Tian-Bi et al.

BMC Public Health (2018) 18:186

DOI 10.1186/s12889-018-5044-2

STUDY PROTOCOL Open Access

Interrupting seasonal transmission of

Schistosoma haematobium and control of
soil-transmitted helminthiasis in northern
and central Côte d’Ivoire: a SCORE study
protocol
Yves-Nathan T. Tian-Bi1,2*, Mamadou Ouattara1,2, Stefanie Knopp3,4, Jean T. Coulibaly1,2,3,4, Eveline Hürlimann3,4,
Bonnie Webster5, Fiona Allan5, David Rollinson5, Aboulaye Meïté6, Nana R. Diakité1,2, Cyrille K. Konan1,2,
Eliézer K. N’Goran1,2 and Jürg Utzinger3,4*

Abstract
Background: To achieve a world free of schistosomiasis, the objective is to scale up control and elimination efforts in
all endemic countries. Where interruption of transmission is considered feasible, countries are encouraged to
implement a comprehensive intervention package, including preventive chemotherapy, information, education and
communication (IEC), water, sanitation and hygiene (WASH), and snail control. In northern and central Côte d’Ivoire,
transmission of Schistosoma haematobium is seasonal and elimination might be achieved. In a cluster-randomised trial,
we will assess different treatment schemes to interrupt S. haematobium transmission and control soil-transmitted
helminthiasis over a 3-year period. We will compare the impact of (i) arm A: annual mass drug administration (MDA)
with praziquantel and albendazole before the peak schistosomiasis transmission season; (ii) arm B: annual MDA after
the peak schistosomiasis transmission season; (iii) arm C: two yearly treatments before and after peak schistosomiasis
transmission; and (iv) arm D: annual MDA before peak schistosomiasis transmission, coupled with chemical snail control
using niclosamide.
Methods/design: The prevalence and intensity of S. haematobium and soil-transmitted helminth infections will be
assessed using urine filtration and Kato-Katz thick smears, respectively, in six administrative regions in northern and
central parts of Côte d’Ivoire. Once a year, urine and stool samples will be collected and examined from 50 children
aged 5–8 years, 100 children aged 9–12 years and 50 adults aged 20–55 years in each of 60 selected villages. Changes
in S. haematobium and soil-transmitted helminth prevalence and intensity will be assessed between years and stratified
by intervention arm. In the 15 villages randomly assigned to intervention arm D, intermediate host snails will be
collected three times per year, before niclosamide is applied to the selected freshwater bodies. The snail abundance
and infection rates over time will allow drawing inference on the force of transmission.
(Continued on next page)

* Correspondence: tianbyth@yahoo.fr; juerg.utzinger@swisstph.ch

1
Unité de Formation et de Recherche Biosciences, Université Félix
Houphouët-Boigny, 22 BP 770, Abidjan 22, Côte d’Ivoire
3
Swiss Tropical and Public Health Institute, P.O. Box, CH–4002 Basel,
Switzerland
Full list of author information is available at the end of the article

© The Author(s). 2018 Open Access This article is distributed under the terms of the Creative Commons Attribution 4.0
International License (http://creativecommons.org/licenses/by/4.0/), which permits unrestricted use, distribution, and
reproduction in any medium, provided you give appropriate credit to the original author(s) and the source, provide a link to
the Creative Commons license, and indicate if changes were made. The Creative Commons Public Domain Dedication waiver
(http://creativecommons.org/publicdomain/zero/1.0/) applies to the data made available in this article, unless otherwise stated.
Tian-Bi et al. BMC Public Health (2018) 18:186 Page 2 of 12

(Continued from previous page)

Discussion: This cluster-randomised intervention trial will elucidate whether in an area with seasonal transmission, the
four different treatment schemes can interrupt S. haematobium transmission and control soil-transmitted helminthiasis.
Lessons learned will help to guide schistosomiasis control and elimination programmes elsewhere in Africa.
Trial registration: ISRCTN ISRCTN10926858. Registered 21 December 2016. Retrospectively registered.
Keywords: Bulinus spp., Chemical snail control, Côte d’Ivoire, Mass drug administration, Niclosamide, Praziquantel,
Schistosoma haematobium, Seasonal transmission, Soil-transmitted helminthiasis

