energies

Review
Research Progress on Triboelectric Nanogenerator for
Sports Applications
Caixia Li 1 , Yongsheng Zhu 1 , Fengxin Sun 1 , Changjun Jia 1 , Tianming Zhao 2,3 , Yupeng Mao 1, *
and Haidong Yang 1, *

1 Physical Education Department, Northeastern University, Shenyang 110819, China

2 State Key Laboratory of Robotics, Shenyang Institute of Automation, Chinese Academy of Sciences,
Shenyang 110016, China
3 Institutes for Robotics and Intelligent Manufacturing, Chinese Academy of Sciences, Shenyang 110016, China
* Correspondence: maoyupeng@pe.neu.edu.cn (Y.M.); yanghaidong@pe.neu.edu.cn (H.Y.)

Abstract: Progress in science and technology drives the continuous innovation of energy collection
and utilization. In the field of sports, the information collection and analysis based on Internet
of things have attracted particular attention. Moreover, triboelectric nanogenerator (TENG) has
promising applications in the field of sports. Here, we introduce the working principle of the TENG
then the progress of the TENG as a wearable energy sensor is examined in the two fields of basic
human activities and sports, especially competitive sports. On this basis, it is considered that the
stability of devices, the universality of materials, and the scientificity of application of the TENG
in the future need to be improved. We provide a direction for further upgrading energy collection
technology to promote the high-quality development of human mechanical energy sensing in the
field of sports.

Keywords: wearable; energy sensing; body motion; triboelectric nanogenerator

Citation: Li, C.; Zhu, Y.; Sun, F.; Jia,

C.; Zhao, T.; Mao, Y.; Yang, H.
1. Introduction
Research Progress on Triboelectric
Nanogenerator for Sports
With the continuous progress of science and technology, the world has been entered
Applications. Energies 2022, 15, 5807.
the digital age, and great achievements have been made in the field of sports [1]. The
https://doi.org/10.3390/en15165807
in-depth application of the information technology drives the sports field to develop in a
scientific direction. Sports data-driven, precise, and intelligent development in the sports
Academic Editor: Paolo Visconti
field has become a trend. In this context, data collection technology is constantly optimized
Received: 24 June 2022 and updated, and the information collection based on the Internet of things has become
Accepted: 9 August 2022 more and more important [2]. In recent years, related research topics, such as sensors [3,4]
Published: 10 August 2022 and energy acquisition [5–8], have attracted great attention. The effective collection, iden-
tification, and analysis of sports information is the key to intelligent sports. It can help
Publisher’s Note: MDPI stays neutral
athletes improve their skills, formulate scientific training plans and competitive strate-
with regard to jurisdictional claims in
gies [9], help sports training digitally, accurately, and intelligently, and comprehensively
published maps and institutional affil-
iations.
improve the scientific level. The emergence of the motion sensor, which can realize the
measurement of motion-related parameters such as speed and acceleration [10], plays an
especially important role in many aspects. With the development of science and technology
society, higher requirements are put forward for sports monitoring. The operation of tradi-
Copyright: © 2022 by the authors. tional sensors depends on external power supply, such as batteries, which brings serious
Licensee MDPI, Basel, Switzerland. environmental pollution and takes the required characteristics such as flexibility, comfort,
This article is an open access article lightweight, convenience, and wearability of unified specification [11,12]. In the research of
distributed under the terms and human motion data acquisition, it is necessary to take advanced science and technology as
conditions of the Creative Commons the support, overcome various adverse conditions, update sensing equipment, optimize
Attribution (CC BY) license (https:// sensing performance, expand sensing range, and promote the high-quality development of
creativecommons.org/licenses/by/ motion information acquisition.
4.0/).

Energies 2022, 15, 5807. https://doi.org/10.3390/en15165807 https://www.mdpi.com/journal/energies

Energies 2022, 15, 5807 2 of 15

In 2012, Wang’s group proposed the triboelectric nanogenerator (TENG) based on

contact electrification and electrostatic induction, which has been proven to be a pow-
erful technology that can convert random low-frequency energy into electrical energy.
It has unique advantages of high-power density, high efficiency, low cost, and simple
manufacture [13–17]. TENG is considered to have potential development prospects in the
direction of human mechanical energy acquisition [18–20] and self-powered induction [21–24].
The sensor based on the TENG shows high sensitivity and efficiency to mechanical mo-
tion [8,25,26], and can measure several characteristics at the same time, such as accelera-
tion [27,28], pressure [29], direction [30,31], etc. In addition, such sensors can make full use
of various rich and available mechanical energy sources in our daily life or nature environ-
ment [16,32], such as vibration [33], human movement [34–37], eye movement [38], etc. So
far, various TENGs have been successfully reported [39–43]. Human movement will cause
changes in external environmental factors. Therefore, some triboelectric nanogenerators
have certain characteristics, such as moisture resistance, flexibility, and stretchability, can be
made into wearable motion sensors [44–49], which monitor various motion data of human
body successfully.
In recent years, triboelectric nanogenerators have been gradually applied in the field of
sports and become an important sensing means for monitoring human activities. In order to
grasp the development of triboelectric nanogenerators in the field of sports as a whole and
provide basic support for subsequent research, we reviewed the research in this field. Firstly,
we introduce the working principle of the TENGs, and then focus on the latest application
progress of sensing devices based on the TENGs in monitoring human movement. Energy
sensors based on the TENGs are applied to basic human activities, which can achieve
the effect of monitoring human daily basic activities and body health condition. In the
application of sports, especially competitive sports, the real-time movement and physical
faction monitoring of athletes can be realized through intelligent training facilities and
wearable devices. This paper not only summarizes the research progress of TENGs, but
also shows the research results of our team in recent years. The real experimental results
further illustrate the important value of TENGs in sports research. Finally, we made a
prospect for the future development of TENGs, which is of great significance to promote
the further development of the sports field.

2. Triboelectric Nanogenerator
As a new branch of energy conversion technology, the TENG can convert the me-
chanical energy into electrical energy effectively, with a self-driving system [50,51]. The
operation principle of TENG is based on the coupling effect of contact electrification and
electrostatic induction, and its fundamental physics model can be traced back to Maxwell’s
equations. The TENG has four working modes (Figure 1a): the vertical contact-separation
mode, lateral sliding mode, single electrode mode, and freestanding triboelectric-layer
mode [14]. The principles of different working modes are roughly the same. It is generally
believed that after two different materials come into contact, chemical bonds are formed
between some parts of the two surfaces, which is called adhesion. After separation, some
bound atoms tend to retain additional electrons, and some tend to release electrons, which
may generate friction charges on the surface [52]. In other words, materials with different
electron adsorption capacity generate electric charges through mutual friction, and the
potential difference drives the transfer of electrons, thus forming an electric current.
Here we select the vertical contact-separation mode for detailed description (Figure 1b).
At the original position, there is no charge (Figure 1bI). When two surfaces of different
materials are in contact, frictional charges will be generated on the contact surface due to the
difference in the ability to adsorb electrons (Figure 1bII). Once two surfaces are separated,
a potential difference will occur, causing electrons to flow from the bottom electrode to
the top electrode (Figure 1bIII). When the two surfaces are completely separated to the
initial position, the charge will reach equilibrium (Figure 1bIV). When the two surfaces are
close to each other, the electrons flow from the top electrode to the bottom through the load
Energies 2022, 15, 5807 3 of 15

again (Figure 1bV). The current change during the whole process is shown in the bottom
left of Figure 1.

