallel rays of light enter the lens

rays are focused at the same point

parallel rays of light enter the lens

Examples of converging and diverging lenses are shown in Figure 13.2.

CHAPTER 13. GEOMETRICAL OPTICS - GRADE 11

Principal axis F1 Optical centre f

Principal axis F1 Optical centre f

Figure 13.3: Properties of lenses.

Figure 13.4: A double convex lens is a converging lens.

13.2 examine the following cases:

CHAPTER 13. GEOMETRICAL OPTICS - GRADE 11

CHAPTER 13. GEOMETRICAL OPTICS - GRADE 11

Candle on same level as lens

lens and lens holder

screen that can be moved