Background reach the adult stage, the larvae can migrate into the hu-
Burden and transmission of schistosomiasis and man body (after passing through the skin or the digestive
soil-transmitted helminthiasis mucosa) and return to the intestine (A. lumbricoides or
More than a billion people are affected by schistosomia- hookworm) or remain there (T. trichiura) [6]. Clinical
sis and soil-transmitted helminthiasis worldwide [1]. An complications are mainly related to the chronic and
estimated 300 million people with heavy parasitic worm insidious effects on the hosts’ health and nutritional
infections have measurable morbidity, among them, status [7]. Hookworm infections have long been recog-
more than 50% are school-aged children [2, 3]. In 2013, nised as an important cause of intestinal blood loss
the global burden due to schistosomiasis and soil- leading to iron deficiency and protein malnutrition. In-
transmitted helminthiasis was estimated at 7.09 million deed, iron deficiency anaemia accompanying moderate
disability-adjusted life years (DALYs) [4]. and heavy hookworm burdens is sometimes referred
Schistosomiasis is a water-associated disease caused by to as “hookworm disease” [8]. Chronic soil-transmitted
chronic infection with parasitic trematodes of the genus helminth infections impact the physical and mental
Schistosoma. The life cycle of these blood-dwelling development of children [9].
flukes involves a definitive human host, in which adult
schistosome worms live in the perivesical or mesenteric S. haematobium and soil-transmitted helminth infections
venous plexus of their human host. These worms live as in Côte d’Ivoire
couples and sexually reproduce and shed eggs. Specific A number of important points regarding the epidemiology
freshwater snails are infested by miracidia hatched from and ecology of schistosomiasis and soil-transmitted hel-
the eggs of adult worms and the snails act as intermediate minthiasis are worth highlighting for the northern and
host, in which asexual multiplication of the parasite takes central parts of Côte d’Ivoire. First, S. haematobium is the
place and from which infectious larval stages (cercaria), predominant Schistosoma species [10–12]. Historical data
are shed into water. Infection occurs when humans make and recent empiric studies revealed a low to moderate
contact with freshwater bodies harbouring these cercaria prevalence of urogenital schistosomiasis in northern and
[5]. The disease schistosomiasis is caused primarily by in- central Côte d’Ivoire, with a S. haematobium prevalence
flammatory reactions due to the deposition of schistosome rarely found in excess of 10% among school-aged children
eggs trapped in tissues surrounding the bladder or intes- [13–17] (Fig. 1). Preliminary data obtained in early 2014
tines. Urogenital schistosomiasis, in which the bladder, during a rapid appraisal mapping done by our group in
genital tract and urethras are affected, is caused by infec- two regions (Bounkani and Tchologo) in northern Côte
tion with the species S. haematobium, which occurs d’Ivoire revealed a prevalence of 3.3–26.7% for S. haema-
mainly in Africa. tobium and 3.3% for S. mansoni [15].
Soil-transmitted helminthiasis is caused by a group of Two species of freshwater snails (Bulinus truncatus
intestinal nematode worms, the most important of and B. globosus) transmit urogenital schistosomiasis in
which are the anthropophilic hookworm (Ancylostoma Côte d’Ivoire [10–12]. In the northern part of Côte
duodenale and Necator americanus), roundworm d’Ivoire, the major intermediate host snail for S. hae-
(Ascaris lumbricoides) and whipworm (Trichuris trichiura). matobium is B. truncatus, whereas both snail species
The life cycles of hookworm, A. lumbricoides and are involved in transmission in the central part of the
T. trichiura follow a general pattern. The adult parasite country. Due to two distinct seasons, with rainfall oc-
stages inhabit the gastrointestinal tract, reproduce sexually curring between March and October and the dry
and produce eggs, which are passed in human faeces and period lasting from November to March, there is a
are deposited in the external environment. Larval stages strong seasonality in the presence of snails and schis-
hatch from the eggs either in the soil (hookworm) or in tosomiasis transmission [11] (Fig. 2a and b). The
the intestines after ingestion of food or water contami- abundance of S. haematobium-infected intermediate
nated with eggs (A. lumbricoides and T. trichiura). To host snails is strongly driven by this seasonality.
Tian-Bi et al. BMC Public Health (2018) 18:186 Page 3 of 12

Fig. 1 Map of Côte d’Ivoire, showing geo-referenced S. haematobium prevalence survey data. Source: Global Neglected Tropical Diseases database,
www.gntd.org [16]. The districts included into the study are highlighted in grey in the central part and with grey hachures in the northern part of
Côte d’Ivoire

Indeed, infected snails have exclusively been identified health system, as well as control interventions targeting
during the dry season (January and February) in man- schistosomiasis and other neglected tropical diseases [24].
made stagnant freshwater bodies [11, 18] (Fig. 2c). In late 2010, the managers of six neglected tropical dis-
Soil-transmitted helminths are in general more widely eases control programmes developed a 5-year integrated
distributed in Côte d’Ivoire and transmitted throughout operational plan, readily assisted by experts from the
the year. In a recent national survey among school-aged World Health Organization (WHO). These control pro-
children, the prevalence of hookworm, A. lumbricoides and grammes include (i) the national control programme for
T. trichiura was 17.2%, 1.9% and 1.3%, respectively [15]. schistosomiasis, soil-transmitted helminthiasis and lymph-
atic filariasis and (ii) the national programme for eye
Control of schistosomiasis and soil-transmitted health and control of onchocerciasis. The 5-year oper-
helminthiasis in Côte d’Ivoire ational plan is currently awaiting full endorsement by
The life cycle of S. haematobium can be interrupted by: national and international experts. Meanwhile, mass drug
(i) killing the worms in humans, using anthelminthic administration (MDA) for schistosomiasis has com-
drugs; (ii) killing the intermediate host snails using che- menced in 2013 with an initial emphasis on the Cavaly,
micals (i.e. molluscicides), biological control agents (e.g. Guemon and Tonkpi regions in western Côte d’Ivoire
competitor snails, fish and prawns) or environmental [25–27] and on the Agnéby region in south-eastern Côte
management (e.g. draining of swamps); (iii) sensitizing d’Ivoire [28]. Moreover, to better coordinate the control of
people not to urinate into open freshwater bodies so that these diseases in Côte d’Ivoire, a national programme for
intermediate host snails cannot become infected; and the control of neglected tropical diseases with preventive
(iv) keeping people out of infested water bodies to avoid chemotherapy (Programme National de Lutte contre les
infection of humans with cercaria [18–21]. Maladies Tropicales Négligées à Chimiothérapie Prévent-
The global strategy to control schistosomiasis is based ive; PNLMTN-CP) has been initiated in December 2016.
on morbidity control through preventive chemotherapy The programme is supported by the Schistosomiasis
that is the periodic administration of praziquantel to at- Consortium for Operational Research and Evaluation
risk populations (e.g. school-aged children) without prior (SCORE) and the Schistosomiasis Control Initiative (SCI).
individual diagnosis [22]. In Côte d’Ivoire, there is a his-
tory of focal control interventions that were implemented Operational research for schistosomiasis control in Côte
in the southern, central and western regions, starting in d’Ivoire
the 1990s [23]. Thereafter, Côte d’Ivoire has gone through According to WHO, helminthiasis control programmes
a decade of socio-political crisis that has degraded the should combine the administration of praziquantel against
Tian-Bi et al. BMC Public Health (2018) 18:186 Page 4 of 12

