Mark Antony

Marcus Antonius (14 January 83 BC – 1 August 30 BC), commonly known in English as Mark
Antony,[1] was a Roman polit ician and general who played a crit ical role in t he t ransformat ion of
t he Roman Republic from a const it ut ional republic int o t he aut ocrat ic Roman Empire.

Ant ony was a relat ive and support er of Julius Caesar, and he served as one of his generals during
t he conquest of Gaul and t he Caesar's civil war. Ant ony was appoint ed administ rat or of It aly while
Caesar eliminat ed polit ical opponent s in Greece, Nort h Africa, and Spain. Aft er Caesar's
assassinat ion in 44 BC, Ant ony joined forces wit h Lepidus, anot her of Caesar's generals, and
Oct avian, Caesar's great -nephew and adopt ed son, forming a t hree-man dict at orship known t o
hist orians as t he Second Triumvirat e. The Triumvirs defeat ed Caesar's killers, t he Liberatores, at
t he Bat t le of Philippi in 42 BC, and divided t he government of t he Republic bet ween t hemselves.
Ant ony was assigned Rome's east ern provinces, including t he client kingdom of Egypt , t hen ruled
by Cleopat ra VII Philopat or, and was given t he command in Rome's war against Part hia.

Relat ions among t he t riumvirs were st rained as t he various members sought great er polit ical
power. Civil war bet ween Ant ony and Oct avian was avert ed in 40 BC, when Ant ony married
Oct avian's sist er, Oct avia. Despit e t his marriage, Ant ony carried on a love affair wit h Cleopat ra,
who bore him t hree children, furt her st raining Ant ony's relat ions wit h Oct avian. Lepidus was
expelled from t he associat ion in 36 BC, and in 33 BC, disagreement s bet ween Ant ony and
Oct avian caused a split bet ween t he remaining Triumvirs. Their ongoing host ilit y erupt ed int o civil
war in 31 BC when Oct avian induced t he republic t o declare war on Cleopat ra and proclaim
Ant ony a t rait or. Lat er t hat year, Ant ony was defeat ed by Oct avian's forces at t he Bat t le of
Act ium. Ant ony and Cleopat ra fled t o Egypt where, having again been defeat ed at t he Bat t le of
Alexandria, t hey commit t ed suicide.
Wit h Ant ony dead, Oct avian became t he
undisput ed mast er of t he Roman world. In 27
BC, Oct avian was grant ed t he t it le of
Marcus Antonius
Augustus, marking t he final st age in t he
t ransformat ion of t he Roman Republic int o an
empire, wit h himself as t he first Roman
emperor.

Early life
A member of t he plebeian gens Ant onia,
Ant ony was born in Rome [2] on 14 January 83
BC.[3][4] His fat her and namesake was Marcus
Ant onius Cret icus, son of t he not ed orat or
Marcus Ant onius who had been murdered
Flavian-era bust of
during t he purges of Gaius Marius in t he wint er
of 87–86 BC.[5] His mot her was Julia, a t hird
Antony
cousin of Julius Caesar. Ant ony was an infant
at t he t ime of Lucius Cornelius Sulla's march
[6][note 1]
Born 14
on Rome in 82 BC.

January
83 BC
Rome,
Italy,
Antony's brother Lucius, on a
coin issued at Ephesus
Roman
during his consulship in 41
BC Republic
According t o t he Roman orat or Marcus Tullius
Cicero, Ant ony's fat her was incompet ent and Died 1 August
corrupt , and was only given power because he
was incapable of using or abusing it 30 BC
effect ively.[7] In 74 BC he was given t he
milit ary command t o defeat t he pirat es of t he (aged 53)
Medit erranean, but he died in Cret e in 71 BC
wit hout making any significant progress.[5][7][8] Alexandria,
The elder Ant ony's deat h left Ant ony and his
brot hers, Lucius and Gaius, in t he care of t heir Ptolemaic
mot her, Julia, who lat er married Publius
Cornelius Lent ulus Sura, an eminent member Egypt
of t he old pat rician nobilit y. Lent ulus, despit e
exploit ing his polit ical success for financial
gain, was const ant ly in debt due t o his Cause of Suicide
ext ravagance. He was a major figure in t he
Cat ilinarian conspiracy and was summarily death
execut ed on t he orders of t he consul Cicero in
63 BC for his involvement .[9]
Resting Unlocated
According t o t he hist orian Plut arch, Ant ony
spent his t eenage years wandering t hrough place tomb
Rome wit h his brot hers and friends gambling,
drinking, and becoming involved in scandalous (probably
love affairs.[8] Ant ony's cont emporary and
enemy, Cicero, charged t hat he had a in Egypt)
homosexual relat ionship wit h Gaius Scribonius
Curio.[10] This form of slander was popular
during t his t ime in t he Roman Republic t o
Nationality Roman
demean and discredit polit ical
opponent s.[11][12] There is lit t le reliable
informat ion on his polit ical act ivit y as a young
man, alt hough it is known t hat he was an
associat e of Publius Clodius Pulcher and his
st reet gang.[13] He may also have been
involved in t he Lupercal cult as he was
referred t o as a priest of t his order lat er in
life.[14] By age t went y, Ant ony had amassed an Office
enormous debt . Hoping t o escape his Legate
credit ors, Ant ony fled t o Greece in 58 BC,
where he st udied philosophy and rhet oric at
(under 5
At hens. Caesar)
Plebeian 49
Early career tribune
and Propraetor 49

occupation Magister 48
equitum
In 57 BC, Ant ony joined t he milit ary st aff of Consul 44
Aulus Gabinius, t he Proconsul of Syria, as
commander of t he cavalry.[15] This Proconsul
appoint ment marks t he beginning of his (Gaul) 40
milit ary career.[16] As consul t he previous year,
Gabinius had consent ed t o t he exile of Cicero Triumvir
by Ant ony's ment or, Publius Clodius Pulcher.
33
Hyrcanus II, t he Roman-support ed Hasmonean
High Priest of Judea, fled Jerusalem t o Consul 34
Gabinius t o seek prot ect ion against his rival
and son-in-law Alexander. Years earlier in 63
BC, t he Roman general Pompey had capt ured
him and his fat her, King Arist obulus II, during his
war against t he declining Seleucid Empire.
Pompey had deposed Arist obulus and
inst alled Hyrcanus as Rome's client ruler over
Judea.[17] Ant ony achieved his first milit ary
dist inct ions aft er securing import ant vict ories
at Alexandrium and Machaerus.[18] Wit h t he
rebellion defeat ed by 56 BC, Gabinius rest ored
Hyrcanus t o his posit ion as High Priest in Spouses
Judea. Fadia

Antonia
Hybrida
Minor
Fulvia

Hellenistic bust of Pharaoh Octavia

Ptolemy XII Auletes.
Minor
The following year, in 55 BC, Gabinius
int ervened in t he polit ical affairs of Pt olemaic Cleopatra
Egypt . Pharaoh Pt olemy XII Aulet es had been
deposed in a rebellion led by his daught er
Berenice IV in 58 BC, forcing him t o seek
asylum in Rome. During Pompey's conquest s
years earlier, Pt olemy had received t he
Children Antonia
support of Pompey, who named him an ally of
Rome.[19] Gabinius' invasion sought t o rest ore
Marcus
Pt olemy t o his t hrone. This was done against
t he orders of t he senat e but wit h t he approval
Antonius
of Pompey, t hen Rome's leading polit ician, and
only aft er t he deposed king provided a 10,000
t alent bribe. The Greek hist orian Plut arch
Antyllus
records it was Ant ony who convinced Gabinius
t o finally act .[18] Aft er defeat ing t he front ier
Iullus
forces of t he Egypt ian kingdom, Gabinius' army
proceeded t o at t ack t he palace guards but
Antonius
t hey surrendered before a bat t le
commenced.[20] Wit h Pt olemy XII rest ored as
Rome's client king, Gabinius garrisoned t wo Antonia
t housand Roman soldiers, lat er known as t he
Gabiniani, in Alexandria t o ensure Pt olemy's Major
aut horit y. In ret urn for it s support , Rome
exercised considerable power over t he Antonia
kingdom's affairs, part icularly cont rol of t he
kingdom's revenues and crop yields.[21] Ant ony Minor
claimed years lat er t o have first met
Cleopat ra, t he t hen 14-year-old daught er of Alexander
Pt olemy XII, during t his Egypt ian campaign.[22]
Helios
While Ant ony was serving Gabinius in t he East ,
t he domest ic polit ical sit uat ion had changed in Cleopatra
Rome. In 60 BC, a secret agreement (known as
t he "First Triumvirat e") was ent ered int o
Selene II
bet ween t hree men t o cont rol t he Republic:
Marcus Licinius Crassus, Gnaeus Pompey
Ptolemy
Magnus, and Gaius Julius Caesar. Crassus,
Rome's wealt hiest man, had defeat ed t he
Philadelphu
slave rebellion of Spart acus in 70 BC; Pompey
conquered much of t he East ern Medit erranean
in t he 60's BC; Caesar was Rome's pont ifex Parent(s) Marcus
maximus and a former general in Spain. Caesar,
wit h funding from Crassus, was elect ed consul Antonius
for 59 BC t o pursue legislat ion favourable t o
t he allies' int erest s. Caesar, for his part , was Creticus
made proconsular governor Illyricum, Cisalpine
Gaul, and Transalpine Gaul for five years. and Julia
Caesar used his governorship as a launching
point for his conquest of free Gaul. Some
years lat er, in t he midst of a breakdown in t he Military career
alliance, t he allies again pursued t heir int erest s
t oget her: in 55 BC, Crassus and Pompey were
elect ed consuls in disput ed elect ions and
Caesar's command was ext ended for anot her
five years.[23][24] Allegiance Roman
During his early milit ary service, Ant ony married
his cousin Ant onia Hybrida Minor, t he daught er
Republic
of Gaius Ant onius Hybrida. Somet ime bet ween
54 and 47 BC, t he union produced a single
Julius
known child, Ant onia. It is unclear if t his was
Ant ony's first marriage.[note 2]
Caesar

Years 54–30
Service under BC
Caesar Battles/wars Gallic
Wars
Gallic wars Caesa
Civil W
Battle
Forum
Gallor
Battle
The ancient Mediterranean in 50 BC at the end of
Caesar's Gallic Wars, with the territory of Rome in yellow. Mutin
Ant ony's associat ion wit h Publius Clodius Libera
Pulcher allowed him t o achieve great er
prominence. Clodius, t hrough t he influence of civil w
his benefact or Marcus Licinius Crassus, had
developed a posit ive polit ical relat ionship wit h Anton
Julius Caesar. Clodius secured Ant ony a
posit ion on Caesar's milit ary st aff in 54 BC, Parth
joining his conquest of Gaul. Serving under
Caesar, Ant ony demonst rat ed excellent War
milit ary leadership. Despit e a t emporary
alienat ion lat er in life, Ant ony and Caesar Anton
developed friendly relat ions which would
cont inue unt il Caesar's assassinat ion in 44 BC. camp
Caesar's influence secured great er polit ical
advancement for Ant ony. Aft er a year of again
service in Gaul, Caesar dispat ched Ant ony t o
Rome t o formally begin his polit ical career, Armen
receiving elect ion as quaest or for 52 BC.
Assigned t o assist Caesar, Ant ony ret urned t o Battle
Gaul and commanded Caesar's cavalry during
his vict ory at t he Bat t le of Alesia against t he Actium
Gallic chieft ain Vercinget orix. Following his
year in office, Ant ony was made one of Battle
Caesar's legat es and assigned command of
t wo legions (approximat ely 7,500 t ot al Alexa
soldiers).[25]

Meanwhile, t he alliance among Caesar,

Pompey and Crassus had effect ively ended. Caesar's glory in conquering Gaul had served t o
furt her st rain his alliance wit h Pompey,[26] who, having grown jealous of his former ally, had drift ed
away from Caesar and t owards Cat o and his allies. The domest ic polit ical sit uat ion in Rome was
t ense, wit h mult iple polit icians leading large st reet gangs. Two import ant ones, were led by
Clodius and his rival Tit us Annius Milo. In 52 BC wit h elect ions unable t o be held by t he gangs'
open violence and obst ruct ion from radical t ribunes, Milo encount ered Clodius on a road out side
Rome (bot h wit h ent ourages), which ended wit h Clodius' deat h. The violent ad hoc funeral held
for Clodius result ed in widespread riot ing and t he dest ruct ion of t he senat e house, t he curia
Host ilia. Elevat ing Pompey t o rest ore order and hold elect ions, t he senat e induced his elect ion
as sole consul.[27] Fully secure in his polit ical posit ion, Pompey dist anced himself from Caesar
over t he following years.
Ant ony remained on Caesar's milit ary st aff unt il 50 BC, helping mopping-up act ions across Gaul t o
secure Caesar's conquest . Wit h t he war largely over, Ant ony was sent back t o Rome t o act as
Caesar's prot ect or. Wit h t he support of Caesar, Ant ony was appoint ed t o t he College of Augurs,
an import ant priest ly office responsible for int erpret ing t he will of t he gods by st udying t he flight
of birds. All public act ions required favorable auspices, grant ing t he college considerable
influence. Ant ony was t hen elect ed as one of t he t en plebeian t ribunes for 49 BC. In t his posit ion,
Ant ony could prot ect Caesar from his polit ical enemies, by vet oing act ions unfavorable t o his
pat ron.

