Anatomy & Physiology - Lecture

STUDENT ACTIVITY SHEET BS NURSING / FIRST YEAR

Session # 2

LESSON TITLE: CELL STRUCTURES AND THEIR Materials:

FUNCTIONS
Book, pen and notebook
LEARNING OUTCOMES:
Upon completion of this lesson, you can:

1. Describe the cells involving human body and its main Reference:
functions; VanPutte, C., Regan, J., & Russo, A. (2019).
2. Identify the structure of cell membrane; and, Seeley’s essentials of anatomy & physiology
3. Describe the structure and functions of different (10th ed.). New York, NY: McGraw-Hill Education.
organelles.
4. Identify the major organelles contained in generalized cells;
5. Define the two types of movement through the cell
membrane;
6. Define diffusion and concentration gradient;
7. Explain the role of osmosis;
8. Compare hypotonic, hypertonic, and isotonic solutions;
9. Describe the various carrier-mediated transport
mechanisms;
10. Differentiate endocytosis and exocytosis;
11. Describe the cytoskeleton and whole activity of a cell;
12. Identify the process in gene expression;
13. Define cell cycle and its phases;
14. Enumerate the process occurring during mitosis;
15. Define differentiation and apoptosis; and,
16. List down the cellular aspects of aging.

LESSON REVIEW/PREVIEW
Before we start the new chapter, let us take a review first from the previous chapter. Kindly answer the
following items on your own, without looking at your notes. Enjoy!

Identification
1. This is the study of the processes and functions of the body. Answer: ____________________
Physiology
2. The study of the structures of the body. Answer: ____________________
Anatomy
3. The condition in which body functions, body fluids, and other factors of the internal environment
are maintained within a range of values suitable to support life. Answer: ____________________
Homeostasis
4. Enumerate the 11 organ systems of the human body.
▪ ____________________________________
Integumentary System
▪ ____________________________________
Muscular System
▪ ____________________________________
Skeletal System
▪ ____________________________________
Digestive System
▪ ____________________________________
Respiratory System
▪ ____________________________________
Cardiovascular System
▪ ____________________________________
Endocrine System
▪ ____________________________________
Lympathic System
▪ ____________________________________
Urinary System
▪ ____________________________________
Reproductive System
▪ ____________________________________
Nervous System

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MAIN LESSON
You must read & study the concepts and refer to figures/tables in Chapter 3 of the book.

Cells – the basic living unit of all organisms; each cell is a highly organized unit.
Organelles – specialized structures in cells that perform specific functions.
Cytoplasm – jelly-like substance that holds organelles and is enclosed by cell membrane (aka plasma
membrane).

Functions of the Cell:

1. Cell metabolism and energy use
2. Synthesis of molecules
3. Communication
4. Reproduction and inheritance

Cell Membrane / Plasma Membrane

▪ It is the outermost component of the cell that forms a selective barrier between intracellular
(materials inside the cell) and extracellular substances (materials outside the cells).

Molecular Structure:

Major Molecules Definition / Function(s)

Form a double layer that contains 2 regions:
Phospholipids 1. Polar Region – “heads”, exposed to H2O (hydrophilic)
2. Nonpolar Region – “tails”, away from H2O (hydrophobic)
▪ Float among the phospholipid molecules and in some, extend from inner to the
outer surface of cell membrane
Protein
▪ Function as membrane channels, carrier molecules, receptor molecules,
enzymes, or structural supports in membrane

Other Components Definition / Function(s)

▪ Provide added strength & stability by limiting the amount of movement of
Cholesterol
phospholipids.
Carbohydrates ▪ May be bound to some CHON molecules, modifying their functions.
(Carbon, Hydrogen, Oxygen, Nitrogen)

Organelles and Their Functions:

Organelles Function(s)
▪ Contains genetic material of cell (DNA) and nucleoli
Nucleus
▪ Site of RNA synthesis & ribosomal subunit assembly
Ribosomes ▪ Site of protein synthesis
Rough Endoplasmic ▪ Has may ribosomes attached
Reticulum ▪ Site of protein synthesis
Smooth Endoplasmic ▪ Site of lipid synthesis
Reticulum ▪ Participates in detoxification
Golgi Apparatus ▪ Modifies CHON structure & packages CHON in secretory vesicles
▪ Contains materials produced in cell
Secretory Vesicle ▪ Formed by the Golgi Apparatus
▪ Secreted by exocytosis
Lysosome ▪ Contains enzymes that digest material taken into the cell
Peroxisome ▪ Breaks down fatty acids, amino acids, and hydrogen peroxide
Mitochondria ▪ Site of aerobic respiration and the major site of ATP synthesis
▪ Supports cytoplasm
Microtubule
▪ Assists in cell division and forms components of cilia & flagella
Centrioles ▪ Facilitate the movement of chromosomes during cell division
Cilia ▪ Located on cell surface that move substances over surfaces of certain cells

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 Flagella ▪ Proper sperm cells
Microvilli ▪ Increase surface area of certain cells

You must read & study the concepts and refer to figures/tables in Chapter 3 of the book.
Generalized Cell (Refer to Figure 3.1, page 43)

Movement through the cell membrane may be passive or active.

▪ Passive Membrane Transport – does not require the cell to expend energy. This includes
diffusion, osmosis, and facilitated diffusion.
▪ Active Membrane Transport – does require the cell to expend energy, usually in the form of
ATP. This includes active transport, secondary active transport, endocytosis, and exocytosis.

Diffusion is the movement of a solute from an area of higher concentration to an area of lower
concentration within a solvent. At equilibrium, the distribution of molecules is uniform.

Concentration gradient is the concentration of a solute at one point in a solvent minus the concentration
of that solute at another point in the solvent divided by the distance between the points.

Osmosis is the diffusion of water across a selectively permeable membrane. Osmotic pressure is the
force required to prevent movement of water across a selectively permeable membrane. (Refer to Figure
3.7, page 49)

Facilitated Diffusion – this moves substances from a higher to lower concentration and does not require
energy in the form of ATP.

Carrier-Mediated Transport – the movement of a substance across a membrane by means of a carrier

molecule. The substances transported tend to be large, water-soluble molecules or ions.

Active Transport – moves substances from a lower to a higher concentration and requires ATP.

Secondary Active Transport uses the energy of one substance moving down its concentration gradient
to move another substance across the cell membrane. In co-transport, both substances move in the same
direction; in counter-transport, they move in opposite directions.

Endocytosis - movement of materials into cells by the formation of a vesicle.

▪ Receptor-Mediated Endocytosis – involves cell receptors attaching to molecules
▪ Phagocytosis – movement of solid material into cells (cell-eating)
▪ Pinocytosis – the materials ingested is much smaller and is in solution (cell-drinking)

Exocytosis – the secretion of materials from cells by vesicle formation. Ex. Golgi Apparatus

Cytoskeleton is a cell’s framework. This is vital for providing support, holding organelles in place and
enabling the cell to change shape.

Types of Cytoskeleton:
1. Microtubules – largest diameter; provide structural support, assist in cell division, forming essential
components of certain organelles (cilia and flagella)
2. Intermediate Filaments – medium diameter; maintain cell shape
3. Microfilaments – smallest diameter; determine cell shape and involved in cell movement

Whole-Cell Activity
A cell’s characteristics are ultimately determined by the type of proteins produced, which are determined
by the genetic information in the nucleus. Information in DNA provides the cell with a code for its cellular
processes.