In line with WHO considerations to shift from

morbidity control to elimination of schistosomiasis as
a public health problem, the SCORE project described
here will focus on the interruption of S. haematobium
transmission. The study is carried out in the northern
and central parts of Côte d’Ivoire, where schisto-
somiasis transmission is seasonal. Specifically, we will
assess the impact of different interventions in four
study arms: (i) arm A: MDA before the peak transmission
season of schistosomiasis; (ii) arm B: annual MDA after
the peak schistosomiasis transmission season; (iii) arm C:
two yearly MDA treatments before and after the peak
schistosomiasis transmission; and (iv) arm D: annual
MDA before the peak schistosomiasis transmission,
coupled with tri-annual chemical snail control.
This is a 3-year randomised intervention study, pre-
ceded by one year of initial eligibility and baseline sur-
veys conducted in 2015, which allowed the selection of
60 study villages where interventions are implemented.
The impact of the interventions in each study arm will
be assessed in annual follow-up surveys carried out in
late 2016, late 2017 and late 2018.
The collaborative project involves teams from the Uni-
versité Félix Houphouët-Boigny (UFHB) and the Centre
Suisse de Recherches Scientifiques en Côte d’Ivoire
(CSRS; both based in Abidjan, Côte d’Ivoire), the Swiss
Tropical and Public Health Institute (Swiss TPH), an as-
sociated institute of the University of Basel; (Basel,
Switzerland) and the Natural History Museum (NHM;
London, United Kingdom). The project will be imple-
mented in close collaboration with the PNLMTN-CP
and linked to ongoing large-scale schistosomiasis control
efforts in the country, supported by SCI.

Methods/design
Goal, aims and objectives
The goal of this SCORE study is to provide an evidence-
Fig. 2 Climate diagrams (rainfall and temperature) in (a) northern base for programme decisions about interrupting the
and (b) central Côte d’Ivoire. Adapted from climate-data.org [17]
transmission of S. haematobium in a setting where trans-
(c) S. haematobium transmission dynamics in Tiengarakaha
(Ferkessedougou), in the northern part of Côte d’Ivoire. Comparison of mission is seasonal. In a cluster-randomised intervention
numbers of B. truncatus snails infected (left y-axis) and surviving trial, we will determine whether different treatment
(right y-axis) collected from the lake of Tiengarakaha 30 days after the schemes can interrupt S. haematobium transmission and
maintenance of snails in the laboratory. Adapted from N’Goran [11] whether soil-transmitted helminthiasis can be controlled.
The study will run for 3 years and includes one year of eli-
schistosomiasis and albendazole/mebendazole against gibility and a detailed baseline survey. Each intervention
soil-transmitted helminthiasis, as these infections often arm will include activities in 15 villages, hence a total of
overlap geographically [29]. Wherever elimination of 60 communities.
schistosomiasis seems feasible, countries are encouraged The aims of the projects are (i) to interrupt seasonal
to change their control to an elimination strategy and to transmission of S. haematobium in pre-selected areas in
provide praziquantel in intervals shorter than 12 months northern and central Côte d’Ivoire within 3 years of inter-
and to complement with snail control and behaviour ventions; and (ii) to control soil-transmitted helminthiasis
change interventions, when applicable in order to inter- in the same communities. There are four specific objec-
rupt disease transmission [30]. tives, activities and milestones, as follows:
Tian-Bi et al. BMC Public Health (2018) 18:186 Page 5 of 12