Civil war

Cato the Younger was one of

Caesar's chief opponents before
the outbreak of the civil war.

The feud bet ween Caesar and Pompey erupt ed int o open confront at ion by early 49 BC. The
consuls for t he year, Gaius Claudius Marcellus and Lucius Cornelius Lent ulus Crus, opposed
Caesar.[28] Pompey, t hough remaining in Rome, was t hen serving as t he governor of Spain and
commanded several legions. Throughout 50 BC an uneasy set of negot iat ions had been ongoing
bet ween Caesar and t he senat e, wit h Caesar demanding t he right t o st and for t he consulship
while in command of his forces in absentia. Ant ony again brought up t he proposal of t he younger
Curio t hat Caesar and Pompey lay down t heir commands and ret urn t o t he st at us of privat e
cit izens.[29] His proposal was well received by most of t he senat ors but t he consuls and Cat o
vehement ly opposed it . Ant ony t hen made a new proposal: Caesar would ret ain only t wo of his
eight legions and t he governorship of Illyrium if he was allowed t o st and for t he consulship in
absentia. Though Pompey found t he concession sat isfact ory, Cat o and Lent ulus refused t o back
down. Ant ony fled Rome, claiming t o fear for his life, and ret urned t o Caesar's camp in Cisalpine
Gaul.

Wit hin days of Ant ony's wit hdrawal, 7 January 49 BC, t he senat e reconvened. Under t he
leadership of Cat o and wit h t he t acit support of Pompey, t he senat e passed a senatus
consultum ultimum, a decree st ripping Caesar of his command and ordering him t o ret urn t o
Rome and st and t rial. The senat e furt her declared Caesar a public enemy if he did not
immediat ely disband his army.[30] Wit h all hopes of finding a peaceful solut ion gone, Caesar used
Ant ony as a pret ext for marching on Rome. As t ribune, Ant ony's person was sacrosanct , so it was
unlawful t o harm him or t o refuse t o recognize his vet o. Three days lat er, on 10 January, Caesar
crossed t he Rubicon, init iat ing t he civil war.[31] During t he sout hern march, Caesar placed Ant ony
as his second in command.

Caesar's rapid advance surprised Pompey, who wit hdrew from It aly t o Greece. Aft er ent ering
Rome, inst ead of pursuing Pompey, Caesar marched t o Spain t o defeat t he Pompeian loyalist s
t here. Meanwhile, Ant ony, wit h t he rank of propraet or, was inst alled as governor of It aly and
commander of t he army, st at ioned t here while Marcus Aemilius Lepidus, one of Caesar's st aff
officers, ran t he provisional administ rat ion of Rome it self.[32][33] Though Ant ony was well liked by
his soldiers, most ot her cit izens despised him for his lack of int erest in t he hardships t hey faced
from t he civil war.[34]

By t he end of t he year 49 BC, Caesar, already t he ruler of Gaul, had capt ured It aly, Spain, Sicily,
and Sardinia from his enemies. In early 48 BC, he prepared t o sail wit h seven legions t o Greece t o
face Pompey. Caesar had ent rust ed t he defense of Illyricum t o Gaius Ant onius, Ant ony's younger
brot her, and Publius Cornelius Dolabella. Pompey's forces, however, defeat ed t hem and assumed
cont rol of t he Adriat ic Sea along wit h it . Addit ionally, t he t wo legions t hey commanded defect ed
t o Pompey. Wit hout t heir fleet , Caesar lacked t he necessary t ransport ships t o cross int o Greece
wit h his seven legions. Inst ead, he sailed wit h only t wo and placed Ant ony in command of t he
remaining five at Brundisium wit h inst ruct ions t o join him as soon as he was able. In early 48 BC,
Lucius Scribonius Libo was given command of Pompey's fleet , comprising some fift y
galleys.[35][36] Moving off t o Brundisium, he blockaded Ant ony. Ant ony, however, managed t o t rick
Libo int o pursuing some decoy ships, causing Libo's squadron t o be t rapped and at t acked. Most
of Libo's fleet managed t o escape, but several of his ships were t rapped and capt ured.[35][37]
Wit h Libo gone, Ant ony joined Caesar in Greece by March 48 BC.

The Battle of Pharsalus: the decisive battle of Caesar's Civil

War. Antony commanded the left wing of Caesar's army.

During t he Greek campaign, Plut arch records t hat Ant ony was Caesar's t op general, and second
only t o him in reput at ion.[38] Ant ony joined Caesar at t he west ern Balkan peninsula and besieged
Pompey's larger army at Dyrrhachium. Wit h food sources running low, Caesar, in July, ordered a
noct urnal assault on Pompey's camp, but Pompey's larger forces pushed back t he assault .
Though an indecisive result , t he vict ory was a t act ical win for Pompey. Pompey, however, did not
order a count erassault on Caesar's camp, allowing Caesar t o ret reat unhindered. Caesar would
lat er remark t he civil war would have ended t hat day if only Pompey had at t acked him.[39] Caesar
managed t o ret reat t o Thessaly, wit h Pompey in pursuit .

Assuming a defensive posit ion at t he plain of Pharsalus, Caesar's army prepared for pit ched
bat t le wit h Pompey's, which out numbered his own t wo t o one. At t he Bat t le of Pharsalus on 9
August 48 BC, Caesar commanded t he right wing opposit e Pompey while Ant ony commanded
t he left .[38] The result ing bat t le was a decisive vict ory for Caesar. Though t he civil war did not
end at Pharsalus, t he bat t le marked t he pinnacle of Caesar's power and effect ively ended t he
Republic.[40] The bat t le gave Caesar a much needed boost in legit imacy, as prior t o t he bat t le
much of t he Roman world out side It aly support ed Pompey and t he senat ors around him as t he
legit imat e Roman government . Aft er Pompey's defeat , most of t he senat e defect ed t o Caesar,
including many of t he soldiers who had fought under Pompey. Pompey himself fled t o Pt olemaic
Egypt , but Pharaoh Pt olemy XIII Theos Philopat or feared ret ribut ion from Caesar and had
Pompey assassinat ed upon his arrival.

Governor of Italy

A cameo carving of Mark

Antony depicted as
Alexander the Great, c. 40
BC

Aft er t he bat t le, Caesar was made dict at or in absent ia, and appoint ed Ant ony as mast er of horse
(his lieut enant ).[41] Caesar wit hout ret urning t o Rome sailed for Egpyt , where he t ook part in t he
Alexandrian war, deposing Pt olemy XIII in favour of Cleopat ra, who became Caesar's mist ress and
bore him a son, Caesarion. Caesar's act ions furt her st rengt hened Roman cont rol over t he already
Roman-dominat ed kingdom.[42]

While Caesar was away in Egypt , Ant ony remained in Rome t o govern It aly and rest ore order.[43]
Wit hout Caesar t o guide him, however, Ant ony quickly faced polit ical difficult ies and proved
himself unpopular. The chief cause of his polit ical challenges concerned debt forgiveness. One
of t he t ribunes for 47 BC, Publius Cornelius Dolabella, proposed a law which would have canceled
all out st anding debt s. Ant ony opposed t he law for polit ical and personal reasons: he believed
Caesar would not support such massive relief and suspect ed Dolabella had seduced his wife
Ant onia Hybrida. When Dolabella sought t o enact t he law by force and seized t he Forum, Ant ony
responded by unleashing his soldiers upon t he assembled masses, killing hundreds.[44] The
result ing inst abilit y, especially among Caesar's vet erans who would have benefit ed from t he law,
forced Caesar t o ret urn t o It aly by Oct ober 47 BC.[43]
Ant ony's handling of t he affair wit h Dolabella led t o a cooling of his relat ionship wit h Caesar.
Ant ony's violent react ion had caused Rome t o fall int o a st at e of anarchy. Caesar sought t o mend
relat ions wit h Dolabella; he was elect ed t o a t hird t erm as consul for 46 BC, but proposed t he
senat e should t ransfer t he consulship t o Dolabella. When Ant ony prot est ed, Caesar was forced
t o wit hdraw t he mot ion. Lat er, Caesar sought t o exercise his prerogat ives as dict at or and direct ly
proclaim Dolabella as consul inst ead.[45] Ant ony again prot est ed and, in his capacit y as an augur,
declared t he omens were unfavorable and Caesar again backed down.[46] Seeing t he expediency
of removing Dolabella from Rome, Caesar ult imat ely pardoned him for his role in t he riot s and
t ook him as one of his generals in his campaign.[38] Ant ony, however, was st ripped of all official
posit ions and received no appoint ment s for t he year 46 BC or 45 BC. Inst ead of Ant ony, Caesar
appoint ed Marcus Aemilius Lepidus t o be his consular colleague for 46 BC; Lepidus also replaced
Ant ony as mast er of horse for Caesar's various dict at orships.[41] While Caesar campaigned in
Nort h Africa, Ant ony remained in Rome as a mere privat e cit izen. Aft er ret urning vict orious from
Nort h Africa, Caesar was appoint ed dict at or for t en years and brought Cleopat ra and t heir son t o
Rome. Ant ony again remained in Rome while Caesar, in 45 BC, sailed t o Spain t o defeat t he final
opposit ion t o his rule; successful, t he civil war ended.

Following t he scandal wit h Dolabella, Ant ony had divorced his second wife and quickly married
Fulvia. Fulvia had previously been married t o bot h Publius Clodius Pulcher and Gaius Scribonius
Curio, having been a widow since Curio's deat h in t he bat t le of t he Bagradas in 49 BC. Though
Ant ony and Fulvia were formally married in 47 BC, Cicero suggest s t he t wo had been in a
relat ionship since at least 58 BC.[47][48] The union produced t wo children: Marcus Ant onius
Ant yllus (born 47) and Iullus Ant onius (born 45).

Assassination of Caesar

Ides of March
What ever conflict s exist ed bet ween himself and Caesar, Ant ony remained fait hful t o Caesar,
ensuring t heir est rangement did not last long. Ant ony reunit ed wit h Caesar at Narbo in 45 BC wit h
full reconciliat ion coming in 44 BC when Ant ony was elect ed consul alongside Caesar. Caesar
planned a new invasion of Part hia and desired t o leave Ant ony in It aly t o govern Rome in his
name. The reconciliat ion came soon aft er Ant ony is said t o have reject ed an offer from Gaius
Trebonius, one of Caesar's generals, t o join a conspiracy t o assassinat e Caesar.[49][50] If such an
offer was made, Ant ony made no ment ion of t he mat t er t o Caesar.