Deoxyribonucleic Acid (DNA) – a double helix nucleus, composed of nucleotides, and contains five
carbon sugars (deoxyribose), nitrogen base, & phosphate.
▪ !"#$%&'()*)+,-'&'( Nucleotide Pairs

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 ▪ ./"0&'()*)12('&'(

Gene Expression: A process in which the information in DNA directs protein synthesis. This has two stages:

1. Transcription – process by which DNA is “read”

The sequence of nucleotides in DNA determines the sequence of nucleotides in mRNA;
the mRNA moves through the nuclear pores to ribosomes.
ex: thymine of DNA to adenine of RNA

2. Translation – process by mRNA is converted into amino acids (polypeptides)

The sequence of codons in mRNA is used at ribosomes to produce proteins. Anticodons
of tRNA bind to the codons of mRNA, and the amino acids carried by tRNA are joined to form
protein.
ex: UUU codon of mRNA binds to AAA anticodon of tRNA.

Cell Cycle: This consists of a series of events that produce new cells for growth & tissue repair. This has
two phases:

1. Interphase – the non-dividing phase in which the DNA replicates.

2. Cell Division – the formation of two daughter cells from a single parent cell. Each cell contains 46
chromosomes (diploid), except sperm & egg cells which contain 23 chromosomes.
This process occurs through mitosis, which is divided into four stages: (PMAT)
a. Prophase: Each chromosome consists of two chromatids joined at the centromere.
b. Metaphase: Chromosomes align at the center of the cell.
c. Anaphase: Chromatids separate at the centromere and migrate to opposite poles.
d. Telophase: The two nuclei assume their normal structure, and cell division is completed,
producing two new daughter cells.

Differentiation – the process by which cells develop specialized structures and functions, results from the
selective activation and inactivation of DNA sections. Ex: the functioning of bone cells is different from the
muscle cells
Apoptosis – also known as programmed cell death, is a normal process by which cell numbers within
various tissues are adjusted and controlled.

Cellular Aspects of Aging: It is estimated that at least 35% of the factors affecting aging are genetic.
1. Cellular clock
2. Death genes
3. DNA damage
4. Free radicals
Mitochondrial damage

CHECK FOR UNDERSTANDING

You will answer and rationalize this by yourself. This will be recorded as your quiz. One (1) point will be
given to the correct answer and another one (1) point for the correct ratio. Superimpositions or erasures in
your answer/ratio is not allowed. You are given 20 minutes for this activity.

Multiple Choice

1. Which of the following organelles are incorrectly paired with their location within the cell?
a. nucleolus - within the nucleus d. microtubules - within the cytoplasm
b. cilia - on the cell surface e. smooth endoplasmic reticulum - within the
c. Golgi apparatus - on the cell surface cytoplasm of the cell
ANSWER: ________ c.
RATIO:______________________________________________________________________________
The Golgi Apparatus operates and performs its respective function within the cytoplasm, which is
____________________________________________________________________________________
within the cell.
__________________________

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2. The nucleolus:
a. is located in the cytoplasm.
b. is the location for production of large and small ribosomal subunits.
c. has its own distinct membrane.
d. is important for the formation of Golgi apparatus.
e. has all of these characteristics
ANSWER: ________
b.
RATIO:______________________________________________________________________________
The nucleolus within the nucleus is known to be a factory for the production of ribosomes in the cell.
____________________________________________________________________________________
__________________________

3. A cell that was producing large amounts of lipoproteins (proteins combined with lipids) for secretion
from the cell would have large numbers of:
a. lysosomes. d. membrane transporters.
b. Golgi apparatus. e. all of these structures.
c. centrioles.
ANSWER: ________b.
RATIO:______________________________________________________________________________
The Golgi Apparatus functions to receive and package materials produced within the cell, and secrete
____________________________________________________________________________________
them from the cell via secretory vesicles. And so, a large production and secretion of lipoproteins from the cell
__________________________
would be mean a large number of Golgi Apparatus in the cell.