 to assess annually the prevalence and intensity of breeding. During the dry season, there is a significant re-
S. haematobium and soil-transmitted helminth duction of water sources and surfaces, but with some
infections in communities (children and adults), remaining water points in the dams. This results in in-
according to age and sex, and within and between creased contact of populations with these sites in the dry
each study arm from year 1 to year 3; periods, and hence, an increased risk of transmission of
 to determine the coverage and compliance water-related parasitic diseases such as schistosomiasis.
with annual or biannual MDA with praziquantel
for S. haematobium and albendazole for soil- Justification of the number of clusters and participants
transmitted helminth infections; The selection of four intervention arms for this study
 to assess the impact of chemical snail control was based on equilibrium between what is scientifically
with niclosamide on the presence of Bulinus spp. and technically recommended and what is practically
snails and on non-target fauna in freshwater feasible during the eligibility and follow-up surveys. Sixty
bodies; and study villages have been selected with 15 villages in each
 to identify the different schistosome species of of the four intervention arms. To assess the (baseline)
cercaria shed by infected Bulinus spp. snails using epidemiological situation of helminth infections in an
molecular methods. area, the WHO recommends sampling of at least 50
children in one school [3]. In the randomised interven-
Study setting tion trial, we aimed to include a total of 48,000 partici-
The study will be carried out in six administrative re- pants (i.e. 50 + 100 + 50 = 200 participants * 60 villages
gions of Côte d’Ivoire, four of which are located in the * 4 surveys).
north (Tchologo, Bounkani, Poro and Hambol) and two
in the centre of the country (Gbêkê and Bélier). These Eligibility of study communities and randomisation
regions have virtually the same climate and soil charac- Villages were eligible to be included into the study if
teristics. The Köppen-Geiger climate classification [31] they fulfilled the following criteria:
qualifies the climate of these regions as an “Aw type”;
hence, a tropical and dry or savannah climate. In northern  the village is located in an area with a well-defined
Côte d’Ivoire, the temperature ranges from 25 °C to 29 °C S. haematobium transmission season;
(mean: 26.8 °C) and the monthly precipitation varies be-  there are at least 100 children aged 9–12 years
tween 3 mm and 300 mm (annual mean: 1300 mm). In enrolled at school (determined by readily available
the central part, the values are 24 °C to 27 °C (mean: school lists); and
26.2 °C) and 11 mm to 200 mm (annual mean: 1100 mm),  the prevalence of S. haematobium is at least 4%, as
respectively (https://fr.climate-data.org). The dry season determined by a single mid-day urine filtration of 50
lasts from November to March, though a quite high rain- children aged 13–14 years in a prior eligibility
fall is recorded in March in the central part of the country survey.
(see Fig. 2a and b). Of note, in December and January, the
Harmattan – a strong dry wind from the Sahara – greatly Once 60 eligible villages were identified, they were
lowers the temperature, particularly at night. The soils are randomly assigned to one of four intervention arms
mostly tropical ferruginous soils. (Fig. 3):

Population and primary economic activities  arm A: annual MDA with praziquantel and
The Tchologo region is composed of three departments albendazole before the peak transmission season of
and the Bounkani region is subdivided into four depart- schistosomiasis (November/December);
ments. The Poro region consists of four departments,  arm B: annual MDA with praziquantel and
while the Hambol region has three departments. The albendazole after the peak transmission season of
Gbêkê and Bélier regions have four departments each. In schistosomiasis (March/April);
those regions three quarters of the population are aged  arm C: two yearly MDAs before and after the peak
below 40 years [32]. transmission of schistosomiasis (November/
People are mainly engaged in subsistence farming (e.g. December and March/April); and
maize, millet, sorghum and yam). The two main cash  arm D: annual MDA with praziquantel and
crops are cotton and cashew. Moreover, there are some albendazole before the peak transmission season of
irrigated rice farming and vegetable farming and fishing schistosomiasis (November/December), coupled
activities in small multi-purpose dams, which were ini- with chemical snail control using niclosamide (three
tially constructed for livestock breeding. Indeed, Tchologo applications per year: before, during and shortly
and Bounkani regions are suitable areas for livestock after the peak transmission).
Tian-Bi et al. BMC Public Health (2018) 18:186 Page 6 of 12

Fig. 3 Cluster randomised intervention trial with four intervention arms. The study will be implemented over a 3-year period, and hence, the
interventions specified here will be repeated every year. MDA, mass drug administration; Holiday, no intervention; Msc, mollusciciding