The Death of Julius Caesar, as depicted by Vincenzo Camuccini. Caesar was

assassinated on the Ides of March (15 March) 44 BC.

Soon aft er t hey assumed office t oget her, t he Lupercalia was held on 15 February 44 BC. The
fest ival was held in honor of Lupa, t he she-wolf who suckled t he infant orphans Romulus and
Remus, t he founders of Rome.[51] The polit ical at mosphere of Rome at t he t ime of t he fest ival
was deeply divided. Caesar had by t his point cent ralised almost all polit ical powers int o his own
hands. He was grant ed furt her honors, including a form of semi-official cult , wit h Ant ony as his
high priest .[52] Addit ionally, on 1 January 44 BC, Caesar had been named dictator perpetuo,
removing any formal end t o his aut ocrat ic powers. Caesar's polit ical rivals feared t his dict at orship
wit h no end dat e would t ransform t he Republic int o a monarchy, abolishing t he cent uries of rule
by t he senat e and people. During t he fest ival's act ivit ies, Ant ony publicly offered Caesar a
diadem, which Caesar t hrew off. When Ant ony placed t he diadem in his lap, Caesar ordered t he
diadem t o be placed in t he Temple of Jupit er Opt imus Maximus.[53]

When Ant ony offered Caesar t he crown, t here had been minor applause but most ly silence from
t he crowd. When Caesar refused it , however, t he crowd was ent husiast ic.[54] The event
present ed a powerful message: a diadem was a symbol of a king. By refusing it , Caesar
demonst rat ed he had no int ent ion of making himself king. Ant ony's mot ive for such act ions is not
clear and it is unknown if he act ed wit h Caesar's prior approval or on his own.[53] While commonly
described as an event t hat was "script ed", who was cent ral t o planning it is unclear. One
argument is t hat Ant ony moved forward wit h t he gest ure on his own accord, possibly t o
embarrass or flat t er Caesar. A lat er claim was t hat he was act ually t rying t o convince Caesar not
t o go t hrough wit h a kingship. By ot her account s, it was Caesar's enemies who planned t he
incident as a way t o frame him, wit h it being claimed t wo enemies of Caesar approached him t o
argue he should t ake t he diadem. Anot her t heory, one especially popular at t he t ime, was t hat
Caesar himself had orchest rat ed t he event t o t est public support on him becoming king.[55]

"Marc Antony's Oration at Caesar's Funeral" as depicted by George Edward

Robertson.

A group of senat ors resolved t o kill Caesar t o prevent him from est ablishing a monarchy. Chief
among t hem were Marcus Junius Brut us and Gaius Cassius Longinus. Alt hough Cassius was "t he
moving spirit " in t he plot , winning over t he chief assassins t o t he cause of t yrannicide, Brut us,
wit h his family's hist ory of deposing Rome's kings, became t heir leader.[56] Cicero, t hough not
personally involved in t he conspiracy, lat er claimed Ant ony's act ions sealed Caesar's fat e as such
an obvious display of Caesar's preeminence mot ivat ed t hem t o act .[57] Originally, t he conspirat ors
had planned t o eliminat e not only Caesar but also many of his support ers, including Ant ony, but
Brut us reject ed t he proposal, limit ing t he conspiracy t o Caesar alone.[58] Wit h Caesar preparing t o
depart for Part hia in lat e March, t he conspirat ors prepared t o act when Caesar appeared for t he
senat e meet ing on t he Ides of March (15 March).

Ant ony also went wit h Caesar, but was waylaid at t he door of t he Theat re of Pompey by
Trebonius and was dist ract ed from aiding Caesar. According t o t he Greek hist orian Plut arch, as
Caesar arrived at t he senat e, Lucius Tillius Cimber present ed him wit h a pet it ion t o recall his
exiled brot her.[59] The ot her conspirat ors crowded round t o offer t heir support . Wit hin moment s,
t he group of five conspirat ors st abbed Caesar one by one. Caesar at t empt ed t o get away, but ,
being drenched by blood, he t ripped and fell. According t o Roman hist orian Eut ropius, around 60
or more men part icipat ed in t he assassinat ion. Caesar was st abbed 23 t imes and died from t he
blood loss at t ribut able t o mult iple st ab wounds.[60][61]

Leader of the Caesarians

In t he t urmoil surrounding t he assassinat ion, Ant ony escaped Rome dressed as a slave, fearing
Caesar's deat h would be t he st art of a bloodbat h among his support ers. When t his did not occur,
he soon ret urned t o Rome. The conspirat ors, who st yled t hemselves t he liberatores ("liberat ors"),
had barricaded t hemselves on t he Capit oline hill. Alt hough t hey believed Caesar's deat h would
rest ore t he Republic, Caesar had been immensely popular wit h t he Roman middle and lower
classes, who became enraged upon learning a small group of arist ocrat s had killed t heir
champion.

Ant ony, as t he sole consul, soon t ook t he init iat ive and seized t he st at e t reasury. Calpurnia,
Caesar's widow, present ed him wit h Caesar's personal papers and cust ody of his ext ensive
propert y, clearly marking him as Caesar's heir and leader of t he Caesarians.[62] Caesar's mast er of
horse Marcus Aemilius Lepidus marched over 6,000 t roops int o Rome on 16 March t o rest ore
order and int imidat e t he liberatores. Lepidus want ed t o st orm t he Capit ol, but Ant ony preferred a
peaceful solut ion as a majorit y of bot h t he liberatores and Caesar's own support ers preferred a
set t lement over renewed civil war.[63] On 17 March, at Ant ony's arrangement , t he senat e met t o
discuss a compromise, which, due t o t he presence of Caesar's vet erans in t he cit y, was quickly
reached. Caesar's assassins would be pardoned of t heir crimes and, in ret urn, all of Caesar's
act ions would be rat ified.[64] In part icular, t he offices assigned t o bot h Brut us and Cassius by
Caesar were likewise rat ified. Ant ony also agreed t o accept t he appoint ment of his rival
Dolabella as his consular colleague t o replace Caesar.[65] This compromise was a great success
for Ant ony, who managed t o simult aneously appease Caesar's vet erans, reconcile t he senat e
majorit y, and appear t o t he liberatores as t heir part ner.[66]
 Octavian, Julius Caesar's adopted son.
Antony would struggle with Octavian
for leadership of the Caesarians after
Caesar's assassination.

On 19 March, Caesar's will was opened and read. In it , Caesar post humously adopt ed his great -
nephew Gaius Oct avius and named him his principal heir. Then only ninet een years old and
st at ioned wit h Caesar's army in Macedonia, t he yout h became a member of Caesar's gens Julia
wit h t he name "Gaius Julius Caesar"; for clarit y, it is hist orical convent ion t o call him Oct avian.
Though not t he chief beneficiary, Ant ony did receive some bequest s.[67]

Short ly aft er t he compromise was reached, as a sign of good fait h, Brut us, against t he advice of
Cassius and Cicero, agreed Caesar would be given a public funeral and his will would be validat ed.
Caesar's funeral was held on 20 March. Ant ony, as Caesar's fait hful lieut enant and incumbent
consul, was chosen t o preside over t he ceremony and t o recit e a eulogy. In a demagogic speech,
he enumerat ed t he deeds of Caesar and, publicly reading his will, det ailed t he donat ions Caesar
had left t o t he Roman people. Ant ony t hen seized t he blood-st ained t oga from Caesar's body
and present ed it t o t he crowd. Worked int o a fury by t he bloody spect acle, t he assembly t urned
int o a riot . Several buildings in t he Forum and some houses of t he conspirat ors were burned t o
t he ground. Panicked, many of t he conspirat ors fled It aly.[68] Under t he pret ext of not being able
t o guarant ee t heir safet y, Ant ony relieved Brut us and Cassius of t heir judicial dut ies in Rome and
inst ead assigned t hem responsibilit y for procuring wheat for Rome from Sicily and Asia. Such an
assignment , in addit ion t o being unwort hy of t heir rank, would have kept t hem far from Rome and
shift ed t he balance t owards Ant ony. Refusing such secondary dut ies, t he t wo t raveled t o Greece
inst ead. Addit ionally, Cleopat ra left Rome t o ret urn t o Egypt .

Despit e t he provisions of Caesar's will, Ant ony proceeded t o act as leader of t he Caesarians,
including appropriat ing for himself a port ion of Caesar's fort une right fully belonging t o Oct avian.
Ant ony enact ed t he lex Antonia, which formally abolished t he dict at orship, in an at t empt t o
consolidat e his support among t hose who opposed Caesar's dict at orial rule. He also enact ed a
number of laws he purport ed t o have found in Caesar's papers t o ensure his popularit y wit h
Caesar's vet erans, part icularly by providing land grant s t o t hem. Lepidus, wit h Ant ony's support ,
was elect ed pont ifex maximus, succeeding Caesar. To solidify t he alliance bet ween Ant ony and
Lepidus, Ant ony's daught er Ant onia Prima was engaged t o Lepidus' homonymous son. Surrounding
himself wit h a bodyguard of over six t housand of Caesar's vet erans, Ant ony present ed himself as
Caesar's t rue successor, largely ignoring Oct avian.[69]

First conflict with Octavian

Oct avian arrived in Rome in May t o claim his inherit ance. Alt hough Ant ony had amassed polit ical
support , Oct avian st ill had opport unit y t o rival him as t he leading member of t he Caesarian
fact ion. The senat e increasingly viewed Ant ony as a new t yrant ; Ant ony had also lost t he support
of many support ers of Caesar when he opposed t he mot ion t o elevat e Caesar t o divine
st at us.[70] When Ant ony refused t o relinquish Caesar's vast fort une t o him, Oct avian borrowed
heavily t o fulfill t he bequest s in Caesar's will t o t he Roman people and t o his vet erans, as well as
t o est ablish his own bodyguard of vet erans.[71] This earned him t he support of Caesarian
sympat hizers who hoped t o use him as a means of eliminat ing Ant ony.[72] The senat e, and Cicero
in part icular, viewed Ant ony as t he great er danger of t he t wo. By summer 44 BC, Ant ony was in a
difficult polit ical posit ion: he could eit her denounce t he liberatores as murderers and alienat e t he
senat e or he could maint ain his support for t he compromise and risk bet raying Caesar's legacy,
st rengt hening Oct avian's posit ion. In eit her case, his sit uat ion as ruler of Rome would be
weakened. Roman hist orian Cassius Dio lat er recorded t hat while Ant ony, as consul, maint ained
t he advant age in t he relat ionship, t he general affect ion of t he Roman people was shift ing t o
Oct avian due t o his st at us as Caesar's son.[73][74]
 A denarius of Marcus Antonius struck
in 42 BC

Support ing t he senat orial fact ion against Ant ony, Oct avian, in Sept ember 44 BC, encouraged t he
eminent senat or Marcus Tullius Cicero t o at t ack Ant ony in a series of speeches port raying him as
a t hreat t o t he republic.[75][76] Risk of civil war bet ween Ant ony and Oct avian grew. Oct avian
cont inued t o recruit Caesar's vet erans t o his side, away from Ant ony, wit h t wo of Ant ony's
legions defect ing in November 44 BC. At t hat t ime, Oct avian, only a privat e cit izen, lacked legal
aut horit y t o command t he Republic's armies, making his command illegal. Wit h popular opinion in
Rome t urning against him and his consular t erm nearing it s end, Ant ony at t empt ed t o secure a
favorable milit ary assignment t o secure an army t o prot ect himself. The senat e, as was cust om,
assigned Ant ony and Dolabella t he provinces of Macedonia and Syria, respect ively, t o govern in
43 BC aft er t heir consular t erms expired. Ant ony, however, object ed t o t he assignment ,
preferring t o govern Cisalpine Gaul which was already cont rolled by Decimus Junius Brut us
Albinus, one of Caesar's assassins.[77][78] When Decimus refused t o surrender his province, Ant ony
marched nort h in December 44 BC wit h his remaining soldiers t o t ake t he province by force,
besieging Decimus at Mut ina.[79] The senat e, led by a fiery Cicero, denounced Ant ony's act ions
and declared him an enemy of t he st at e.