Figure 1. (a) The TENG’s four working modes. Reprinted with permission from Ref. [50]. Copy-
right 2021 American Chemical Society. (b) Schematic diagram of working principle of TENG in
vertical contact-separation mode. Reprinted with permission from Ref. [1]. Copyright 2021 Wiley
Online Library.

3. Research Progress of Wearable Energy Sensor Based on the TENG in the

Sports Field
The TENG can be used to make wearable energy sensors to monitor human movement
using the special performance. The application in the sports field has a great development
prospect. Next, taking TENG’s research in the field of sports as the core, this paper combines
the previous research from the two aspects of basic human activity monitoring and sports
energy monitoring.

3.1. Basic Human Activity Monitoring

The energy sensor used to monitor basic human activities is mainly integrated with
the TENG, which can monitor the movement status of various parts of the human body
through the combination of weaving technology with clothing [53–55], or direct fitting with
the skin [56–58]. Zhu et al. developed a robust and textile-TENG energy collection [59].
By adding MoS2/GO to the friction layer, a large number of micropores are generated in
the silicone rubber matrix, which provides more sites for charge generation and improves
the working performance of the device. In the process of collecting energy, sandpaper is
used as a template to create a rough surface to obtain a larger contact area (Figure 2a). The
device can be worn on skin or cloth (Figure 2b,c) to harvest energy from different body
movements. Sun et al. designed a highly transparent, stretchable, and self-healable ionic
gel. The TENG based on this ionic gel can be used for efficient energy collection [60]. This
ionic gel’s fibers can be easily woven with ordinary fabrics (such as gloves) (Figure 2d) to
Energies 2022, 15, 5807 4 of 15

make ITENG. As shown in Figure 2e, the resistance of ITENG increases with the bending
degree of fingers. The bending angle can be identified and distinguished by detecting
the change of resistance. Because the ionic gel has good elasticity, the monitoring of the
device is accurate and repeatable. In the material selection of the TENG, the reuse of
waste material is a hot spot [61–64]. Bhaskar et al. proposed a recycled material-based
triboelectric nanogenerator (TENG) made of plastic waste and carbon-coated paper wipes
(C@PWs) (Figure 2f), and C@PW-Teng has been reshaped into a smart wristband device,
as shown in Figure 2g [65]. However, since this device has no waterproof function, the
moisture in the external environment will affect its working performance. Therefore, the
surface of the wrist strap needs to be wrapped with a layer of polyethylene to prevent
interference in the humid environment. Minglu Zhu et al. developed a self-powered
and self-functional sock (S2-sock) based on a triboelectric nanogenerator (TENG) and
lead zirconate titanate (PZT) piezoelectric chips (Figure 2h) [66]. The S2-sock has diverse
functions for energy harvesting and sensing various physiological signals (gait, contact
force, sweat level, etc.). Figure 2i,j shows the electrical signals under different synchrony
and under the same synchrony, different weights, and different ambient humidity. This
proves that the S2-sock can successfully realize walking pattern recognition and motion
tracking for smart home applications through changes in environmental factors and human
body weight. Textile articles based on TENG can not only contribute to sports monitoring
in the future, but also play a huge role in medical care. X.W. Hu et al. proposed a high-
output flexible ring-structure TENG (FR-TENG) [67]. Since its fabrication materials are
sponge-like porous PDMS and organic flexible hydrogels, it has good tensile properties.
By optimizing the concentration of deionized water, the output performance is greatly
improved. On this basis, a motion monitoring and protection elastic band is made to
monitor human motion data. Wearing the motion monitoring protection elastic band on
the arm, as shown in Figure 2k, the measured voltage can reflect the force of the biceps
when the arm is naturally bent and the arm is bent hard. Experiments compared the
output performance of FR-TENG with pure PDMS and FR-TENG with porous PDMS under
different stress conditions (Figure 2l,m), which further verified that FR-TENG with porous
PDMS has higher sensitivity and output performance can better reflect the strength of
human muscles. Table 1 compares the basic properties of the above five devices in terms
of humidity resistance, self-healing, breathability, and electrical output, as well as their
application scope. The TENGs based on various conductivity and material properties have
different application fields due to their different device characteristics. In a word, the TENG
still has a huge development prospect in the monitoring of basic human activities.
Table 1. Features and application comparison of different TENGs in basic human activity.

Humidity
Devices Self-Healing Breathability Electrical Output Applications
Resistance
Textile-TENG √
~200 V green electronics
(Zhu et al. [59])
ITENG √ wearable electronics,
~115 V
(Sun et al. [60]) E-skin, and soft robotics
C@PW-TENG √ emergency
~174 V
(Bhaskar et al. [65]) communication device
S2-sock √ √ smart home, sports
~196 V
(Zhu et al. [66]) monitoring, healthcare
health monitoring,
FR-TENG √ self-powered system and
~100 V
(Hu et al. [67]) human-machine
interaction
Energies 2022, 15, 5807 5 of 15

Figure 2. (a) Schematic diagram of flexible triboelectric nanogenerator (TENG) based on silicone
rubber. The illustration is a cross-sectional view of the FE-SEM image of TENG. (b,c) Photographic
images and corresponding output performance of TENG fixed at different positions of human body.
(a–c) Reprinted with permission from Ref. [59]. Copyright 2022, Springer Nature Switzerland AG.
(d) Photo of ionic gel fiber woven into fabric. (e) The change of relative resistance of ionic gel
fiber during continuous action and holding test. (d,e) Reprinted with permission from Ref. [60].
Copyright 2022, Highly Transparent, Stretchable, and Self-Healable Ionogel for Multifunctional
Sensors, Triboelectric Nanogenerator, and Wearable Fibrous Electronics. (f) Schematic illustration
and characterization of carbon-coated paper wipes (PWs). (g) C@PW photos of TENG as a wearable
smart wrist strap. (f,g) Reprinted with permission from Ref. [65]. Copyright 2022, ACS Publications.
(h) A diagram of the operating mechanism of S2-sock. (i) Gait characterization with typical voltage
signals under the contact sequences of two motions, forward: heel contact → forefoot contact,
backward: forefoot contact → heel contact. All signals are collected from the sock, with the positive
peak represents separation and negative peak represent the contact. (j) Comparison of TENG gait
characterization with different weights (45, 70, and 90 kg) and humidity levels (70% RH and 90%
RH). (h–j) Reprinted with permission from Ref. [66]. Copyright 2019, American Chemical Society.
(k) Image of a FR-TENG used in testing the strength of the biceps muscle. (l) The output voltage
of FR-TENG with pure PDMS corresponding to different force conditions. (m) The output voltage
of FR-TENG with porous PDMS corresponding to different force conditions. (k–m) Reprinted with
permission from Ref. [67]. Copyright 2021 IEEE.
Energies 2022, 15, 5807 6 of 15