Selection of study villages be collected from each participant. Urine and stool
To identify 60 eligible study communities, we pursued a samples will be examined in the laboratory at the dis-
two-stage approach, making use of the existing educa- trict health centre.
tion system. A pre-screening for potential study villages
was conducted by applying a rapid-assessment question- Examination of urine and stool samples
naire for the presence of blood in urine that served as a In the laboratory, each urine sample will be tested for the
proxy for S. haematobium infection. Of note, this ques- presence of haematuria (visual detection for macrohaema-
tionnaire has previously been validated in Côte d’Ivoire turia and reagent strip testing for microhaematuria) [37].
[33]. Teachers from the study regions were invited to S. haematobium eggs will be quantified by urine filtration
interview children attending grades 3–5. The schools (10 ml urine) under a microscope [37, 38]. Two micro-
with a S. haematobium prevalence above 4% of reported scope slides will be prepared per stool sample using the
blood in urine during the 2 weeks preceding the ques- Kato-Katz technique [39]. To this end, thick smears will
tionnaire were selected for further investigation. In eli- be prepared from each sample using standard 41.7 mg
gible schools, 50 children aged 13–14 years were templates. The slides will be examined under a micro-
randomly selected and invited to provide a single mid- scope as soon as prepared for the detection of hookworm
day urine sample. The urine samples were processed by eggs and a second time after clearing of at least 45 min
a filtration method for detection of S. haematobium for the detection of other soil-transmitted helminths
eggs [34]. In addition, urine samples were subjected to and S. mansoni. Helminth eggs will be counted and
reagent strip testing for microhaematuria (a proxy for recorded for each species separately [25].
S. haematobium infection) [35] and a point-of-care cir-
culating cathodic antigen (POC-CCA) cassette test for MDA and tracking compliance
the diagnosis of S. mansoni [36]. Once 60 villages with Two MDA approaches will be used: school-based treat-
a prevalence of S. haematobium ≥ 4%, based on urine ment (SBT) and community-wide treatment (CWT).
filtration, were identified, they were included in the Praziquantel and albendazole will be provided as a single
study and randomised to one of four study arms. oral dose of 40 mg/kg and 400 mg, respectively, accord-
ing to the schedules defined for the different study arms.
Parasitological surveys School teachers and community-drug distributors (CDDs)
During the baseline survey prior to any intervention will deliver the drugs to the children and the community
and at annual cross-sectional surveys conducted over a members, respectively. Medical staff will check for exclu-
3-year period, single urine and stool samples will be sion criteria (e.g. hypersensitivity to praziquantel or alben-
collected from 50 children aged 5–8 years, 100 children dazole, pregnancy among female participants). In all arms
aged 9–12 years and 50 adults aged 20–55 years in each of the study, praziquantel will also be provided to health
of the 60 study villages. A mid-day urine specimen centres for the management of all cases detected during
(at least 20 ml) and an early morning stool sample will routine consultations.
Tian-Bi et al. BMC Public Health (2018) 18:186 Page 7 of 12

To estimate treatment coverage, school teachers and Training of teachers and others who will administer
CDDs who will deliver the drug to the children and the praziquantel and albendazole
community members, respectively, will fill in separate Training programmes for two teachers and two CDDs in
treatment records. The treatment reports from teachers each community (hence, a total of 120 teachers and 120
and CDDs will be compiled by the local principal inves- CDDs) will be developed in order to standardise the
tigator. Tracking schoolchildren will be facilitated intervention (i.e. SBT and CWT). Such training will
through the education system. With regard to school- focus on basic principles of IEC, while it will provide
aged children not attending school and the rest of the teachers and CDDs with a basic understanding of schis-
community, we will adopt a household approach to offer tosomiasis and how to administer praziquantel and
everyone a “health record”, which will include a unique albendazole and fill-in the forms. These sessions will be
identifier, the person’s name, age, sex and three open delivered jointly by the health personnel and the re-
boxes corresponding to 3 years of follow-up. In the latter search team.
approach, CDDs will assist with the treatment of adults
and school-aged children not attending school. CDDs will Approaches for reaching school-aged children not attend-
be trained to record the aforementioned information for ing school
community members. Records will remain confidential. With regard to the non-enrolled school-aged children,
Of note, some of the praziquantel and albendazole we will adhere to an approach successfully piloted in
stock will be kept at the health centre, in order that Zanzibar, where all attending schoolchildren were en-
CDDs will be able to treat members in the community couraged to inform and bring along their non-enrolled
who did not receive the treatment. siblings and other non-attending children from the village
to the school for free treatment provided at a specific
Response to treatment and reporting of adverse events treatment day [40]. Additionally, CDDs will implement a
Treatment will be administered by trained teachers dur- door-to-door treatment visit in order to enhance the
ing SBT or CDDs during CWT. Adverse events will be coverage rate of non-enrolled schoolchildren and reluc-
monitored by the physicians and nurses of the local tant adults. Additionally, praziquantel and albendazole will
health facilities. Individuals who received praziquantel be made available at health centres.
will be invited to report to these first-line centres in case
of any adverse events after drug administration (“any- Process measures that will be collected
thing abnormal occurring in your body”). The health We will collect the following process measures:
centre personnel will be trained on how to fill in the
standard record forms (adopting a grading score) and  number of treatments delivered against
instructed to refer to second-line hospitals any individ- schistosomiasis and soil-transmitted helminthiasis,
ual presenting with severe adverse events that they could by whom and whether SBT, CWT or health
not manage. Both passive and active surveillance mea- facility-based;
sures will be implemented during the MDA intervention.  number of teachers and CDDs trained;
Passive measures will be aimed at ensuring rapid med-  number of sessions of community education, who
ical assistance for any individuals who might experience delivered them and how many people participated;
adverse events after treatment, while active measures  number of returned reports from distributors/
will also be in place to elucidate the nature, frequency teachers and completeness and other quality
and severity of adverse events. measures;
Passive measures will be established on the treatment day  knowledge of schistosomiasis and soil-transmitted
and the day after; one or two health centres at the district helminthiasis, source of knowledge, opinion about
will be kept open for 24 h and equipped with first-line treatment campaign from children and adults in-
emergency drugs (i.e. non-steroid anti-inflammatory drugs, cluded in the studies; and
anti-histaminic drugs, cortisone and intravenous fluids).  knowledge of schistosomiasis and soil-transmitted
helminthiasis, source of knowledge, opinion about
Information, education and communication (IEC) treatment campaign from volunteer teachers and
campaign CDDs involved in the corresponding interventions
In close collaboration with the national control and technical questions with regards to their training.
programme, IEC materials (e.g. posters, pamphlets, flip
charts and calendars) will be introduced during commu- Coverage assessment and actions taken in case of low
nity and school mobilization sessions addressed to CDDs, treatment coverage
teachers and community members by teams formed by In 2014, a general national census (GNC) has been con-
the principal investigators and co-investigators. ducted to update the demographic data of Côte d’Ivoire
Tian-Bi et al. BMC Public Health (2018) 18:186 Page 8 of 12