Rat ifying Oct avian's ext raordinary command on 1 January 43 BC, t he senat e dispat ched him along
wit h consuls Hirt ius and Pansa t o defeat Ant ony and his exhaust ed five legions.[80][81] Ant ony's
forces were defeat ed at t he Bat t le of Mut ina in April 43 BC, forcing Ant ony t o ret reat t o
Transalpine Gaul. Bot h consuls were killed, however, leaving Oct avian in sole command of t heir
armies, some eight legions.[82][83]
The Second Triumvirate

Forming the alliance

Denarius struck at Ephesus in 41 B.C.

commemorating the Second Triumvirate. On one
side is Octavian, later Caesar Augustus, and on the
other is Antony

Wit h Ant ony defeat ed, t he senat e assigned command of t he legions in nort hern It aly t o Decimus.
Sext us Pompey, son of Caesar's old rival Pompey Magnus, was given command of t he Republic's
fleet from his base in Sicily while Brut us and Cassius were grant ed t he governorships of
Macedonia and Syria respect ively. These appoint ment s at t empt ed t o renew t he "republican"
cause.[84] However, t he eight legions serving under Oct avian, composed largely of Caesar's
vet erans, refused t o follow one of Caesar's murderers, allowing Oct avian t o ret ain his command.
Meanwhile, Ant ony recovered his posit ion by joining forces wit h Marcus Aemilius Lepidus, who
had been assigned t he governorship of Transalpine Gaul and Nearer Spain.[85] Ant ony sent Lepidus
t o Rome t o broker a conciliat ion. Though he was an ardent Caesarian, Lepidus had maint ained
friendly relat ions wit h t he senat e and wit h Sext us Pompey. His legions, however, quickly joined
Ant ony, giving him cont rol over sevent een legions, t he largest army in t he West .[86]
 Map of the Roman Republic in 43 BC after the establishment of the Second
Triumvirate:
Antony Sextus Pompey
Lepidus The Liberators
Octavian Rome's client kingdoms
Triumvirs collectively Ptolemaic Egypt

By mid-May, Oct avian began secret negot iat ions t o form an alliance wit h Ant ony t o unify t he
Caesarians against t he liberatores. Remaining in Cisalpine Gaul, Oct avian dispat ched emissaries t o
Rome in July 43 BC demanding he be appoint ed consul t o succeed Hirt ius and Pansa and t hat
t he senat e rescind t he decree declaring Ant ony a public enemy.[87] When t he senat e refused,
Oct avian marched on Rome wit h his eight legions and assumed cont rol of t he cit y in August
43 BC. Oct avian had himself irregularly elect ed consul wit h a cousin, rewarded his soldiers, and
t hen set about prosecut ing Caesar's murderers. Under t he lex Pedia, all of t he conspirat ors and
Sext us Pompey were convict ed "in absent ia" and declared public enemies. Then, at t he
inst igat ion of Lepidus, Oct avian went t o Cisalpine Gaul t o meet Ant ony.

In November 43 BC, Oct avian, Lepidus, and Ant ony met near Bononia.[88] Aft er t wo days of
discussions, t he group agreed t o est ablish a t hree man dict at orship t o govern t he Republic for
five years, known t o modern hist orians as t he Second Triumvirat e. They shared milit ary command
of t he republic's armies and provinces among t hemselves: Ant ony received Gaul, Lepidus Spain,
and Oct avian (as t he junior part ner) Africa. They joint ly governed It aly. The t riumvirat e would have
t o conquer t he rest of Rome's holdings; Brut us and Cassius held t he East ern Medit erranean, and
Sext us Pompey held t he Medit erranean islands.[89] On 27 November 43 BC, t he t riumvirat e was
formally est ablished by a new law, t he lex Titia. Oct avian and Ant ony reinforced t heir alliance
t hrough Oct avian's marriage t o Ant ony's st epdaught er, Claudia.
 The vengeance of Fulvia by Francisco Maura Y Montaner, 1888, depicting
Fulvia, Antony's wife, inspecting the severed head of Cicero

The primary object ive of t he t riumvirat e was t o avenge Caesar's deat h and t o make war upon his
murderers. Before marching against Brut us and Cassius in t he East , t he t riumvirs issued
proscript ions against t heir enemies in Rome. The dict at or Lucius Cornelius Sulla had t aken similar
act ion t o purge Rome of his opponent s in 82 BC. The proscribed were named on public list s,
st ripped of cit izenship, and out lawed. Their wealt h and propert y were confiscat ed by t he st at e,
and rewards were offered t o anyone who secured t heir arrest or deat h. Wit h such
encouragement s, t he proscript ion produced deadly result s; t wo t housand equit es were
execut ed, and one t hird of t he senat e. Ant ony forced Oct avian t o give up Cicero, a personal
enemy of Ant ony and friend of Oct avian, who was t hen killed on 7 December. The confiscat ions
helped replenish t he st at e t reasury, which had been deplet ed by Caesar's civil war t he decade
before; when t his seemed insufficient t o fund t he imminent war against Brut us and Cassius, t he
t riumvirs imposed new t axes, especially on t he wealt hy. By January 42 BC t he proscript ion had
ended; it had last ed t wo mont hs, and t hough less bloody t han Sulla's, it t raumat ized Roman
societ y. A number of t hose named and out lawed had fled t o eit her Sext us Pompey in Sicily or t o
t he liberatores in t he East .[90] Senat ors who swore loyalt y t o t he t riumvirat e were allowed t o
keep t heir posit ions; on 1 January 42 BC, t he senat e officially deified Caesar as "The Divine
Julius", and confirmed Ant ony's posit ion as his high priest .
War against the Liberators
Due t o t he infight ing wit hin t he t riumvirat e during 43 BC, Brut us and Cassius had assumed cont rol
of much of Rome's east ern t errit ories, and amassed a large army. Before t he t riumvirat e could
cross t he Adriat ic int o Greece, t he t riumvirat e had t o address t he t hreat posed by Sext us
Pompey and his fleet . From his base in Sicily, Sext us raided t he It alian coast and blockaded t he
t riumvirs. Oct avian's friend and admiral Quint us Salvidienus Rufus t hwart ed an at t ack by Sext us
against t he sout hern It alian mainland at Rhegium, but Salvidienus was t hen defeat ed in t he
result ing naval bat t le because of t he inexperience of his crews. Only when Ant ony arrived wit h
his fleet was t he blockade broken. Though t he blockade was defeat ed, cont rol of Sicily remained
in Sext us' hand, but t he defeat of t he liberatores was t he t riumvirat e's first priorit y.

First Battle of Philippi – 3 October 42 BC

Second Battle of Philippi – 23 October 42 BC

In t he summer of 42 BC, Oct avian and Ant ony sailed for Macedonia t o face t he liberatores wit h
ninet een legions, t he vast majorit y of t heir army[91] (approximat ely 100,000 regular infant ry plus
support ing cavalry and irregular auxiliary unit s), leaving Rome under t he administ rat ion of Lepidus.
Likewise, t he army of t he liberatores also commanded an army of ninet een legions; t heir legions,
however, were not at full st rengt h while t he legions of Ant ony and Oct avian were.[91] While t he
t riumvirs commanded a larger number of infant ry, t he Liberat ors commanded a larger cavalry
cont ingent .[92] The liberatores, who cont rolled Macedonia, did not wish t o engage in a decisive
bat t le, but rat her t o at t ain a good defensive posit ion and t hen use t heir naval superiorit y t o block
t he Triumvirs' communicat ions wit h t heir supply base in It aly. They had spent t he previous
mont hs plundering Greek cit ies t o swell t heir war-chest and had gat hered in Thrace wit h t he
Roman legions from t he East ern provinces and levies from Rome's client kingdoms.

Brut us and Cassius held a posit ion on t he high ground along bot h sides of t he via Egnatia west of
t he cit y of Philippi. The sout h posit ion was anchored t o a supposedly impassable marsh, while
t he nort h was bordered by impervious hills. They had plent y of t ime t o fort ify t heir posit ion wit h
a rampart and a dit ch. Brut us put his camp on t he nort h while Cassius occupied t he sout h of t he
via Egnat ia. Ant ony arrived short ly and posit ioned his army on t he sout h of t he via Egnat ia, while
Oct avian put his legions nort h of t he road. Ant ony offered bat t le several t imes, but t he
liberatores were not lured t o leave t heir defensive st and. Thus, Ant ony t ried t o secret ly out flank
t he Brut us and Cassius' posit ion t hrough t he marshes in t he sout h. This provoked a pit ched bat t le
on 3 Oct ober 42 BC. Ant ony commanded t he t riumvirat e's army due t o Oct avian's sickness on t he
day, wit h Ant ony direct ly cont rolling t he right flank opposit e Cassius. Because of his healt h,
Oct avian remained in camp while his lieut enant s assumed a posit ion on t he left flank opposit e
Brut us. In t he result ing first bat t le of Philippi, Ant ony defeat ed Cassius and capt ured his camp
while Brut us overran Oct avian's t roops and penet rat ed int o t he Triumvirs' camp but was unable t o
capt ure t he sick Oct avian. The bat t le was a t act ical draw, but due t o poor communicat ions
Cassius believed t he bat t le was a complet e defeat and commit t ed suicide t o prevent being
capt ured.

Brut us assumed sole command of t he army and preferred a war of at t rit ion over open conflict .
His officers, however, were dissat isfied wit h t hese defensive t act ics and his Caesarian vet erans
t hreat ened t o defect , forcing Brut us t o give bat t le at t he second bat t le of Philippi on 23
Oct ober. While t he bat t le was init ially evenly mat ched, Ant ony's leadership rout ed Brut us' forces.
Brut us commit t ed suicide t he day aft er t he defeat and t he remainder of his army swore
allegiance t o t he Triumvirat e. Over fift y t housand Romans died in t he t wo bat t les. While Ant ony
t reat ed t he losers mildly, Oct avian dealt cruelly wit h his prisoners and even beheaded Brut us'
corpse.[93][94][95]

The bat t les of Philippi ended t he civil war in favor of t he t riumvirs. Wit h t he defeat of Brut us and
Cassius, only Sext us Pompey and his fleet remained t o challenge t he t riumvirat e's cont rol of t he
Roman world.

Master of the Roman East

Division of the republic

Map of the Roman Republic in 42 BC after the Battle of Philippi:

Antony Sextus Pompey
Lepidus Parthian Empire
Octavian Rome's client kingdoms
Triumvirs collectively Ptolemaic Egypt

The vict ory at Philippi left t he members of t he t riumvirat e as mast ers of t he republic, save
Sext us Pompey in Sicily. Upon ret urning t o Rome, t he t riumvirat e repart it ioned rule of Rome's
provinces among t hemselves, wit h Ant ony as t he clear senior part ner. He received t he largest
dist ribut ion, governing all of t he East ern provinces while ret aining Gaul in t he West . Oct avian's
posit ion improved, as he received Spain, which was t aken from Lepidus. Lepidus was t hen
reduced t o holding only Africa, and he assumed a clearly t ert iary role in t he t riumvirat e. Rule over
It aly remained undivided, but Oct avian was assigned t he difficult and unpopular t ask of
demobilizing t heir vet erans and providing t hem wit h land dist ribut ions in It aly.[96][97] Ant ony
assumed direct cont rol of t he East while he inst alled one of his lieut enant s as t he ruler of Gaul.
During his absence, several of his support ers held key posit ions in Rome t o prot ect his int erest s
t here.

The East was in need of reorganizat ion. In addit ion, Rome cont ended wit h t he Part hian Empire for
dominance of t he Near East . The Part hian t hreat t o t he t riumvirat e's rule was urgent due t o t he
fact t hat t he Part hians support ed t he liberatores in t he recent civil war, aid which included t he
supply of t roops at Philippi.[98] As ruler of t he East , Ant ony also assumed responsibilit y for
overseeing Caesar's planned invasion of Part hia t o avenge t he defeat of Marcus Licinius Crassus
at t he Bat t le of Carrhae in 53 BC.