3.2. Energy Monitoring of Sports

With the professionalization and commercialization of competitive sports, it is more
and more difficult to improve the performance of athletes for highly developed competitive
events [68], and it is increasingly necessary to improve the consciousness and refinement
of training [69]. The level of science has gradually become a key factor affecting sports
performance [70–74]. In sports, especially in competitive sports, the application of mo-
tion sensors can further quantify the athletes’ sports behavior and kinematic mode, thus
helping to improve athletes’ skills and formulate scientific training plans and competitive
strategies [75]. On the one hand, in the field of competitive sports, we can monitor the
competitive level of athletes by improving sports venues or equipment [76–80]. For exam-
ple, Hao et al. made a flexible self-rebound cambered TENG. The device has more than
3000 cycles’ durability and excellent elasticity and stability. On this basis, a self-powered
riding feature sensing system was designed [81]. The structure of SRC-TENG is shown in
Figure 3a. The intelligent saddle can provide real-time statistical data and fall prediction for
equestrian athletes and coaches (Figure 3b). This expands the application of self-powered
systems to intelligent sports monitoring and assistance. Liu and Li used cotton cloth and
polydimethylsiloxane (PDMS) as triboelectric layers to design a new TENG (CC-TENG),
which has the advantages of portability, flexibility, and folding [82]. On this basis, they
designed a self-powered long jump monitoring system based on a series of CC-TENG
arrays, as shown in Figure 3c. This self-powered long jump monitoring system makes use
of the response signal of TENG to the movement to realize the accurate measurement of
the standing long jump performance. Ma et al. proposed a lightweight self-powered sensor
based on the TENG, which can convert a small amount of mechanical energy into electrical
signals. It is applied to the training of table tennis players to collect the information of the
hitting position and speed of the balls (Figure 3d,e), guide the personalized training of
athletes, and achieve the purpose of improving the sports level [83]. This work opens a new
direction for smart sports facilities and big data analysis. On the other hand, the motion
sensor can achieve the monitoring purpose through direct contact with athletes [84–86].
Wang and Gao designed a new wave structure triboelectric nanogenerator (WS-TENG)
(Figure 3f), which can realize motion monitoring in arc state. According to this feature, it
can be used for foul monitoring in race walking [87]. The self-powered race-walking moni-
toring system based on the WS-TENG is installed at the athlete’s knee, and the electrical
signal can reflect the bending degree of the athlete’s knee when walking in the competition
(Figure 3g). WS-TENG will not generate an electrical signal when the athlete does not
commit a foul. However, when an athlete commits a foul due to knee bending, WS-TENG
will be activated to generate an electrical signal, as shown in Figure 3h,i. Shi et al. made a
flexible, breathable, and antibacterial electronic skin based on the TENG for self-powered
sensing of volleyball receiving statistics and analysis [88]. As shown in Figure 3j–l, three
sensing units are integrated on each arm, where s1 and s2 are the sweet points. Through
the electric signal displayed by the volleyball impact, the judgment of volleyball receiving
speed and receiving effect can be obtained in real time after processing, and the statistics
and analysis results can also be obtained in the program. Several examples are listed above
to fully illustrate the research progress of TENG in the field of sports. Table 2 compares
the different properties and applications of those devices. It can be seen intuitively that
the difference in the application range of the device due to its performance characteris-
tics. Therefore, it can be seen that the triboelectric nanogenerator plays a key role in the
field of sports monitoring, the development of intelligent devices, and the innovation of
wearable devices.
Energies 2022, 15, 5807 7 of 15

Figure 3. (a) Concept diagram of intelligent saddle mounted on horse, which is used to collect
information and energy. (b) Structural design sectional view of SRE-TENG. (a,b) Reprinted with
permission from Ref. [81]. Copyright 2022 American Chemical Society. (c) Schematic diagram of
long jump monitoring system with its own power supply, electrical signal generated by CC-TENG
and schematic diagram of self-powered reaction system. Reprinted with permission from Ref. [82].
Copyright 2022 Informa UK Limited. (d) Experimental design of big data analysis of the intelligent
sensor with its own power supply in table tennis training. (e) The device for playing table tennis is
integrated with four sensor units. The illustration shows the real-time three electric signals of the four
sensor units. (d,e) Reprinted with permission from Ref. [83]. (f) WS-TENG workflow. (g) Pictures
of athletes’ walking competition. (h) The voltage signal of WS-TENG when there is no foul in the
walking competition. (i) The voltage signal of WS-TENG when an athlete commits a foul in the
walking competition. (f–i) Reprinted with permission from Ref. [87]. Copyright 2022, Informa UK
Limited. (j) A 2 × 3 schematic diagram of integrated electronic skin array on both arms. (k) Display
photos of 2 × 3 integrated electronic skin array. (l) The real-time output voltage signal when the
volleyball impacts the different positions of the electronic skin array. (j–l) Reprinted with permission
from Ref. [88]. Copyright 2021, American Chemical Society.
Energies 2022, 15, 5807 8 of 15

Table 2. Features and application comparison of different TENGs in sports.

Devices Humidity Electrical

Self-Healing Breathability Foldability Biocompatibility Antibacterial Applications
Resistance Output

√ intelligent athletic
SRC-TENG
~55 V facilities, and
(Hao et al. [81])
sport safety
CC-TENG √ sports training and
~400 V
(Liu et al. [82]) intelligent sports
√ intelligent athletic
PP-TENG
~6.05 V facilities and big
(Ma et al. [83])
data analytics
WS-TENG √ athlete monitoring
~420 V
(Wang et al. [87]) system
E-Skin √ √ √ wearable sports
no clear data
(Shi et al. [88]) electronic device

4. Our Research Findings

In recent years, our team has been devoted to the related research of triboelectric
nanogenerators in the field of sports and has made certain research progress. Based on
nanogenerators made of PVDF, ionic hydrogel, and PDMS, we fabricated self-powered
sensors that can be used to connect athletes’ joints (Figure 4a–c) [89]. The device helps
monitor the training process and improve the subject’s athletic performance. Experiments
have shown that it can maintain the stability of device performance in various external
environments. To further improve the movement technique of skaters, we propose a
portable, flexible, self-powered sensor. Figure 4d shows the output voltage of the speed
skating in four states. The real-time sensor signal is used to analyze and guide the skating
angle, frequency, and push-off technique of the athlete to improve the technical level of
the athlete [90]. We fabricated portable and flexible self-powered biosensors based on ZnO
nanowire arrays (ZnO NWs) and flexible PET substrates [91]. This device guarantees stable
output performance under different humidity and strong skin adhesion, which can be used
to monitor different sports including swimming (Figure 4e–g), and can even be realized
by implanting biosensors in vivo to detect angiogenesis (Figure 4h–j). We combine the
triboelectric nanogenerator technology with a wireless intelligent host signal processing
and visualization system to propose a wireless intelligent motion correction system [92].
The system can realize the monitoring of various physical exercise types, and can accu-
rately determine human motion behavior, as well as correct and score motion techniques
(Figure 4k–m). The human–computer interaction application of the intelligent system is
realized. We propose a protector and scoring system for Taekwondo competition, which
is made by connecting taekwondo protective gear via a flexible lightweight triboelectric
nanogenerator (FL-TENG) [93]. The system can be used to monitor the performance of
athletes and improve the fairness of the game. Furthermore, FL-TENG can drive a tiny
wireless device to wirelessly transmit sports data in real-time during the game (Figure 4n,o).
This sustainable green self-powered sensor offers a new path in the field of sports competi-
tion monitoring. The above is part of the research results of our team. Table 3 compares
the performance of the above different devices, such as moisture resistance and biocom-
patibility. It can be seen intuitively from the table that the selection of materials varies
according to the corresponding monitoring scenarios. For instance, there is a big difference
between swimming and Taekwondo. Motion monitoring needs to fully consider various
special environments so that the sensor can meet the detection requirements. For example,
due to the change of skin surface humidity caused by sports, the moisture resistance of
the device should be taken as an important prerequisite in the selection of materials and
device manufacturing of the monitoring sensor, so as to ensure the stability of subsequent
device work. Our research, such as Taekwondo scoring system and action error correction,
provides development prospects for the intelligence improvement of competitive sports
and the realization of human–computer interaction. It is believed that in the field of sports,
there is still a lot of room for triboelectric nanogenerators to play, so our team’s research on
triboelectric nanogenerators is ongoing.
Energies 2022, 15, 5807 9 of 15