4. Which of these cells would most likely have the largest number of mitochondria?
a. bone cells d. blood cells
b. muscle cells e. skin cells
c. fat cells
ANSWER: ________
b.
RATIO:______________________________________________________________________________
Muscle cells, most especially those located around the heart, have the largest number of mitochondria
____________________________________________________________________________________
among the other cells due to its daily use of energy in the form of ATP or Adenosine triphosphate.
__________________________

5. Substances outside the cell membrane are called:

a. intracellular substances.
b. extracellular substances.
c. intercellular substances.
d. Both extracellular material and intercellular material are correct names.
e. All of these are correct names.
ANSWER: ________
b.
RATIO:___________________________________________________________________________________________
Substances outside the cell membrane are called Extracellular substances, and on the other hand, substances inside
_________________________________________________________________________________________________
the cell membrane are called Intracellular substances. Intercellular substances, however, are specifically substances that are in
between cells.
6. According to the fluid-mosaic model of the cell membrane:
a. protein molecules that perform important cellular functions float in a lipid bilayer.
b. there is a double protein layer in the plasma membrane.
c. there are fats floating in the protein layer.
d. carbohydrates function as membrane channels.
e. nonpolar ends of phospholipids are exposed to water inside and outside the cell
ANSWER: ________
a.
RATIO:___________________________________________________________________________________________
The fluid-mosaic model of the cell membrane states that the cell membrane is composed of a bilayer of phospholids
_________________________________________________________________________________________________
and cholesterol with protein molecules floating in the bilayer.

7. _____________ is an example of a molecule that can directly pass through the phospholipid bilayer of the plasma
membrane.
a. Carbon dioxide d. Glucose
b. Potassium e. Calcium
c. Sodium
ANSWER: ________
a.

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RATIO:______________________________________________________________________________
Unlike the other above-mentioned molecules, the Carbon dioxide is a lipid-soluble molecule, which
____________________________________________________________________________________
which are molecules that can directly pass through the cell membrane, unlike water-soluble molecules that
__________________________
need a membrane transport, such as Glucose.

8. Cell membranes are said to be selectively permeable because they:

a. allow the free passage of some materials and restrict the passage of others.
b. allow the passage of materials in one direction but not the other.
c. permit the passage of most materials but not of water.
d. Cell membranes are NOT normally selectively permeable
ANSWER: ________
a.
RATIO:______________________________________________________________________________
Cell membranes are selectively permeable because only certain molecules and materials are given
____________________________________________________________________________________
passage across the membrane while some others are restricted from entering the cell.
__________________________

9. Which of the following statements is TRUE concerning the cell membrane? (Select all that apply)
a. Cholesterol within the membrane gives it added strength and flexibility.
b. Receptor molecules are embedded in the membrane for intercellular communication.
c. Carbohydrates bind to protein molecules thereby modifying the proteins function as a
membrane channel.
d. Receptor molecules embedded in the membrane are involved in cellular recognition.
ANSWER: ________
a., b., c., d.
RATIO:______________________________________________________________________________
The cell membrane has a wide variety of functions that helps to protect the cell, as well as maintain its internal homeostasis.
____________________________________________________________________________________
The bilayer is given strength, stability and flexibility due to the presence of the molecule Cholesterol. Receptor molecules found in the
__________________________
membrane facilitate in binding molecules or hormones, as well as provide intercellular communication. And carbohydrates binded to
protein molecules, creating glycoproteins, found on the surface of the membrane allows for cellular recognition to take place.
10. Which of the following would occur if all cell membranes were no longer selectively permeable? (Select
all that apply)
a. Action potentials would no longer be generated.
b. Cells would be hypertonic to their environment.
c. You would be subject to a higher rate of illness and disease.
d. Cells would not be able to get and keep enough glucose to function.
ANSWER: ________
a., b., c., d.
RATIO:______________________________________________________________________________
If cell membranes were no longer selectively permeable, at this rate I don’t think the cell will be
____________________________________________________________________________________
able to do its supposed functions normally, leading to its ultimate death. Action potential would no longer
__________________________
be generated due to the membrane’s loss of permeability. Any substance can enter the cell and disrupt
the balance of the initial extracellular and intracellular components of the cell, making the cell
susceptible to foreign and harmful substances such as toxins, allowing individuals to be subjected at a
higher rate of illness and disease. Cells would not be able to get and keep enough glucose to function
because of these disruptions.

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