In 42 BC, t he Roman East was composed of several direct ly cont rolled provinces and client
kingdoms. The provinces included Macedonia, Asia, Bit hynia, Cilicia, Cyprus, Syria, and Cyrenaica.
Approximat ely half of t he east ern t errit ory was cont rolled by Rome's client kingdoms, nominally
independent kingdoms subject t o Roman direct ion. These kingdoms included:

Odrysian Thrace in Eastern Europe

The Bosporan Kingdom along the
northern coast of the Black Sea
Galatia, Pontus, Cappadocia, Armenia,
and several smaller kingdoms in Asia
Minor
Judea, Commagene, and the Nabataean
kingdom in the Middle East
Ptolemaic Egypt in Africa
Activities in the East

Left image: Cleopatra VII bust in the Altes Museum, Antikensammlung Berlin, Roman artwork, 1st century BC
Right: bust of Cleopatra VII, dated 40–30 BC, Vatican Museums, showing her with a 'melon' hairstyle and Hellenistic royal
diadem worn over her head

Ant ony spent t he wint er of 42 BC in At hens, where he ruled generously t owards t he Greek cit ies.
A proclaimed philhellene ("Friend of all t hings Greek"), Ant ony support ed Greek cult ure t o win t he
loyalt y of t he inhabit ant s of t he Greek East . He at t ended religious fest ivals and ceremonies,
including init iat ion int o t he Eleusinian Myst eries,[99] a secret cult dedicat ed t o t he worship of t he
goddesses Demet er and Persephone. Beginning in 41 BC, he t raveled across t he Aegean Sea t o
Anat olia, leaving his friend Lucius Marcius Censorius as governor of Macedonia and Achaea. Upon
his arrival in Ephesus in Asia, Ant ony was worshiped as t he god Dionysus born anew.[100] He
demanded heavy t axes from t he Hellenic cit ies in ret urn for his pro-Greek cult ure policies, but
exempt ed t hose cit ies which had remained loyal t o Caesar during t he civil war and compensat ed
t hose cit ies which had suffered under Caesar's assassins, including Rhodes, Lycia, and Tarsus. He
grant ed pardons t o all Roman nobles living in t he East who had support ed Pompey, except for
Caesar's assassins.
 Antony and Cleopatra (1883) by Lawrence Alma-Tadema depicting
Antony's meeting with Cleopatra in 41 BC.

Ruling from Ephesus, Ant ony consolidat ed Rome's hegemony in t he East , receiving envoys from
Rome's client kingdoms and int ervening in t heir dynast ic affairs, ext ract ing enormous financial
"gift s" from t hem in t he process. Though King Deiot arus of Galat ia support ed Brut us and Cassius
following Caesar's assassinat ion, Ant ony allowed him t o ret ain his posit ion. He also confirmed
Ariarat hes X as king of Cappadocia aft er t he execut ion of his brot her Ariobarzanes III of
Cappadocia by Cassius before t he Bat t le of Philippi. In Hasmonean Judea, several Israelit e
delegat ions complained t o Ant ony of t he harsh rule of Phasael and Herod, t he sons of Rome's
assassinat ed chief minist er in t he t errit ory of Judaea, who was an Edomit e called Ant ipat er t he
Idumaean. Aft er Herod offered him a large financial gift , Ant ony confirmed t he brot hers in t heir
posit ions. Subsequent ly, influenced by t he beaut y and charms of Glaphyra, t he widow of
Archelaüs (formerly t he high priest of Comana), Ant ony deposed Ariarat hes X, and appoint ed
Glaphyra's son, Archelaüs, t o rule Cappadocia.[101]

In Oct ober 41, Ant ony request ed Rome's chief east ern vassal, t he queen of Pt olemaic Egypt
Cleopat ra, meet him at Tarsus in Cilicia. Ant ony had first met a young Cleopat ra while campaigning
in Egypt in 55 BC and again in 48 BC when Caesar had backed her as queen of Egypt over t he
claims of her half-sist er Arsinoe. Cleopat ra would bear Caesar a son, Caesarion, in 47 BC and t he
t wo were living in Rome as Caesar's guest s unt il his assassinat ion in 44 BC. Aft er Caesar's
assassinat ion, Cleopat ra and Caesarion ret urned t o Egypt , where she named t he child as her co-
ruler. In 42 BC, t he Triumvirat e, in recognit ion for Cleopat ra's help t owards Publius Cornelius
Dolabella in opposit ion t o t he Liberat ors, grant ed official recognit ion t o Caesarion's posit ion as
king of Egypt . Arriving in Tarsus aboard her magnificent ship, Cleopat ra invit ed Ant ony t o a grand
banquet t o solidify t heir alliance.[note 3] As t he most powerful of Rome's east ern vassals, Egypt
was indispensable in Rome's planned milit ary invasion of t he Part hian Empire. At Cleopat ra's
request , Ant ony ordered t he execut ion of Arsinoe, who, t hough marched in Caesar's t riumphal
parade in 46 BC,[102] had been grant ed sanct uary at t he t emple of Art emis in Ephesus. Ant ony and
Cleopat ra t hen spent t he wint er of 41 BC t oget her in Alexandria. Cleopat ra bore Ant ony t win
children, Alexander Helios and Cleopat ra Selene II, in 40 BC, and a t hird, Pt olemy Philadelphus, in
36 BC. Ant ony also grant ed formal cont rol over Cyprus, which had been under Egypt ian cont rol
since 47 BC during t he t urmoil of Caesar's civil war, t o Cleopat ra in 40 BC as a gift for her loyalt y
t o Rome.[103]

Ant ony, in his first mont hs in t he East , raised money, reorganized his t roops, and secured t he
alliance of Rome's client kingdoms. He also promot ed himself as Hellenist ic ruler, which won him
t he affect ion of t he Greek peoples of t he East but also made him t he t arget of Oct avian's
propaganda in Rome. According t o some ancient aut hors, Ant ony led a carefree life of luxury in
Alexandria.[104][105] Upon learning t he Part hian Empire had invaded Rome's t errit ory in early 40 BC,
Ant ony left Egypt for Syria t o confront t he invasion. However, aft er a short st ay in Tyre, he was
forced t o sail wit h his army t o It aly t o confront Oct avian due t o Oct avian's war against Ant ony's
wife and brot her.

Fulvia's civil war

Following t he defeat of Brut us and Cassius, while Ant ony was st at ioned in t he East , Oct avian had
aut horit y over t he West .[note 4] Oct avian's chief responsibilit y was dist ribut ing land t o t ens of
t housands of Caesar's vet erans who had fought for t he Triumvirat e. Addit ionally, t ens of
t housands of vet erans who had fought for t he Republican cause in t he war also required land
grant s. This was necessary t o ensure t hey would not support a polit ical opponent of t he
t riumvirat e.[106] However, t he t riumvirs did not possess sufficient st at e-cont rolled land t o allot t o
t he vet erans. This left Oct avian wit h t wo opt ions: alienat ing many Roman cit izens by confiscat ing
t heir land, or alienat ing many Roman soldiers who might back a milit ary rebellion against t he
t riumvirat e's rule. Oct avian chose t he former.[107] As many as eight een Roman t owns t hrough It aly
were affect ed by t he confiscat ions of 41 BC, wit h ent ire populat ions driven out .[108]

Led by Fulvia, t he wife of Ant ony, t he senat ors grew host ile t owards Oct avian over t he issue of
t he land confiscat ions. According t o t he ancient hist orian Cassius Dio, Fulvia was t he most
powerful woman in Rome at t he t ime.[109] According t o Dio, while Publius Servilius Vat ia and
Lucius Ant onius were t he consuls for t he year 41 BC, real power was vest ed in Fulvia. As t he
mot her-in-law of Oct avian and t he wife of Ant ony, no act ion was t aken by t he senat e wit hout her
support .[110] Fearing Oct avian's land grant s would cause t he loyalt y of t he Caesarian vet erans t o
shift away from Ant ony, Fulvia t raveled const ant ly wit h her children t o t he new vet eran
set t lement s in order t o remind t he vet erans of t heir debt t o Ant ony.[111][112] Fulvia also
at t empt ed t o delay t he land set t lement s unt il Ant ony ret urned t o Rome, so t hat he could share
credit for t he set t lement s. Wit h t he help of Ant ony's brot her, t he consul of 41 BC Lucius
Ant onius, Fulvia encouraged t he senat e t o oppose Oct avian's land policies.

Map of the Roman Republic in 39 BC after the Treaty of Brundisium and the
Treaty of Misenum:
Antony Sextus Pompey
Lepidus Parthian Empire
Octavian Rome's client kingdoms
Triumvirs collectively Ptolemaic Egypt

The conflict bet ween Oct avian and Fulvia caused great polit ical and social unrest t hroughout
It aly. Tensions escalat ed int o open war, however, when Oct avian divorced Claudia, Fulvia's
daught er from her first husband Publius Clodius Pulcher. Out raged, Fulvia, support ed by Lucius,
raised an army t o fight for Ant ony's right s against Oct avian. According t o t he ancient hist orian
Appian, Fulvia's chief reason for t he war was her jealousy of Ant ony's affairs wit h Cleopat ra in
Egypt and desire t o draw Ant ony back t o Rome.[112] Lucius and Fulvia t ook a polit ical and mart ial
gamble in opposing Oct avian and Lepidus, however, as t he Roman army st ill depended on t he
t riumvirs for t heir salaries.[108] Lucius and Fulvia, support ed by t heir army, marched on Rome and
promised t he people an end t o t he t riumvirat e in favor of Ant ony's sole rule. However, when
Oct avian ret urned t o t he cit y wit h his army, t he pair were forced t o ret reat t o Perusia in Et ruria.
Oct avian placed t he cit y under siege while Lucius wait ed for Ant ony's legions in Gaul t o come t o
his aid.[113][110] Away in t he East and embarrassed by Fulvia's act ions, Ant ony gave no inst ruct ions
t o his legions.[114][note 5] Wit hout reinforcement s, Lucius and Fulvia were forced t o surrender in
February 40 BC. While Oct avian pardoned Lucius for his role in t he war and even grant ed him
command in Spain as his chief lieut enant t here, Fulvia was forced t o flee t o Greece wit h her
children. Wit h t he war over, Oct avian was left in sole cont rol over It aly. When Ant ony's governor
of Gaul died, Oct avian t ook over his legions t here, furt her st rengt hening his cont rol over t he
West .[115]

Despit e t he Part hian Empire's invasion of Rome's east ern t errit ories, Fulvia's civil war forced
Ant ony t o leave t he East and ret urn t o Rome in order t o secure his posit ion. Meet ing her in
At hens, Ant ony rebuked Fulvia for her act ions before sailing on t o It aly wit h his army t o face
Oct avian, laying siege t o Brundisium. This new conflict proved unt enable for bot h Oct avian and
Ant ony, however. Their cent urions, who had become import ant figures polit ically, refused t o fight
due t o t heir shared service under Caesar. The legions under t heir command followed suit .[116][117]
Meanwhile, in Sicyon, Fulvia died of a sudden and unknown illness.[118] Fulvia's deat h and t he
mut iny of t heir soldiers allowed t he t riumvirs t o effect a reconciliat ion t hrough a new power-
sharing agreement in Sept ember 40 BC. The Roman world was redivided, wit h Ant ony receiving
t he East ern provinces, Oct avian t he West ern provinces, and Lepidus ret ained his junior posit ion as
governor of Africa. This agreement , known as t he Treaty of Brundisium, reinforced t he t riumvirat e
and allowed Ant ony t o begin preparing for Caesar's long-await ed campaign against t he Part hian
Empire. As a symbol of t heir renewed alliance, Ant ony married Oct avia, Oct avian's sist er, in
Oct ober 40 BC.
Antony's Parthian War

Roman–Parthian relations

A map of the Parthian Empire and Kingdom of Armenia. Both states shared
their western borders along the Euphrates River with Rome.