Figure 4. (a) Outputting piezoelectric voltage of TSB-PENG on the shoulder that does the bend
and stretch motion. (b) Outputting piezoelectric voltage of TSB-PENG is fixed on the elbow which
protrudes, bends, and stretches. (c) Outputting piezoelectric voltage of TSB-PENG is fixed on the
wrist that protrudes, bends, and stretches. (a–c) Reprinted with permission from Ref. [89]. (d) Output
piezoelectric voltage of speed skating during four sport states. Reprinted with permission from
Ref. [90]. (e) Output piezoelectric voltage of butterfly stroke. (f) Output piezoelectric voltage of
breaststroke. (g) Output piezoelectric voltage of freestyle stroke. (h) Simulating the monitoring of
athlete’s elbow joint angle and heart rate. (i) Simulation of arterial work and biosensor attachment
position. (j) Output piezoelectric voltage of the arterial model monitored by biosensor. (e–j) Reprinted
with permission from Ref. [91]. (k) The output voltage of the canonical table tennis attack technique
with tennis swing action. (l) The output voltage of the incorrect table tennis attack technique
and tennis swing action. (m) The working process of wireless intelligent motion error correction
system. (k–m) Reprinted with permission from Ref. [92]. (n) Unsportsmanlike action monitoring
system. (o) Voltage and waveform generated by punching, elbow blow, knee bump, and palm push.
(n,o) Reprinted with permission from Ref. [93].
Energies 2022, 15, 5807 10 of 15

Table 3. Features and application comparison of different devices in our research.

Humidity Non- Electrical

Devices Portability Sensitivity Anticorrosion Biocompatibility Applications
Resistance Invasiveness Output
TSB-PENG √ √ √ √ √ sports training
(Jia et al. [89]) monitoring
affected by big data and IoT
Sensor √ √ √ √
many factors technologies in the
(Lu et al. [90])
sport industry
√ √ √ √ √ human–computer
Biosensor
(Mao et al. [91]) interaction and
wireless sport big data
Motion Correction intelligence sport big
√ √ √ data and
System-FL-TENG
(Mao et al. [92]) human–computer
interaction
Protector and Scoring √ √ √
System-FL-TENG sports competition
monitoring
(Sun et al. [93])

5. Conclusions and Suggestions

With the upgrading of digital technology, the relevant research on intelligent sports
will also be in-depth, and intelligent sports facilities and wearable devices for sensing will
continue to innovate. By examining the research progress of wearable energy sensors based
on the TENG in the field of sports, it can be seen that the TENGs have great development
potential in sports monitoring and sensing technology in the future and can provide
technical support for the research and development of intelligent sports facilities and
wearable intelligent devices.
Although the current triboelectric nanogenerator has developed to a certain extent,
with the improvement of the intelligent and scientific level in the sports field, the require-
ments for sports data collection will gradually increase. Therefore, wearable sensors based
on the TENGs need to continue to improve their performance to meet higher requirements
if they want to have a broader application prospect in the sports field.

5.1. Stability of Device

In the practical application of devices, there are many environmental factors that
will affect the performance of devices, such as ambient temperature, humidity, and so
on. Furthermore, when monitoring human movement, the contact between perspiration
and the device and other factors may cause pollution to the device. This requires that the
properties of various materials should be considered when selecting the manufacturing
materials, and optimal materials should be selected according to the scope of application.
In addition, it can also be considered to do some treatment on the device surface, such as
packaging a protective layer on the device surface to protect the device without affecting
the device performance. The movement of the human body is a complex process, so it
is very important to ensure the accuracy of the monitoring information data, the device
performance, and the stability.

5.2. Universality of Material

At present, there are abundant choices of materials for making triboelectric nanogener-
ators, but it is believed that there are still many materials with good performance that have
not been found and used, which requires the joint efforts of researchers and scholars. When
selecting materials in the future, in addition to exploring unknown available materials,
there are two aspects that cannot be ignored. First is the reuse of waste materials. The
treatment and processing of waste living materials can be made into triboelectric layer
to achieve the utilization of waste products and the sustainable development of energy.
Second, consider the environmental protection of materials. At present, some materials
have the problem of environmental pollution, which brings challenges to the sustainable
development of this field. Therefore, environmental issues should be put in the first place
in the selection of materials for devices in the future. Try to select green and pollution-free
materials that will not cause pressure on the environmental during use and waste.
Energies 2022, 15, 5807 11 of 15

5.3. Scientificity of Application

The collection and analysis of big data is crucial to the development of intelligent
sports. The energy sensor based on the TENG can be integrated and applied to various
venues and equipment to realize real-time motion monitoring. However, most sensors
based on the TENGs only can distinguish different movements by visually comparing the
waveform or amplitude of the output voltage in motion monitoring [94–96]. In the further
data analysis, there are still some deficiencies. In the future, digital technology will be fully
combined with motion sensors to achieve from mechanical motion capture to physiological
and biochemical presentation and behavior prediction, from general data interpretation
to accurate visual analysis. Science and technology empower motion sensing equipment,
comprehensively upgrade the sensing performance, truly realize the digitization of motion
sensing and the scientization of result analysis, and promote the high-quality development
of the sports field.

Funding: This research received no external funding.

Institutional Review Board Statement: Not applicable.
Informed Consent Statement: Not applicable.
Data Availability Statement: Not applicable.
Acknowledgments: We thank all authors for their contributions to this article.
Conflicts of Interest: The authors declare no conflict of interest.