[32]. Preliminary results on population statistics for the Once the randomisation of the villages has been done,
study area from this census have been sought from local a baseline malacological survey will be conducted in the
authorities. This database served as a reference for the surroundings of the 15 target villages, thus allowing a
calculation of treatment coverage rate. In brief, we will more detailed study on schistosomiasis transmission at
divide the number of treated individuals by the number sites where potential intermediate host snails occur.
of eligible school-aged children and adults living in a After the baseline malacological survey, a first focal
given village. We assume that among school-aged chil- treatment with niclosamide (concentration of 10 g/l)
dren, an acceptable coverage might be at least 85%. In will be undertaken at water contact sites found to be
adults the target coverage might be considerably lower, infested with Bulinus spp. (B. truncatus and/or B. glo-
and in our view an acceptable coverage might be set at a bosus). In order to monitor the population dynamics
level of 75%. If these coverage rates are not reached dur- of non-target aquatic organisms over time, an inven-
ing the treatment campaign, we will intensify sensitisa- tory focussing on species and abundances will be con-
tion on three levels, namely (i) community-directed; (ii) ducted before the intervention and at each following
health centre-based; and (iii) school-based, and repeat malacological survey. Members of the study team will
the treatment campaign. In addition, meetings will be be trained on the different application techniques of
held in all study villages with local authorities. In par- molluscicides. Based on available information on
ticular, village leaders (i.e. village chiefs, leaders of youth transmission and climate of the study area, mollusci-
and women’s groups) will be invited to assist with ciding interventions are planned three times a year:
setting-specific activities in order to boost coverage before and after the main rainy season and in the
rates. middle of the dry season. The coordination of the
timely MDA and the mollusciciding activities are cru-
Snail control, the status of niclosamide at the study site cial to increase the impact on snail control and vice
and concerns about its use versa. In this respect, each year the mollusciciding
Niclosamide is the main molluscicide registered and rec- will be carried out before or during the MDA.
ommended by WHO [41], and it has been widely used Additionally, the status of snail infection by Schis-
in the past in different contexts and countries, notably tosoma spp. will be tested with the cercarial shed-
on the African continent. Currently, it is used for the ding method and by molecular characterisation of
control of schistosomiasis intermediate host snails in the schistosome species in snails. This characterisation
People’s Republic of China [42], Tunisia [43], Morocco will be carried out at NHM during year 2 of the
[44], Egypt [45] and the United Republic of Tanzania study. The aim is to gain a deeper insight on the
(Zanzibar) [37]. To our knowledge, although niclosamide snail species involved in local S. haematobium trans-
is registered in Côte d’Ivoire as a drug for human use, mission and on potential other schistosome species
there is no prior experience with the use of niclosamide endemic in the region. In fact, it is conceivable that
as molluscicide in the country. Under these circum- S. bovis and other intestinal parasites, usually found
stances, approval for exceptional use in the frame of the in livestock, are endemic in this zone where pastor-
current research project has been sought and granted alism is common.
from the national committee for pesticide use (Comité
Pesticides de Côte d’Ivoire, Ministère de l’Agriculture; Assessment of transmission foci and intensity
approval no. 0163; date of approval 27 January 2015). Water contact sites used by community members in
Additionally, the field implementation will be supervised each village will be identified and georeferenced using
by experts from NHM in London, who currently are in- hand-held global positioning system (GPS; Garmin Sery
volved in mollusciciding activities in the frame of the GPS MAP 62; Olathe, United States of America) devices.
Zanzibar Elimination of Schistosomiasis Transmission For the identification of water contact sites, where trans-
(ZEST) project [46]. An important issue will be to care- mission can occur, school-aged children, who have been
fully document potential negative impacts of the intro- identified as S. haematobium-positive, will show our
duction of niclosamide on non-targeted fauna in the team the sites where they get in contact with water for
intervention villages. Côte d’Ivoire has proven skills in recreational or domestic activities. Additionally, we will
vector management, i.e. larviciding of rivers against collect relevant information of water contact from com-
blackfly larvae (vector of onchocerciasis). munity leaders.
Snail control will be implemented in one of the inter- Once the sites have been identified, they will be
vention arms, hence in 15 of the 60 study villages. Snail searched for intermediate host snails by four experi-
species will be located and characterised within trans- enced fieldworkers, adhering to standard protocols (i.e.
mission sites. In each selected community, approxi- 15 min of sampling in a predefined area using a mesh
mately three sites will be surveyed. scoop, constructed of kitchen sieves mounted on a 1.5 m
Tian-Bi et al. BMC Public Health (2018) 18:186 Page 9 of 12