The rise of t he Part hian Empire in t he 3rd cent ury BC and Rome's expansion int o t he East ern
Medit erranean during t he 2nd cent ury BC brought t he t wo powers int o direct cont act , causing
cent uries of t umult uous and st rained relat ions. Though periods of peace developed cult ural and
commercial exchanges, war was a const ant t hreat . Influence over t he buffer st at e of t he
Kingdom of Armenia, locat ed t o t he nort h-east of Roman Syria, was oft en a cent ral issue in t he
Roman-Part hian conflict . In 95 BC, Tigranes t he Great , a Part hian ally, became king. Tigranes
would lat er aid Mit hradat es of Pont us against Rome before being decisively defeat ed by
Pompey in 66 BC.[119] Thereaft er, wit h his son Art avasdes in Rome as a host age, Tigranes would
rule Armenia as an ally of Rome unt il his deat h in 55 BC. Rome t hen released Art avasdes, who
succeeded his fat her as king.
In 53 BC, Rome's governor of Syria, Marcus Licinius Crassus, led an expedit ion across t he
Euphrat es River int o Part hian t errit ory t o confront t he Part hian Shah Orodes II. Art avasdes II
offered Crassus t he aid of nearly fort y t housand t roops t o assist his Part hian expedit ion on t he
condit ion t hat Crassus invade t hrough Armenia as t he safer rout e.[120] Crassus refused, choosing
inst ead t he more direct rout e by crossing t he Euphrat es direct ly int o desert Part hian t errit ory.
Crassus' act ions proved disast rous as his army was defeat ed at t he Bat t le of Carrhae by a
numerically inferior Part hian force. Crassus' defeat forced Armenia t o shift it s loyalt y t o Part hia,
wit h Art avasdes II's sist er marrying Orodes' son and heir Pacorus.[121]

In early 44 BC, Julius Caesar announced his int ent ions t o invade Part hia and rest ore Roman power
in t he East . His reasons were t o punish t he Part hians for assist ing Pompey in t he recent civil war,
t o avenge Crassus' defeat at Carrhae, and especially t o mat ch t he glory of Alexander t he Great
for himself.[122] Before Caesar could launch his campaign, however, he was assassinat ed. As part
of t he compromise bet ween Ant ony and t he Republicans t o rest ore order following Caesar's
murder, Publius Cornelius Dolabella was assigned t he governorship of Syria and command over
Caesar's planned Part hian campaign. The compromise did not hold, however, and t he republicans
were forced t o flee t o t he East . The republicans direct ed Quint us Labienus t o at t ract t he
Part hians t o t heir side in t he result ing war against Ant ony and Oct avian. Aft er t he liberatores were
defeat ed at t he Bat t le of Philippi, Labienus joined t he Part hians.[123][124] Despit e Rome's int ernal
t urmoil during t he t ime, t he Part hians did not immediat ely benefit from t he power vacuum in t he
East due t o Orodes II's reluct ance despit e Labienus' urgings t o t he cont rary.[125]

In t he summer of 41 BC, Ant ony, t o reassert Roman power in t he East , conquered Palmyra on t he
Roman-Part hian border.[125] Ant ony t hen spent t he wint er of 41 BC in Alexandria wit h Cleopat ra,
leaving only t wo legions t o defend t he Syrian border against Part hian incursions. The legions,
however, were composed of former Republican t roops and Labienus convinced Orodes II t o
invade.
Parthian Invasion

Roman aureus bearing the portraits of

Marcus Antonius (left) and Octavianus
(right), issued in 41 BC to celebrate
the establishment of the Second
Triumvirate by Octavianus, Antonius
and Marcus Lepidus in 43 BC.

A denarius of both Octavianus and

Marcus Antonius struck in 41 BC

A Part hian army, led by Orodes II's eldest son Pacorus, invaded Syria in early 40 BC. Labienus, t he
Republican ally of Brut us and Cassius, accompanied him t o advise him and t o rally t he former
Republican soldiers st at ioned in Syria t o t he Part hian cause. Labienus recruit ed many of t he
former Republican soldiers t o t he Part hian campaign in opposit ion t o Ant ony. The joint Part hian–
Roman force, aft er init ial success in Syria, separat ed t o lead t heir offensive in t wo direct ions:
Pacorus marched sout h t oward Hasmonean Judea while Labienus crossed t he Taurus Mount ains
t o t he nort h int o Cilicia. Labienus conquered sout hern Anat olia wit h lit t le resist ance. The Roman
governor of Asia, Lucius Munat ius Plancus, a part isan of Ant ony, was forced t o flee his province,
allowing Labienus t o recruit t he Roman soldiers st at ioned t here. For his part , Pacorus advanced
sout h t o Phoenicia and Palest ine. In Hasmonean Judea, t he exiled prince Ant igonus allied himself
wit h t he Part hians. When his brot her, Rome's client king Hyrcanus II, refused t o accept Part hian
dominat ion, he was deposed in favor of Ant igonus as Part hia's client king in Judea. Pacorus'
conquest had capt ured much of t he Syrian and Palest inian int erior, wit h much of t he Phoenician
coast occupied as well. The cit y of Tyre remained t he last major Roman out post in t he
region.[126]
Ant ony, t hen in Egypt wit h Cleopat ra, did not respond immediat ely t o t he Part hian invasion.
Though he left Alexandria for Tyre in early 40 BC, when he learned of t he civil war bet ween his
wife and Oct avian, he was forced t o ret urn t o It aly wit h his army t o secure his posit ion in Rome
rat her t han defeat t he Part hians.[126] Inst ead, Ant ony dispat ched Publius Vent idius Bassus t o
check t he Part hian advance. Arriving in t he East in spring 39 BC, Vent idius surprised Labienus near
t he Taurus Mount ains, claiming vict ory at t he Cilician Gat es. Vent idius ordered Labienus execut ed
as a t rait or and t he formerly rebellious Roman soldiers under his command were reincorporat ed
under Ant ony's cont rol. He t hen met a Part hian army at t he border bet ween Cilicia and Syria,
defeat ing it and killing a large port ion of t he Part hian soldiers at t he Amanus Pass. Vent idius'
act ions t emporarily halt ed t he Part hian advance and rest ored Roman aut horit y in t he East ,
forcing Pacorus t o abandon his conquest s and ret urn t o Part hia.[127]

In t he spring of 38 BC, t he Part hians resumed t heir offensive wit h Pacorus leading an army
across t he Euphrat es. Vent idius, in order t o gain t ime, leaked disinformat ion t o Pacorus implying
t hat he should cross t he Euphrat es River at t heir usual ford. Pacorus did not t rust t his
informat ion and decided t o cross t he river much fart her downst ream; t his was what Vent idius
hoped would occur and gave him t ime t o get his forces ready.[128] The Part hians faced no
opposit ion and proceeded t o t he t own of Gindarus in Cyrrhest ica where Vent idius' army was
wait ing. At t he Bat t le of Cyrrhest ica, Vent idius inflict ed an overwhelming defeat against t he
Part hians which result ed in t he deat h of Pacorus. Overall, t he Roman army had achieved a
complet e vict ory wit h Vent idius' t hree successive vict ories forcing t he Part hians back across
t he Euphrat es.[129] Pacorus' deat h t hrew t he Part hian Empire int o chaos. Shah Orodes II,
overwhelmed by t he grief of his son's deat h, appoint ed his younger son Phraat es IV as his
successor. However, Phraat es IV assassinat ed Orodes II in lat e 38 BC, succeeding him on t he
t hrone.[130][131]

Vent idius feared Ant ony's wrat h if he invaded Part hian t errit ory, t hereby st ealing his glory; so
inst ead he at t acked and subdued t he east ern kingdoms, which had revolt ed against Roman
cont rol following t he disast rous defeat of Crassus at Carrhae.[132] One such rebel was King
Ant iochus of Commagene, whom he besieged in Samosat a. Ant iochus t ried t o make peace wit h
Vent idius, but Vent idius t old him t o approach Ant ony direct ly. Aft er peace was concluded,
Ant ony sent Vent idius back t o Rome where he celebrat ed a t riumph, t he first Roman t o t riumph
over t he Part hians.[note 6]
Conflict with Sextus Pompey

Antony and Octavia on the obverse

of a tetradrachm issued at
Ephesus in 39 BC. Antony and his
brother-in-law, Octavian, enacted a
new treaty that year which
redivided control over the Roman
world.

While Ant ony and t he ot her t riumvirs rat ified t he Treat y of Brundisium t o redivide t he Roman
world among t hemselves, t he rebel Sext us Pompey, t he son of Caesar's rival Pompey t he Great ,
was largely ignored. From his st ronghold on Sicily, he cont inued his pirat ical act ivit ies across It aly
and blocked t he shipment of grain t o Rome. The lack of food in Rome undermined t he
t riumvirat e's polit ical support . This pressure forced t he t riumvirs t o meet wit h Sext us in early 39
BC.[133]

While Oct avian want ed an end t o t he ongoing blockade of It aly, Ant ony sought peace in t he
West in order t o make t he Triumvirat e's legions available for his service in his planned campaign
against t he Part hians. Though t he Triumvirs reject ed Sext us' init ial request t o replace Lepidus as
t he t hird man in t he t riumvirat e, t hey did grant ot her concessions. Under t he t erms of t he Treat y
of Misenum, Sext us was allowed t o ret ain cont rol over Sicily and Sardinia, wit h t he provinces of
Corsica and Greece being added t o his t errit ory. He was also promised a fut ure posit ion wit h t he
Priest ly College of Augurs and t he consulship for 35 BC. In exchange, Sext us agreed t o end his
naval blockade of It aly, supply Rome wit h grain, and halt his piracy of Roman merchant ships.[134]
However, t he most import ant provision of t he Treat y was t he end of t he proscript ion t he
t rimumvirat e had begun in lat e 43 BC. Many of t he proscribed senat ors, rat her t han face deat h,
fled t o Sicily seeking Sext us' prot ect ion. Wit h t he except ion of t hose responsible for Caesar's
assassinat ion, all t hose proscribed were allowed t o ret urn t o Rome and promised compensat ion.
This caused Sext us t o lose many valuable allies as t he formerly exiled senat ors gradually aligned
t hemselves wit h eit her Oct avian or Ant ony. To secure t he peace, Oct avian bet rot hed Marcus
Claudius Marcellus, Oct avian's t hree-year-old nephew and Ant ony's st epson, t o Sext us' daught er
Pompeia.[135] Wit h peace in t he West secured, Ant ony planned t o ret aliat e against Part hia. Under
an agreement wit h Oct avian, Ant ony would be supplied wit h ext ra t roops for his campaign. Wit h
t his milit ary purpose on his mind, Ant ony sailed t o Greece wit h Oct avia, where he behaved in a
most ext ravagant manner, assuming t he at t ribut es of t he Greek god Dionysus in 39 BC.