References
1. Luo, J.J.; Gao, W.C.; Wang, Z.L. The Triboelectric Nanogenerator as an Innovative Technology toward Intelligent Sports. Adv.
Mater. 2021, 33, 2004178. [CrossRef] [PubMed]
2. Zhang, P.C.; Zhang, Z.X.; Cai, J. A foot pressure sensor based on triboelectric nanogenerator for human motion monitoring.
Microsyst. Technol. 2021, 27, 3507–3512. [CrossRef]
3. Wang, C.; Hu, K.; Zhao, C.; Zou, Y.; Liu, Y.; Qu, X.; Jiang, D.; Li, Z.; Zhang, M.-R.; Li, Z. Customization of Conductive Elastomer
Based on PVA/PEI for Stretchable Sensors. Small 2020, 16, 1904758. [CrossRef] [PubMed]
4. Zhao, L.; Li, H.; Meng, J.; Li, Z. The recent advances in self-powered medical information sensors. InfoMat 2020, 2, 212–234.
[CrossRef]
5. Chen, J.; Huang, Y.; Zhang, N.; Zou, H.; Liu, R.; Tao, C.; Fan, X.; Wang, Z.L. Micro-cable structured textile for simultaneously
harvesting solar and mechanical energy. Nat. Energy 2016, 1, 16138. [CrossRef]
6. Liu, L.; Yu, Y.; Yan, C.; Li, K.; Zheng, Z. Wearable energy-dense and power-dense supercapacitor yarns enabled by scalable
graphene-metallic textile composite electrodes. Nat. Commun. 2015, 6, 7260. [CrossRef]
7. Pu, X.; Li, L.; Liu, M.; Jiang, C.; Du, C.; Zhao, Z.; Hu, W.; Wang, Z.L. Wearable Self-Charging Power Textile Based on Flexible Yarn
Supercapacitors and Fabric Nanogenerators. Adv. Mater. 2016, 28, 98–105. [CrossRef]
8. Pu, X.; Liu, M.; Li, L.; Han, S.; Li, X.; Jiang, C.; Du, C.; Luo, J.; Hu, W.; Wang, Z.L. Wearable Textile-Based In-Plane Microsuperca-
pacitors. Adv. Energy Mater. 2016, 6, 1601254. [CrossRef]
9. Yang, Y.; Hou, X.J.; Geng, W.P.; Mu, J.L.; Zhang, L.; Wang, X.D.; He, J.; Xiong, J.J.N.; Chou, X.J. Human movement monitoring and
behavior recognition for intelligent sports using customizable and flexible triboelectric nanogenerator. Sci. China Technol. Sci.
2022, 65, 826–836. [CrossRef]
10. Vo, C.P.; Shahriar, M.; Le, C.D.; Ahn, K.K. Mechanically Active Transducing Element Based on Solid-Liquid Triboelectric
Nanogenerator for Self-Powered Sensing. Int. J. Precis. Eng. Manuf. Technol. 2019, 6, 741–749. [CrossRef]
11. Su, M.; Brugger, J.; Kim, B. Simply Structured Wearable Triboelectric Nanogenerator Based on a Hybrid Composition of Carbon
Nanotubes and Polymer Layer. Int. J. Precis. Eng. Manuf. Technol. 2020, 7, 683–698. [CrossRef]
12. Wang, Y.; Jiang, J.; Zhang, H.; Dong, X.; Wang, L.; Ranjan, R.; Zomaya, A.Y. A scalable parallel algorithm for atmospheric general
circulation models on a multi-core cluster. Future Gener. Comput. Syst.-Int. J. Esci. 2017, 72, 1–10. [CrossRef]
13. Wang, Z.L.; Jiang, T.; Xu, L. Toward the blue energy dream by triboelectric nanogenerator networks. Nano Energy 2017, 39, 9–23.
[CrossRef]
14. Wang, Z.L.; Chen, J.; Lin, L. Progress in triboelectric nanogenerators as a new energy technology and self-powered sensors.
Energy Environ. Sci. 2015, 8, 2250–2282. [CrossRef]
15. Wang, Z.L. Triboelectric nanogenerators as new energy technology and self-powered sensors-Principles, problems and perspec-
tives. Faraday Discuss. 2014, 176, 447–458. [CrossRef] [PubMed]
16. Fan, F.-R.; Tian, Z.-Q.; Wang, Z.L. Flexible triboelectric generator! Nano Energy 2012, 1, 328–334. [CrossRef]
Energies 2022, 15, 5807 12 of 15