long wooden stick). Snails will be collected manually floods), political instability or local changes in leadership
using scoops and forceps. Although this method has that might affect MDA efforts, changes in the existing
some limitations (e.g. ineffectiveness at sites with diffi- health system, community attitudes and behaviour related
cult access and the subjectivity of the investigator), it has to health and health care seeking and other programmes
the advantage of being simple and represents a minimal (e.g. IEC or WASH) that are introduced during the study
intrusion on the environment. period.
This process will be implemented in each study All parasitological data will be double-entered and
village three times, just before niclosamide is applied cross-checked by experienced data entry clerks
(i.e. before and after the rainy season and in the middle employed at CSRS. Statistical analyses will be carried
of the dry season). Snails sampled at individual sites out using EpiInfo version 3.5 (Centers for Disease Con-
will be stored in containers filled with water from the trol and Prevention; Atlanta, United States of America)
originating site and transferred to a laboratory at the and STATA version 10 (Stata Corp.; College Station,
UFHB in Abidjan. Snails will be kept at room United States of America). The primary outcome will be
temperature (24–27 °C). The containers will be labelled the change in prevalence and intensity of S. haemato-
with unique identifiers. In the laboratory, snails will be bium infection in each of the four study population
kept alive in covered water tanks at room temperature, groups over the 3 years of the study. Each year, S. hae-
using water from the original site. Snail species will be matobium prevalence and infection intensity data will be
identified from shell morphology. calculated. The results from the different study arms will
To assess the transmission level, cercarial shedding be compared on an annual basis and at the end of the 3-
will be observed over the first 48 h after collection. year intervention period. The snail abundance and infec-
All Bulinus spp. found will be individually inspected tion rates over time will allow us to draw inference on
for infection by placing snails into 12 or 24 well the force of transmission. Moreover, the overall impact
plates and exposed to sunlight or artificial light for 3 of the different treatment schemes on soil-transmitted
to 6 h and subsequently be examined under a dissec- helminthiasis will be measured in terms of prevalence
tion microscope for the presence of Schistosoma cer- and intensity of infection.
caria [47]. If present, a subsample of 20–30 cercariae
will be collected individually onto a Whatman FTA Minimise bias
card (GE Healthcare Life Sciences; Amersham, United There are a host of factors that could affect the out-
Kingdom) and sent to the NHM for molecular comes, including political instability as experienced in
analysis. our previous and still ongoing SCORE-funded research
Additionally, a subsample of snails (up to 50 snails [24]. However, our team is well prepared for such issues.
per site) will be fixed in ethanol and forwarded to the Maintaining good communication among the partners
Schistosomiasis Collection at the NHM in London and the national schistosomiasis control programme,
(SCAN) for molecular diagnosis [48]. local authorities and the SCORE secretariat will minim-
ise potential negative outcomes.
Study outcomes
Analysis plan to assess outcomes of interest Protocol review and ethical clearance
In addition to parasitological data, demographic data The study protocol has been approved by the institu-
(age, sex and occupation for adults) will be recorded tional research commissions of CSRS in Abidjan and
from each participant. Changes in the S. haematobium Swiss TPH in Basel. Ethical approval was obtained from
and soil-transmitted helminth infection prevalence and the ethics committees in Switzerland: “Ethikkommission
intensity will be assessed for each intervention arm over Nordwest- und Zentralschweiz (EKNZ)” (reference no.
time. The treatment coverage rates among children and UBE-15/34; date of approval 15 April 2015) and in Côte
adults will be estimated by dividing the number of par- d’Ivoire: Comité National d’Éthique et de la Recherche,
ticipants of the respective age group treated by the total Ministère de la Santé et de Lutte contre le SIDA (refer-
number of registered individuals of the corresponding ence no. 007/MSLS/CNER-kp; date of approval 2 Febru-
age range in the community. Adverse events and serious ary 2016) and Direction Générale des Productions et de
adverse events will be tracked and recorded for manage- la Sécurité Alimentaire, Ministère de l’Agriculture,
ment. Community sensitisation and mobilisation efforts, (reference no. 0163/MINAGRI/DGPSA/DPVCQ; date of
radio announcements and other IEC tools will be used approval 27 January 2015). The trial is registered at the
to help enhancing reach-out to populations targeted for International Standard Randomised Controlled Trial
treatment in the MDA. Moreover, we will make efforts Number (ISCRCTN) Register (ISRCTN10926858; http://
to record any major change in water, sanitation and hy- www.controlled-trials.com/ISRCTN10926858; date of
giene (WASH), unusual weather (e.g. drought and registration 21 December 2016).
Tian-Bi et al. BMC Public Health (2018) 18:186 Page 10 of 12