A Roman bust of Mark Antony, late 1st

century AD, Vatican Museums

The peace wit h Sext us was short -lived, however. When Sext us demanded cont rol over Greece
as t he agreement provided, Ant ony demanded t he province's t ax revenues be t o fund t he
Part hian campaign. Sext us refused.[136] Meanwhile, Sext us' admiral Menas bet rayed him, shift ing
his loyalt y t o Oct avian and t hereby grant ing him cont rol of Corsica, Sardinia, t hree of Sext us'
legions, and a larger naval force. These act ions worked t o renew Sext us' blockade of It aly,
prevent ing Oct avian from sending t he promised t roops t o Ant ony for t he Part hian campaign. This
new delay caused Ant ony t o quarrel wit h Oct avian, forcing Oct avia t o mediat e a t ruce bet ween
t hem. Under t he Treat y of Tarent um, Ant ony provided a large naval force for Oct avian's use
against Sext us while Oct avian promised t o raise new legions for Ant ony t o support his invasion of
Part hia.[137] As t he t erm of t he Triumvirat e was set t o expire at t he end of 38 BC, t he t wo
unilat erally ext ended t heir t erm of office anot her five years unt il 33 BC wit hout seeking approval
of t he senat e or t he assemblies. To seal t he Treat y, Ant ony's elder son Marcus Ant onius
Ant yllus, t hen only six years old, was bet rot hed t o Oct avian's only daught er Julia, t hen only an
infant . Wit h t he Treat y signed, Ant ony ret urned t o t he East , leaving Oct avia in It aly.
Reconquest of Judea
Wit h Publius Vent idius Bassus ret urned t o Rome in t riumph for his defensive campaign against
t he Part hians, Ant ony appoint ed Gaius Sosius as t he new governor of Syria and Cilicia in early 38
BC. Ant ony, st ill in t he West negot iat ing wit h Oct avian, ordered Sosius t o depose Ant igonus, who
had been inst alled in t he recent Part hian invasion as t he ruler of Hasmonean Judea, and t o make
Herod t he new Roman client king in t he region. Years before in 40 BC, t he Roman senat e had
proclaimed Herod "King of t he Jews" because Herod had been a loyal support er of Hyrcanus II,
Rome's previous client king before t he Part hian invasion, and was from a family wit h long st anding
connect ions t o Rome.[138] The Romans hoped t o use Herod as a bulwark against t he Part hians in
t he coming campaign.[139]

Advancing sout h, Sosius capt ured t he island-cit y of Aradus on t he coast of Phoenicia by t he end
of 38 BC. The following year, t he Romans besieged Jerusalem. Aft er a fort y-day siege, t he
Roman soldiers st ormed t he cit y and, despit e Herod's pleas for rest raint , act ed wit hout mercy,
pillaging and killing all in t heir pat h, prompt ing Herod t o complain t o Ant ony.[140] Herod finally
resort ed t o bribing Sosius and his t roops in order t hat t hey would not leave him "king of a
desert ".[141] Ant igonus was forced t o surrender t o Sosius, and was sent t o Ant ony for t he
t riumphal procession in Rome. Herod, however, fearing t hat Ant igonus would win backing in Rome,
bribed Ant ony t o execut e Ant igonus. Ant ony, who recognized t hat Ant igonus would remain a
permanent t hreat t o Herod, ordered him beheaded in Ant ioch. Now secure on his t hrone, Herod
would rule t he Herodian Kingdom unt il his deat h in 4 BC, and would be an ever-fait hful client king
of Rome.

Parthian Campaign
Wit h t he t riumvirat e renewed in 38 BC, Ant ony ret urned t o At hens in t he wint er wit h his new wife
Oct avia, t he sist er of Oct avian. Wit h t he assassinat ion of t he Part hian king Orodes II by his son
Phraat es IV, who t hen seized t he Part hian t hrone, in lat e 38 BC, Ant ony prepared t o invade
Part hia himself.
 A late Ptolemaic or Roman sculpted
head of an Alexandrian nobleman,
perhaps a depiction of Mark Antony,
Brooklyn Museum

Ant ony, however, realized Oct avian had no int ent ion of sending him t he addit ional legions he had
promised under t he Treat y of Tarent um. To supplement his own armies, Ant ony inst ead looked t o
Rome's principal vassal in t he East : his lover Cleopat ra. In addit ion t o significant financial
resources, Cleopat ra's backing of his Part hian campaign allowed Ant ony t o amass t he largest
army Rome had ever assembled in t he East . Wint ering in Ant ioch during 37, Ant ony's combined
Roman–Egypt ian army numbered some 100,000, including 60,000 soldiers from sixt een legions,
10,000 cavalry from Spain and Gaul, plus an addit ional 30,000 auxiliaries.[142] The size of his army
indicat ed Ant ony's int ent ion t o conquer Part hia, or at least receive it s submission by capt uring
t he Part hian capit al of Ecbat ana. Ant ony's rear was prot ect ed by Rome's client kingdoms in
Anat olia, Syria, and Judea, while t he client kingdoms of Cappadocia, Pont us, and Commagene
would provide supplies along t he march.

Ant ony's first t arget for his invasion was t he Kingdom of Armenia. Ruled by King Art avasdes II of
Armenia, Armenia had been an ally of Rome since t he defeat of Tigranes t he Great by Pompey
t he Great in 66 BC during t he Third Mit hridat ic War. However, following Marcus Licinius Crassus's
defeat at t he Bat t le of Carrhae in 53 BC, Armenia was forced int o an alliance wit h Part hia due t o
Rome's weakened posit ion in t he East . Ant ony dispat ched Publius Canidius Crassus t o Armenia,
receiving Art avasdes II's surrender wit hout opposit ion. Canidius t hen led an invasion int o t he
Sout h Caucasus, subduing Iberia. There, Canidius forced t he Iberian King Pharnavaz II int o an
alliance against Zober, king of neighboring Albania, subduing t he kingdom and reducing it t o a
Roman prot ect orat e.

Wit h Armenia and t he Caucasus secured, Ant ony marched sout h, crossing int o t he Part hian
province of Media At ropat ene. Though Ant ony desired a pit ched bat t le, t he Part hians would not
engage, allowing Ant ony t o march deep int o Part hian t errit ory by mid-August of 36 BC. This
forced Ant ony t o leave his logist ics t rain in t he care of t wo legions (approximat ely 10,000
soldiers), which was t hen at t acked and complet ely dest royed by t he Part hian army before
Ant ony could rescue t hem. Though t he Armenian King Art avasdes II and his cavalry were present
during t he massacre, t hey did not int ervene. Despit e t he ambush, Ant ony cont inued t he
campaign. However, Ant ony was soon forced t o ret reat in mid-Oct ober aft er a failed t wo-mont h
siege of t he provincial capit al.

The ret reat soon proved a disast er as Ant ony's demoralized army faced increasing supply
difficult ies in t he mount ainous t errain during wint er while const ant ly being harassed by t he
Part hian army. According t o Plut arch, eight een bat t les were fought bet ween t he ret reat ing
Romans and t he Part hians during t he mont h-long march back t o Armenia, wit h approximat ely
20,000 infant ry and 4,000 cavalry dying during t he ret reat alone. Once in Armenia, Ant ony quickly
marched back t o Syria t o prot ect his int erest s t here by lat e 36 BC, losing an addit ional 8,000
soldiers along t he way. In all, t wo-fift hs of his original army (some 80,000 men) had died during his
failed campaign.[143] The narrat ion of St rabo and Plut arch blames t he Armenian king for t he
defeat , but modern sources not e Ant ony's poor management .[144]

Antony and Cleopatra

Meanwhile, in Rome, t he t riumvirat e was no more. Oct avian forced Lepidus t o resign aft er t he
older t riumvir at t empt ed t o t ake cont rol of Sicily aft er t he defeat of Sext us. Now in sole power,
Oct avian was occupied in wooing t he arist ocracy t o his side. He married Livia and st art ed t o
at t ack Ant ony. He argued t hat Ant ony was a man of low morals t o have left his fait hful wife
abandoned in Rome wit h t he children t o be wit h t he promiscuous queen of Egypt . Ant ony was
accused of everyt hing, but most of all, of "going nat ive", an unforgivable crime t o t he proud
Romans. Several t imes Ant ony was summoned t o Rome, but remained in Alexandria wit h
Cleopat ra.[145]

A map of the Donations of Alexandria (by Mark Antony to

Cleopatra and her children) in 34 BC.
Unallotted Roman territory
Donations to Cleopatra's Children
Cleopatra's Original Kingdom

Again wit h Egypt ian money, Ant ony invaded Armenia, t his t ime successfully. In t he ret urn, a mock
Roman t riumph was celebrat ed in t he st reet s of Alexandria. The parade t hrough t he cit y was a
past iche of Rome's most import ant milit ary celebrat ion. For t he finale, t he whole cit y was
summoned t o hear a very import ant polit ical st at ement . Surrounded by Cleopat ra and her
children, Ant ony ended his alliance wit h Oct avian.

He dist ribut ed kingdoms among his children: Alexander Helios was named king of Armenia, Media
and Part hia (t errit ories which were not for t he most part under t he cont rol of Rome), his t win
Cleopat ra Selene got Cyrenaica and Libya, and t he young Pt olemy Philadelphus was awarded
Syria and Cilicia. As for Cleopat ra, she was proclaimed Queen of Kings and Queen of Egypt , t o rule
wit h Caesarion (Pt olemy XV Caesar, son of Cleopat ra by Julius Caesar), King of Kings and King of
Egypt . Most import ant of all, Caesarion was declared legit imat e son and heir of Caesar. These
proclamat ions were known as t he Donations of Alexandria and caused a fat al breach in Ant ony's
relat ions wit h Rome.

While t he dist ribut ion of nat ions among Cleopat ra's children was hardly a conciliat ory gest ure, it
did not pose an immediat e t hreat t o Oct avian's polit ical posit ion. Far more dangerous was t he
acknowledgment of Caesarion as legit imat e and heir t o Caesar's name. Oct avian's base of power
was his link wit h Caesar t hrough adopt ion, which grant ed him much-needed popularit y and loyalt y
of t he legions. To see t his convenient sit uat ion at t acked by a child borne by t he richest woman
in t he world was somet hing Oct avian could not accept . The t riumvirat e expired on t he last day of
33 BC and was not renewed. Anot her civil war was beginning.

During 33 and 32 BC, a propaganda war was fought in t he polit ical arena of Rome, wit h
accusat ions flying bet ween sides. Ant ony (in Egypt ) divorced Oct avia and accused Oct avian of
being a social upst art , of usurping power, and of forging t he adopt ion papers by Caesar. Oct avian
responded wit h t reason charges: of illegally keeping provinces t hat should be given t o ot her men
by lot s, as was Rome's t radit ion, and of st art ing wars against foreign nat ions (Armenia and
Part hia) wit hout t he consent of t he senat e.

Ant ony was also held responsible for Sext us Pompey's execut ion wit hout a t rial. In 32 BC, t he
senat e deprived him of his powers and declared war against Cleopat ra – not Ant ony, because
Oct avian had no wish t o advert ise his role in perpet uat ing Rome's int ernecine bloodshed.
Oct avian and ot her Roman Senat ors believed t hat t urning t he host ilit ies t owards Cleopat ra as
t he villain would gat her t he most support from Romans for war. Cont ribut ing t o t his would be t he
years of propaganda against Cleopat ra published by t he Romans, dat ing back t o t he days of
Julius Caesar. Oct avian, informed of Ant ony's will by t wo Ant onian defect ors, sacrilegiously raided
t he Temple of Vest a t o secure it . The will, which some modern scholars have suggest ed was
part ially forged – largely on legal grounds – is never so described in t he ancient sources.
Oct avian's publicat ion of t he will's provisions, which named Ant ony and Cleopat ra's children as
heirs and direct ed his burial in Alexandria, was used as a polit ical weapon in Rome t o declare war
against Cleopat ra and Egypt as a whole.[146] This was t he perfect summat ion of t heir at t acks on
t he woman Ant ony loved and t hey believed t hreat ened t heir republic. Bot h consuls, Gnaeus
Domit ius Ahenobarbus and Gaius Sosius (bot h Ant ony's men), and a t hird of t he senat e
abandoned Rome t o meet Ant ony and Cleopat ra in Greece.

The Battle of Actium (1672) by Laureys

a Castro (National Maritime Museum,
London)
In 31 BC, t he war st art ed. Oct avian's general Marcus Vipsanius Agrippa capt ured t he Greek cit y
and naval port of Met hone, loyal t o Ant ony. The enormous popularit y of Oct avian wit h t he legions
secured t he defect ion of t he provinces of Cyrenaica and Greece t o his side. On 2 Sept ember, t he
naval Bat t le of Act ium t ook place. Ant ony and Cleopat ra's navy was overwhelmed, and t hey were
forced t o escape t o Egypt wit h 60 ships.