17. Yang, H.M.; Wang, M.F.; Deng, M.M.; Guo, H.Y.; Zhang, W.; Yang, H.K.; Xi, Y.; Li, X.G.; Hu, C.G.; Wang, Z.L. A full-packaged
rolling triboelectric-electromagnetic hybrid nanogenerator for energy harvesting and building up self-powered wireless systems.
Nano Energy 2019, 56, 300–306. [CrossRef]
18. Zhu, G.; Chen, J.; Zhang, T.; Jing, Q.; Wang, Z.L. Radial-arrayed rotary electrification for high performance triboelectric generator.
Nat. Commun. 2014, 5, 3426. [CrossRef]
19. Ouyang, H.; Liu, Z.; Li, N.; Shi, B.; Zou, Y.; Xie, F.; Ma, Y.; Li, Z.; Li, H.; Zheng, Q.; et al. Symbiotic cardiac pacemaker. Nat.
Commun. 2019, 10, 1821. [CrossRef]
20. Niu, S.; Wang, X.; Yi, F.; Zhou, Y.S.; Wang, Z.L. A universal self-charging system driven by random biomechanical energy for
sustainable operation of mobile electronics. Nat. Commun. 2015, 6, 8975. [CrossRef]
21. Yang, J.; Chen, J.; Su, Y.; Jing, Q.; Li, Z.; Yi, F.; Wen, X.; Wang, Z.; Wang, Z.L. Eardrum-Inspired Active Sensors for Self-
Powered Cardiovascular System Characterization and Throat-Attached Anti-Interference Voice Recognition. Adv. Mater. 2015,
27, 1316–1326. [CrossRef] [PubMed]
22. Wang, Z.L. Triboelectric Nanogenerators as New Energy Technology for Self-Powered Systems and as Active Mechanical and
Chemical Sensors. ACS Nano 2013, 7, 9533–9557. [CrossRef]
23. Lin, Z.; Chen, J.; Li, X.; Zhou, Z.; Meng, K.; Wei, W.; Yang, J.; Wang, Z.L. Triboelectric Nanogenerator Enabled Body Sensor
Network for Self-Powered Human Heart-Rate Monitoring. ACS Nano 2017, 11, 8830–8837. [CrossRef] [PubMed]
24. Heo, D.; Chung, J.; Shin, G.; Seok, M.; Lee, C.; Lee, S. Yo-Yo Inspired Triboelectric Nanogenerator. Energies 2021, 14, 1798.
[CrossRef]
25. Choi, Y.W.; Jang, S.; Chun, M.-S.; Kim, S.M.; Choi, M. Efficient Microfluidic Power Generator Based on Interaction between DI
Water and Hydrophobic-Channel Surface. Int. J. Precis. Eng. Manuf. Technol. 2018, 5, 255–260. [CrossRef]
26. Shi, M.; Zhang, J.; Chen, H.; Han, M.; Shankaregowda, S.A.; Su, Z.; Meng, B.; Cheng, X.; Zhang, H. Self-Powered Analogue Smart
Skin. ACS Nano 2016, 10, 4083–4091. [CrossRef] [PubMed]
27. Yi, F.; Lin, L.; Niu, S.; Yang, J.; Wu, W.; Wang, S.; Liao, Q.; Zhang, Y.; Wang, Z.L. Self-Powered Trajectory, Velocity, and Acceleration
Tracking of a Moving Object/Body using a Triboelectric Sensor. Adv. Funct. Mater. 2014, 24, 7488–7494. [CrossRef]
28. Zhang, H.; Yang, Y.; Su, Y.; Chen, J.; Adams, K.; Lee, S.; Hu, C.; Wang, Z.L. Triboelectric Nanogenerator for Harvesting Vibration
Energy in Full Space and as Self- Powered Acceleration Sensor. Adv. Funct. Mater. 2014, 24, 1401–1407. [CrossRef]
29. Lee, K.Y.; Yoon, H.-J.; Jiang, T.; Wen, X.; Seung, W.; Kim, S.-W.; Wang, Z.L. Fully Packaged Self-Powered Triboelectric Pressure
Sensor Using Hemispheres-Array. Adv. Energy Mater. 2016, 6, 1502566. [CrossRef]
30. Li, T.; Xu, Y.; Willander, M.; Xing, F.; Cao, X.; Wang, N.; Wang, Z.L. Lightweight Triboelectric Nanogenerator for Energy Harvesting
and Sensing Tiny Mechanical Motion. Adv. Funct. Mater. 2016, 26, 4370–4376. [CrossRef]
31. Wu, Z.; Ding, W.; Dai, Y.; Dong, K.; Wu, C.; Zhang, L.; Lin, Z.; Cheng, J.; Wang, Z.L. Self-Powered Multifunctional Motion Sensor
a, Enabled by Magnetic-Regulated Triboelectric Nanogenerator. ACS Nano 2018, 12, 5726–5733. [CrossRef] [PubMed]
32. Kim, J.E.; Kim, H.; Yoon, H.; Kim, Y.Y.; Youn, B.D. An Energy Conversion Model for Cantilevered Piezoelectric Vibration Energy
Harvesters using Only Measurable Parameters. Int. J. Precis. Eng. Manuf. Technol. 2015, 2, 51–57. [CrossRef]
33. Yang, W.; Chen, J.; Jing, Q.; Yang, J.; Wen, X.; Su, Y.; Zhu, G.; Bai, P.; Wang, Z.L. 3D Stack Integrated Triboelectric Nanogenerator
for Harvesting Vibration Energy. Adv. Funct. Mater. 2014, 24, 4090–4096. [CrossRef]
34. Yang, Y.; Zhang, H.; Lin, Z.-H.; Zhou, Y.S.; Jing, Q.; Su, Y.; Yang, J.; Chen, J.; Hu, C.; Wang, Z.L. Human Skin Based Triboelectric
Nanogenerators for Harvesting Biomechanical Energy and as Self-Powered Active Tactile Sensor System. ACS Nano 2013,
7, 9213–9222. [CrossRef]
35. Zhu, G.; Yang, W.Q.; Zhang, T.; Jing, Q.; Chen, J.; Zhou, Y.S.; Bai, P.; Wang, Z.L. Self-Powered, Ultrasensitive, Flexible Tactile
Sensors Based on Contact Electrification. Nano Lett. 2014, 14, 3208–3213. [CrossRef]
36. Lu, Z.; Jia, C.; Yang, X.; Zhu, Y.; Sun, F.; Zhao, T.; Zhang, S.; Mao, Y. A Flexible TENG Based on Micro-Structure Film for Speed
Skating Techniques Monitoring and Biomechanical Energy Harvesting. Nanomaterials 2022, 12, 1576. [CrossRef]
37. Zhu, Y.; Sun, F.; Jia, C.; Zhao, T.; Mao, Y. A Stretchable and Self-Healing Hybrid Nano-Generator for Human Motion Monitoring.
Nanomaterials 2022, 12, 104. [CrossRef] [PubMed]
38. Pu, X.; Guo, H.; Chen, J.; Wang, X.; Xi, Y.; Hu, C.; Wang, Z.L. Eye motion triggered self-powered mechnosensational communica-
tion system using triboelectric nanogenerator. Sci. Adv. 2017, 3, e1700694. [CrossRef]
39. Qian, Y.; Yu, J.; Zhang, F.; Kang, Y.; Su, C.; Pang, H. Facile synthesis of sub-10 nm ZnS/ZnO nanoflakes for high-performance
flexible triboelectric nanogenerators. Nano Energy 2021, 88, 106256. [CrossRef]
40. Qian, Y.; Lyu, Z.; Kim, D.-H.; Kang, D.J. Enhancing the output power density of polydimethylsiloxane-based flexible triboelectric
nanogenerators with ultrathin nickel telluride nanobelts as a co-triboelectric layer. Nano Energy 2021, 90, 40527821. [CrossRef]
41. Qian, Y.; Sohn, M.; He, W.; Park, H.; Subramanian, K.R.V.; Kang, D.J. A high-output flexible triboelectric nanogenerator based on
polydimethylsiloxane/three-dimensional bilayer graphene/carbon cloth composites. J. Mater. Chem. A 2020, 8, 17150–17155.
[CrossRef]
42. Qian, Y.; Kang, D.J. Poly(dimethylsiloxane)/ZnO Nanoflakes/Three-Dimensional Graphene Heterostructures for High-
Performance Flexible Energy Harvesters with Simultaneous Piezoelectric and Triboelectric Generation. ACS Appl. Mater. Interfaces
2018, 10, 32281–32288. [CrossRef] [PubMed]
Energies 2022, 15, 5807 13 of 15