Written informed consent will be sought from adults of urogenital schistosomiasis or whether intensified
and parents or legal guardians of children below the age interventions such as two yearly MDAs before and
of 18 years. Children aged between 5 and 18 years will after the peak schistosomiasis transmission (arm C) or an-
sign an informed assent form. Participation is voluntary nual MDA with praziquantel and albendazole before the
and study participants have the right to withdraw from peak schistosomiasis transmission season, coupled with
the study at any given point in time with no further chemical snail control using niclosamide (arm D) are
obligations. needed to break transmission.
The results of this study might be published, but the As several cases of reinfection with S. haematobium
names of subjects or their identities will not be revealed. following exclusive chemotherapy have been reported in
Records will remain confidential and will be stored in a Côte d’Ivoire [50, 51] and elsewhere [52–54], we hy-
secured locker. The results of tests will be coded to pre- pothesise that MDA timed with chemical snail control
vent association with participants’ names. The investiga- with niclosamide will be the best measure for elimin-
tors will keep a separate confidential enrolment log that ation of urogenital schistosomiasis transmission. If con-
matches identifying codes with the subjects’ names. Only firmed in our study, this approach might be adopted by
authorized personnel directly involved in the study the PNLMTN-CP in its strategic plan for controlling
will have access to data entered into computerized and eliminating schistosomiasis from Côte d’Ivoire in
files and encoded. Subject-specific information may be the next several years. Of note, MDA plus snail control
provided to medical personnel only with the subject’s has been shown to contribute to the interruption of schis-
permission. tosomiasis transmission in other countries [20, 55, 56].
Depending on the intervention arm, subjects will be This approach is currently being applied, and its impact
treated free of charge once or twice a year with praziquantel assessed, in a multi-year project to eliminate urogenital
(40 mg/kg) using a dose-pole [9, 49] and with a single dose schistosomiasis transmission on the Zanzibar archipelago
of albendazole (400 mg). Adverse events will be monitored [37, 46]. While there is no evidence about tolerance or re-
and recorded as detailed before. Of note, praziquantel and sistance to niclosamide in snails thus far [57, 58], intensive
albendazole are considered safe and well-tolerated drugs, application of niclosamide will require careful monitoring
which are annually distributed to millions of people in en- of snails and other non-target fauna.
demic countries during MDA campaigns in line with The study on interrupting seasonal transmission of uro-
WHO guidelines. In Côte d’Ivoire, such treatment cam- genital schistosomiasis and control of soil-transmitted hel-
paigns have been commenced by the PNLMTN-CP, minthiasis described here will provide an evidence-base
which is also in charge of the MDA in the frame of this for future programme decisions for an informed choice
project. No potential risk is linked to participation in between exclusive schemes of MDA (according to the type
the project as the collected samples are limited to stool and frequency) and MDA combined with chemical snail
and urine. control for interrupting seasonal transmission of uro-
genital schistosomiasis in areas with marked seasonality as
Discussion found in northern and central parts of Côte d’Ivoire. With
In some regions of Côte d’Ivoire, elimination of schisto- this new insight into disease elimination approaches, the
somiasis seems feasible, due to a strong seasonality of study will help to improve guidelines for neglected
the disease transmission. In line with WHO recommen- tropical disease control and elimination programmes and
dations published in 2012 [30], the country now aims to decision makers in Côte d’Ivoire and in other endemic
interrupt the transmission of S. haematobium infections countries.
in some selected areas in the central and northern re-
gions. Our study will reveal whether or not urogenital Abbreviations
schistosomiasis transmission can indeed be interrupted CDD: Community drug distributor; CSRS: Centre Suisse de Recherches
Scientifiques en Côte d’Ivoire; CWT: Community-wide treatment;
in the targeted areas in northern and central parts of DALY: Disability-adjusted life year; EKNZ: Ethikkommission Nordwest- und
Côte d’Ivoire with a package of well-tailored and fo- Zentralschweiz; GNC: General national census; GPS: Global positioning
cussed interventions implemented over a 3-year period. system; IEC: Information, education and communication;
ISCRCTN: International Standard Randomised Controlled Trial Number;
It will also show whether it is feasible to control soil- MDA: Mass drug administration; MSc: Mollusciding; NHM: Natural History
transmitted helminthiasis as a public health problem in Museum; PNLMTN-CP: Programme National de Lutte contre les Maladies
the targeted areas. Finally, it will elucidate whether an- Tropicales Négligées à Chimiothérapie Préventive; POC-CCA: Point-of-care
circulating cathodic antigen; SBT: School-based treatment;
nual MDA with praziquantel and albendazole before the SCAN: Schistosomiasis Collection at the NHM in London; SCI: Schistosomiasis
peak transmission season of urogenital schistosomiasis Control Initiative; SCORE: Schistosomiasis Consortium for Operational
(arm A) or annual MDA with praziquantel and albenda- Research and Evaluation; Swiss TPH: Swiss Tropical and Public Health
Institute; UFHB: Université Félix Houphouët-Boigny; WASH: Water, sanitation
zole after the peak transmission season of schistosomiasis and hygiene; WHO: World Health Organization; ZEST: Zanzibar Elimination of
(arm B) are sufficient measures to interrupt transmission Schistosomiasis Transmission
Tian-Bi et al. BMC Public Health (2018) 18:186 Page 11 of 12

Acknowledgements Received: 13 November 2017 Accepted: 8 January 2018

The authors are grateful for the award from the University of Georgia Research
Foundation inc., which is awarded by the Bill & Melinda Gates Foundation (prime
award no. 50816, sub-award no. RR374-092/S000690). They are particularly
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