43. He, W.; Qian, Y.; Lee, B.S.; Zhang, F.; Rasheed, A.; Jung, J.-E.; Kang, D.J. Ultrahigh Output Piezoelectric and Triboelectric
Hybrid Nanogenerators Based on ZnO Nanoflakes/Polydimethylsiloxane Composite Films. ACS Appl. Mater. Interfaces 2018,
10, 44415–44420. [CrossRef] [PubMed]
44. Rasel, M.S.; Maharjan, P.; Rahman, M.T.; Salauddin, M.; Rana, S.M.S.; Lee, S.; Park, J.Y. Highly Responsive and Robust Micro-
/Nano-Textured Self-Powered Triboelectric Humidity Sensor. ACS Appl. Electron. Mater. 2021, 3, 4376–4387. [CrossRef]
45. Qu, M.; Shen, L.; Wang, J.; Zhang, N.; Pang, Y.; Wu, Y.; Ge, J.; Peng, L.; Yang, J.; He, J. Superhydrophobic, Humidity-Resistant, and
Flexible Triboelectric Nanogenerators for Biomechanical Energy Harvesting and Wearable Self-Powered Sensing. ACS Appl. Nano
Mater. 2022, 5, 9840–9851. [CrossRef]
46. Chen, X.X.; Song, Y.; Chen, H.T.; Zhang, J.X.; Zhang, H.X. An ultrathin stretchable triboelectric nanogenerator with coplanar
electrode for energy harvesting and gesture sensing. J. Mater. Chem. A 2017, 5, 12361–12368. [CrossRef]
47. Zhang, L.; Su, C.; Cui, X.; Li, P.P.; Wang, Z.; Gu, L.; Tang, Z.X. Free-Standing Triboelectric Layer-Based Full Fabric Wearable
Nanogenerator for Efficient Mechanical Energy Harvesting. ACS Appl. Electron. Mater. 2020, 2, 3366–3372. [CrossRef]
48. Yang, Y.Q.; Sun, N.; Wen, Z.; Cheng, P.; Zheng, H.C.; Shao, H.Y.; Xia, Y.J.; Chen, C.; Lan, H.W.; Xie, X.K.; et al. Liquid-Metal-Based
Super-Stretchable and Structure-Designable Triboelectric Nanogenerator for Wearable Electronics. ACS Nano 2018, 12, 2027–2034.
[CrossRef]
49. Li, H.; Zhang, Y.J.; Wu, Y.H.; Zhao, H.; Wang, W.C.; He, X.; Zheng, H.W. A stretchable triboelectric nanogenerator made
of silver-coated glass microspheres for human motion energy harvesting and self-powered sensing applications. Beilstein J.
Nanotechnol. 2021, 12, 402–412. [CrossRef] [PubMed]
50. Wang, Y.F.; Jin, X.; Wang, W.Y.; Niu, J.R.; Zhu, Z.T.; Lin, T. Efficient Triboelectric Nanogenerator (TENG) Output Management for
Improving Charge Density and Reducing Charge Loss. ACS Appl. Electron. Mater. 2021, 3, 532–549. [CrossRef]
51. Matin Nazar, A.; Idala Egbe, K.-J.; Abdollahi, A.; Hariri-Ardebili, M.A. Triboelectric Nanogenerators for Energy Harvesting in
Ocean: A Review on Application and Hybridization. Energies 2021, 14, 5600. [CrossRef]
52. Peng, J.; Kang, S.D.; Snyder, G.J. Optimization principles and the figure of merit for triboelectric generators. Sci. Adv. 2017,
3, eaap8576. [CrossRef] [PubMed]
53. Chen, C.; Guo, H.; Chen, L.; Wang, Y.-C.; Pu, X.; Yu, W.; Wang, F.; Du, Z.; Wang, Z.L. Direct Current Fabric Triboelectric
Nanogenerator for Biomotion Energy Harvesting. ACS Nano 2020, 14, 4585–4594. [CrossRef] [PubMed]
54. Li, S.; Zhong, Q.; Zhong, J.; Cheng, X.; Wang, B.; Hu, B.; Zhou, J. Cloth-Based Power Shirt for Wearable Energy Harvesting and
Clothes Ornamentation. ACS Appl. Mater. Interfaces 2015, 7, 14912–14916. [CrossRef]
55. Cao, R.; Pu, X.; Du, X.; Yang, W.; Wang, J.; Guo, H.; Zhao, S.; Yuan, Z.; Zhang, C.; Li, C.; et al. Screen-Printed Washable Electronic
Textiles as Self-Powered Touch/Gesture Tribo-Sensors for Intelligent Human-Machine Interaction. ACS Nano 2018, 12, 5190–5196.
[CrossRef]
56. Zou, Y.; Raveendran, V.; Chen, J. Wearable triboelectric nanogenerators for biomechanical energy harvesting. Nano Energy 2020,
77, 105303. [CrossRef]
57. Wang, H.; Han, M.; Song, Y.; Zhang, H. Design, manufacturing and applications of wearable triboelectric nanogenerators. Nano
Energy 2021, 81, 105627. [CrossRef]
58. Yi, F.; Zhang, Z.; Kang, Z.; Liao, Q.; Zhang, Y. Recent Advances in Triboelectric Nanogenerator-Based Health Monitoring. Adv.
Funct. Mater. 2019, 29, 1808849. [CrossRef]
59. Zu, G.Q.; Wei, Y.; Sun, C.Y.; Yang, X.J. Humidity-resistant, durable, wearable single-electrode triboelectric nanogenerator for
mechanical energy harvesting. J. Mater. Sci. 2022, 57, 2813–2824. [CrossRef]
60. Sun, L.J.; Huang, H.F.; Ding, Q.Y.; Guo, Y.F.; Sun, W.; Wu, Z.C.; Qin, M.L.; Guan, Q.B.; You, Z.W. Highly Transparent, Stretchable,
and Self-Healable Ionogel for Multifunctional Sensors, Triboelectric Nanogenerator, and Wearable Fibrous Electronics. Adv. Fiber
Mater. 2022, 4, 98–107. [CrossRef]
61. Roy, S.; Maji, P.K.; Goh, K.-L. Sustainable design of flexible 3D aerogel from waste PET bottle for wastewater treatment to energy
harvesting device. Chem. Eng. J. 2020, 413, 127409. [CrossRef]
62. Li, M.J.; Cheng, W.Y.; Li, Y.C.; Wu, H.M.; Wu, Y.C.; Lu, H.W.; Cheng, S.L.; Li, L.; Chang, K.C.; Liu, H.J.; et al. Deformable, resilient,
and mechanically-durable triboelectric nanogenerator based on recycled coffee waste for wearable power and self-powered smart
sensors. Nano Energy 2020, 79, 105405. [CrossRef]
63. Feng, X.; Li, Q.; Wang, K. Waste Plastic Triboelectric Nanogenerators Using Recycled Plastic Bags for Power Generation. ACS
Appl. Mater. Interfaces 2021, 13, 400–410. [CrossRef] [PubMed]
64. Yao, C.; Hernandez, A.; Yu, Y.; Cai, Z.; Wang, X. Triboelectric nanogenerators and power-boards from cellulose nanofibrils and
recycled materials. Nano Energy 2016, 30, 103–108. [CrossRef]
65. Dudem, B.; Dharmasena, R.D.I.G.; Riaz, R.; Vivekananthan, V.; Wijayantha, K.G.U.; Lugli, P.; Petti, L.; Silva, S.R.P. Wearable
Triboelectric Nanogenerator from Waste Materials for Autonomous Information Transmission via Morse Code. ACS Appl. Mater.
Interfaces 2022, 14, 5328–5337. [CrossRef]
66. Zhu, M.L.; Shi, Q.F.; He, T.Y.Y.; Yi, Z.R.; Ma, Y.M.; Yang, B.; Chen, T.; Lee, C. Self-Powered and Self-Functional Cotton Sock
Using Piezoelectric and Triboelectric Hybrid Mechanism for Healthcare and Sports Monitoring. ACS Nano 2019, 13, 1940–1952.
[CrossRef]
Energies 2022, 15, 5807 14 of 15

67. Hu, X.W.; Liu, L.; Xie, M.J.; Li, J.; Ou-Yang, W. High-Output Flexible Ring-Structure Triboelectric Nanogenerators for Wearable
Electronics and Sports Monitoring. In Proceedings of the Photonics and Electromagnetics Research Symposium (PIERS),
Hangzhou, China, 21–25 November 2021; pp. 1032–1039.
68. Zhang, B.; Wu, Z.; Lin, Z.; Guo, H.; Chun, F.; Yang, W.; Wang, Z.L. All-in-one 3D acceleration sensor based on coded liquid-metal
triboelectric nanogenerator for vehicle restraint system. Mater. Today 2021, 43, 37–44. [CrossRef]
69. Ahmadi, A.; Mitchell, E.; Richter, C.; Destelle, F.; Gowing, M.; O’Connor, N.E.; Moran, K. Toward Automatic Activity Classification
and Movement Assessment during a Sports Training Session. IEEE Internet Things J. 2015, 2, 23–32. [CrossRef]
70. Luo, Y.; Zhao, T.; Dai, Y.; Li, Q.; Fu, H. Flexible nanosensors for non-invasive creatinine detection based on triboelectric
nanogenerator and enzymatic reaction (vol 320, 112585, 2021). Sens. Actuators A Phys. 2021, 324, 112585. [CrossRef]
71. Zhao, T.; Zheng, C.; He, H.; Guan, H.; Zhong, T.; Xing, L.; Xue, X. A self-powered biosensing electronic-skin for real-time sweat
Ca2+ detection and wireless data transmission. Smart Mater. Struct. 2019, 28, 085015. [CrossRef]
72. Bermon, S.; Hirschberg, A.L.; Kowalski, J.; Eklund, E. Serum androgen levels are positively correlated with athletic performance
and competition results in elite female athletes. Br. J. Sports Med. 2018, 52, 1531–1532. [CrossRef] [PubMed]
73. He, H.; Zhao, T.; Guan, H.; Zhong, T.; Zeng, H.; Xing, L.; Zhang, Y.; Xue, X. A water-evaporation-induced self-charging hybrid
power unit for application in the Internet of Things. Sci. Bull. 2019, 64, 1409–1417. [CrossRef]
74. Zhang, W.; Guan, H.; Zhong, T.; Zhao, T.; Xing, L.; Xue, X. Wearable Battery-Free Perspiration Analyzing Sites Based on Sweat
Flowing on ZnO Nanoarrays. Nano-Micro Lett. 2020, 12, 105. [CrossRef]
75. Nunes Rodrigues, A.C.; Pereira, A.S.; Sousa Mendes, R.M.; Araujo, A.G.; Couceiro, M.S.; Figueiredo, A.J. Using Artificial
Intelligence for Pattern Recognition in a Sports Context. Sensors 2020, 20, 3040. [CrossRef] [PubMed]
76. Zou, Y.J.; Libanori, A.; Xu, J.; Nashalian, A.; Chen, J. Triboelectric Nanogenerator Enabled Smart Shoes for Wearable Electricity
Generation. Research 2020, 2020, 7158953. [CrossRef]
77. He, C.; Zhu, W.J.; Chen, B.D.; Xu, L.; Jiang, T.; Han, C.B.; Gu, G.Q.; Li, D.C.; Wang, Z.L. Smart Floor with Integrated Triboelectric
Nanogenerator as Energy Harvester and Motion Sensor. ACS Appl. Mater. Interfaces 2017, 9, 26126–26133. [CrossRef]
78. Zhang, P.C.; Cai, J. A self-powered grip exerciser based on triboelectric nanogenerator for intelligent sports monitoring. Mater.
Technol. 2021, 37, 753–759. [CrossRef]
79. Shen, X.A.; Han, W.J.; Jiang, Y.F.; Ding, Q.J.; Li, X.; Zhao, X.; Li, Z.Y. Punching pores on cellulose fiber paper as the spacer of
triboelectric nanogenerator for monitoring human motion. Energy Rep. 2020, 6, 2851–2860. [CrossRef]
80. Peng, F.; Liu, D.; Zhao, W.; Zheng, G.; Ji, Y.; Dai, K.; Mi, L.; Zhang, D.; Liu, C.; Shen, C. Facile fabrication of triboelectric
nanogenerator based on low-cost thermoplastic polymeric fabrics for large-area energy harvesting and self-powered sensing.
Nano Energy 2019, 65, 104068. [CrossRef]
81. Hao, Y.T.; Wen, J.; Gao, X.B.; Nan, D.; Pan, J.; Yang, Y.H.; Chen, B.D.; Wang, Z.L. Self-Rebound Cambered Triboelectric
Nanogenerator Array for Self-Powered Sensing in Kinematic Analytics. Acs Nano 2022, 16, 1271–1279. [CrossRef]
82. Liu, R.; Li, M.P. A textile-based triboelectric nanogenerator for long jump monitoring. Mater. Technol. 2022. [CrossRef]
83. Ma, X.F.; Liu, X.; Li, X.X.; Ma, Y.F. Light-Weight, Self-Powered Sensor Based on Triboelectric Nanogenerator for Big Data Analytics
in Sports. Electronics 2021, 10, 2322. [CrossRef]
84. Zou, Y.; Tan, P.; Shi, B.; Ouyang, H.; Jiang, D.; Liu, Z.; Li, H.; Yu, M.; Wang, C.; Qu, X.; et al. A bionic stretchable nanogenerator for
underwater sensing and energy harvesting. Nat. Commun. 2019, 10, 2695. [CrossRef]
85. Gogurla, N.; Roy, B.; Park, J.-Y.; Kim, S. Skin-contact actuated single-electrode protein triboelectric nanogenerator and strain
sensor for biomechanical energy harvesting and motion sensing. Nano Energy 2019, 62, 674–681. [CrossRef]
86. Qi, K.; He, J.; Wang, H.; Zhou, Y.; You, X.; Nan, N.; Shao, W.; Wang, L.; Ding, B.; Cui, S. A Highly Stretchable Nanofiber-Based
Electronic Skin with Pressure-, Strain-, and Flexion-Sensitive Properties for Health and Motion Monitoring. ACS Appl. Mater.
Interfaces 2017, 9, 42951–42960. [CrossRef] [PubMed]
87. Wang, Z.; Gao, W.Y. A wave structure triboelectric nanogenerator for race walking motion sensing. Mater. Technol. 2022.
[CrossRef]
88. Shi, Y.P.; Wei, X.L.; Wang, K.M.; He, D.D.; Yuan, Z.H.; Xu, J.H.; Wu, Z.Y.; Wang, Z.L. Integrated All-Fiber Electronic Skin Toward
Self-Powered Sensing Sports Systems. ACS Appl. Mater. Interfaces 2021, 13, 50329–50337. [CrossRef]
89. Jia, C.; Zhu, Y.; Sun, F.; Zhao, T.; Xing, R.; Mao, Y.; Zhao, C. A Flexible and Stretchable Self-Powered Nanogenerator in Basketball
Passing Technology Monitoring. Electronics 2021, 10, 2584. [CrossRef]
90. Lu, Z.; Zhu, Y.; Jia, C.; Zhao, T.; Bian, M.; Jia, C.; Zhang, Y.; Mao, Y. A Self-Powered Portable Flexible Sensor of Monitoring Speed
Skating Techniques. Biosensors 2021, 11, 108. [CrossRef]
91. Mao, Y.; Zhu, Y.; Zhao, T.; Jia, C.; Bian, M.; Li, X.; Liu, Y.; Liu, B. A Portable and Flexible Self-Powered Multifunctional Sensor for
Real-Time Monitoring in Swimming. Biosensors 2021, 11, 147. [CrossRef]
92. Mao, Y.; Sun, F.; Zhu, Y.; Jia, C.; Zhao, T.; Huang, C.; Li, C.; Ba, N.; Che, T.; Chen, S. Nanogenerator-Based Wireless Intelligent
Motion Correction System for Storing Mechanical Energy of Human Motion. Sustainability 2022, 14, 6944. [CrossRef]
93. Sun, F.; Zhu, Y.; Jia, C.; Ouyang, B.; Zhao, T.; Li, C.; Ba, N.; Li, X.; Chen, S.; Che, T.; et al. A Flexible Lightweight Triboelectric
Nanogenerator for Protector and Scoring System in Taekwondo Competition Monitoring. Electronics 2022, 11, 1306. [CrossRef]
94. Zhao, T.; Fu, Y.; Sun, C.; Zhao, X.; Jiao, C.; Du, A.; Wang, Q.; Mao, Y.; Liu, B. Wearable biosensors for real-time sweat analysis
and body motion capture based on stretchable fiber-based triboelectric nanogenerators. Biosens. Bioelectron. 2022, 205, 114115.
[CrossRef] [PubMed]
Energies 2022, 15, 5807 15 of 15

95. Park, J.H.; Wu, C.; Sung, S.; Kim, T.W. Ingenious use of natural triboelectrification on the human body for versatile applications in
walking energy harvesting and body action monitoring. Nano Energy 2019, 57, 872–878. [CrossRef]
96. Yang, D.; Ni, Y.; Kong, X.; Li, S.; Chen, X.; Zhang, L.; Wang, Z.L. Self-Healing and Elastic Triboelectric Nanogenerators for Muscle
Motion Monitoring and Photothermal Treatment. ACS Nano 2021, 15, 14653–14661. [CrossRef]