Death

This mid-1st-century-BC Roman wall

painting in Pompeii, Italy, showing Venus
holding a cupid is most likely a depiction
of Cleopatra VII of Ptolemaic Egypt as
Venus Genetrix, with her son Caesarion as
the cupid, similar in appearance to the now
lost statue of Cleopatra erected by Julius
Caesar in the Temple of Venus Genetrix
(within the Forum of Caesar). The owner of
the House of Marcus Fabius Rufus at
Pompeii walled off the room with this
painting, most likely in immediate reaction
to the execution of Caesarion on orders of
Augustus in 30 BC, when artistic depictions
of Caesarion would have been considered
a sensitive issue for the ruling
regime.[147][148]

Oct avian, now close t o absolut e power, invaded Egypt wit h Agrippa in August of 30 BC. Wit h no
ot her refuge t o escape t o, Ant ony st abbed himself wit h his sword in t he mist aken belief t hat
Cleopat ra had already done so. When he found out t hat Cleopat ra was st ill alive, his friends
brought him t o Cleopat ra's monument in which she was hiding, and he died in her arms.

Cleopat ra was allowed t o conduct Ant ony's burial rit es aft er she had been capt ured by Oct avian.
Realising t hat she was dest ined for Oct avian's t riumph in Rome, she made several at t empt s t o
t ake her life and finally succeeded in mid-August . Oct avian had Caesarion and Ant yllus killed, but
he spared Iullus as well as Ant ony's children by Cleopat ra, who were paraded t hrough t he st reet s
of Rome.

Aftermath and legacy

Cicero's son, Cicero Minor, announced Ant ony's deat h t o t he senat e.[149] Ant ony's honours were
revoked and his st at ues removed,[150] but he was not subject t o a complet e damnatio
memoriae.[151] Cicero's son also made a decree t hat no member of t he Ant onii would ever bear
t he name Marcus again.[152] "In t his way Heaven ent rust ed t he family of Cicero t he final act s in
t he punishment of Ant ony."[153]

When Ant ony died, Oct avian became uncont est ed ruler of Rome. In t he following years, Oct avian,
who was known as August us aft er 27 BC, managed t o accumulat e in his person all administ rat ive,
polit ical, and milit ary offices. When August us died in AD 14, his polit ical powers passed t o his
adopt ed son Tiberius; t he Roman Empire had begun.

The rise of Caesar and t he subsequent civil war bet ween his t wo most powerful adherent s
effect ively ended t he credibilit y of t he Roman oligarchy as a governing power and ensured t hat
all fut ure power st ruggles would cent re upon which one individual would achieve supreme cont rol
of t he government , eliminat ing t he senat e and t he former magist erial st ruct ure as import ant foci
of power in t hese conflict s. Thus, in hist ory, Ant ony appears as one of Caesar's main adherent s,
he and Oct avian being t he t wo men around whom power coalesced following t he assassinat ion
of Caesar, and finally as one of t he t hree men chiefly responsible for t he demise of t he
republic.[154]
Marriages and issue

Fragmentary portrait bust from

Smyrna thought to depict Octavia,
sister of Octavian and Antony's wife

A tetradrachm of Marcus Antonius

and Cleopatra VII of Ptolemaic Egypt

Ant ony was known t o have an obsession wit h women and sex.[155][156] He had many mist resses
(including Cyt heris) and was married in succession t o Fadia, Ant onia, Fulvia, Oct avia and Cleopat ra.
He left a number of children.[157][158] Through his daught ers by Oct avia, he would be ancest or t o
t he Roman emperors Caligula, Claudius and Nero.

1. Marriage to Fadia, a daughter of a

freedman. According to Cicero, Fadia
bore Antony several children. Nothing
is known about Fadia or their
 children. Cicero is the only Roman
source that mentions Antony's first
wife.
2. Marriage to first paternal cousin
Antonia Hybrida Minor, daughter of
Gaius Antonius Hybrida. According to
Plutarch, Antony threw her out of his
house in Rome because she slept
with his friend, the tribune Publius
Cornelius Dolabella. This occurred by
47 BC and Antony divorced her. By
Antonia, he had a daughter:
Antonia, married the wealthy
Greek Pythodoros of Tralles.
3. Marriage to Fulvia, by whom he had
two sons:
Marcus Antonius Antyllus,
murdered by Octavian in 30 BC.
Iullus Antonius, married Claudia
Marcella the Elder, daughter of
Octavia.
4. Marriage to Octavia the Younger,
sister of Octavian, later emperor
Augustus; they had two daughters:
Antonia the Elder married Lucius
Domitius Ahenobarbus (consul
16 BC); maternal grandmother of
the Empress Valeria Messalina
 and paternal grandmother of the
emperor Nero.
Antonia the Younger married
Nero Claudius Drusus, the
younger son of the Empress Livia
Drusilla and brother of the
emperor Tiberius; mother of the
emperor Claudius, paternal
grandmother of the emperor
Caligula and empress Agrippina
the Younger, and maternal great-
grandmother of the emperor
Nero.
5. Children with the Queen Cleopatra VII
of Egypt, the former lover of Julius
 Caesar:
Alexander Helios
Cleopatra Selene II, married King
Juba II of Numidia and later
Mauretania; the queen of Syria,
Zenobia of Palmyra, was
reportedly descended from
Selene and Juba II.
Ptolemy Philadelphus.

Descendants
Through his daught ers by Oct avia, he was t he pat ernal great grandfat her of Roman emperor
Caligula, t he mat ernal grandfat her of emperor Claudius, and bot h mat ernal great -great -
grandfat her and pat ernal great -great uncle of t he emperor Nero of t he Julio-Claudian dynast y.
Through his eldest daught er, he was ancest or t o t he long line of kings and co-rulers of t he
Bosporan Kingdom, t he longest -living Roman client kingdom, as well as t he rulers and royalt y of
several ot her Roman client st at es. Through his daught er by Cleopat ra, Ant ony was ancest or t o
t he royal family of Mauret ania, anot her Roman client kingdom, while t hrough his sole surviving son
Iullus, he was ancest or t o several famous Roman st at esmen.
1. Antonia, born 50 BC, had 1 child
A. Pythodorida of Pontus, 30 BC or 29
BC – 38 AD, had 3 children
I. Artaxias III, King of Armenia, 13 BC
– 35 AD, died without issue
II. Polemon II, King of Pontus, 12 BC
or 11 BC – 74 AD, died without
issue
III. Antonia Tryphaena, Queen of
Thrace, 10 BC – 55 AD, had 4
children
a. Rhoemetalces II, King of
Thrace, died 38 AD, died without
issue
b. Gepaepyris, Queen of the
Bosporan Kingdom, had 2
children
i. Tiberius Julius Mithridates,
King of the Bosporan Kingdom,
died 68 AD, died without issue
ii. Tiberius Julius Cotys I, King
of the Bosporan Kingdom, had
1 child
i. Tiberius Julius Rhescuporis
I, King of the Bosporan
Kingdom, died 90 AD, had 1
child
i. Tiberius Julius
Sauromates I, King of the
 Bosporan Kingdom, had 1
child
i. Tiberius Julius Cotys II,
King of the Bosporan
Kingdom, had 1 child
2. Marcus Antonius Antyllus, 47–30 BC,
died without issue
3. Iullus Antonius, 43–2 BC, had 3
children
A. Antonius, died young, no issue
B. Lucius Antonius, 20 BC – 25 AD,
issue unknown
C. Iulla Antonia ?? born after 19 BC,
issue unknown
4. Prince Alexander Helios of Egypt, born
40 BC, died without issue
(presumably)[159]
5. Cleopatra Selene, Queen of
Mauretania, 40 BC – 6 AD, had 2 children
A. Ptolemy, King of Mauretania, 1 BC –
40 AD, had 1 child
I. Drusilla, 38–79 AD, had 1 child
a. Gaius Julius Alexion, King of
Emesa, had 1 child

B. A daughter, born around 9 BC

6. Antonia Major, 39 BC – before 25 AD,

had 3 children
A. Domitia Lepida the Elder, c. 19 BC –
59 AD, had 1 child
 I. Quintus Haterius Antoninus
B. Gnaeus Domitius Ahenobarbus, 17
BC – 40 AD, had 1 child
I. Nero (Lucius Domitius
Ahenobarbus) (see line of Antonia
Minor below)

C. Domitia Lepida the Younger, 10 BC

– 54 AD, had 3 children
I. Marcus Valerius Messala
Corvinus
II. Valeria Messalina, 17 or 20–48
AD, had 2 children
a. (Messalina was the mother of
the two youngest children of the
 Roman emperor Claudius listed
below)
III. Faustus Cornelius Sulla Felix,
22–62 AD, had 1 child
a. a son (this child and the only
child of the Claudia Antonia listed
below are the same person)
7. Antonia Minor, 36 BC – 37 AD, had 3
children
A. Germanicus Julius Caesar, 15 BC –
19 AD, had 6 children
I. Nero Julius Caesar Germanicus,
6–30 AD, died without issue
II. Drusus Julius Caesar
Germanicus, 8–33 AD, died without
issue
III. Gaius Julius Caesar Augustus
Germanicus (Caligula), 12–41 AD,
had 1 child;
a. Julia Drusilla, 39–41 AD, died
young

IV. Julia Agrippina (Agrippina the

Younger), 15–59 AD, had 1 child;
a. Nero Claudius Caesar
Augustus Germanicus, 37–68 AD,
had 1 child;
i. Claudia Augusta, January 63
AD – April 63 AD, died young

V. Julia Drusilla, 16–38 AD, died

without issue
 VI. Julia Livilla, 18–42 AD, died
without issue
B. Claudia Livia Julia (Livilla), 13 BC –
31 AD, had three children
I. Julia Livia, 7–43 AD, had 4
children
a. Rubellius Plautus, 33–62 AD,
had several children[160]
b. Gaius Rubellius Blandus
c. Rubellius Drusus

II. Tiberius Julius Caesar Nero

Gemellus, 19–37 or 38 AD, died
without issue
III. Tiberius Claudius Caesar
Germanicus II Gemellus, 19–23 AD,
 died young
C. Tiberius Claudius Caesar Augustus
Germanicus, 10 BC – 54 AD, had 4
children
I. Tiberius Claudius Drusus, died
young
II. Claudia Antonia, c. 30–66 AD, had
1 child
a. a son, died young

III. Claudia Octavia, 39 or 40–62 AD,

died without issue
IV. Tiberius Claudius Caesar
Britannicus, 41–55 AD, died without
issue
 8. Prince Ptolemy Philadelphus of Egypt,
36–29 BC, died without issue
(presumably)[159]

Artistic portrayals

Antony (George Coulouris) addresses

the crowd in the Mercury Theatre
production of Caesar (1937), Orson
Welles's modern-dress adaptation of
Shakespeare's tragedy

Works in which t he charact er of Mark Ant ony plays a cent ral role:

William Shakespeare's Julius Caesar

 Julius Caesar (1950 film) based on
this (played by Charlton Heston)
Julius Caesar (1953 film) based on
this (played by Marlon Brando)
Julius Caesar (1970 film) based on
this (played by Charlton Heston
again)
Antony and Cleopatra, several works
with that title
John Dryden's 1677 play All for Love
Jules Massenet's 1914 opera Cléopâtre
The 1934 film Cleopatra (played by
Henry Wilcoxon)
Orson Welles' innovative 1937
adaptation of William Shakespeare at
Mercury Theatre has George Coulouris
as Marcus Antonius.[161]
The 1953 film Serpent of the Nile (played
by Raymond Burr)
The 1963 film Cleopatra (played by
Richard Burton)
The 1964 film Carry On Cleo (played by
Sid James)
The 1983 miniseries The Cleopatras
(played by Christopher Neame)
The TV series Xena: Warrior Princess
(played by Manu Bennett)
In the Age of Empires: The Rise of Rome,
Mark Antony featured as a short
swordsman.
The 1999 film Cleopatra (played by Billy
Zane)
The Capcom video game Shadow of
Rome, in which he is depicted as the
main antagonist
The 2003 TV movie Imperium: Augustus
(played by Massimo Ghini)
The 2005 TV mini series Empire (played
by Vincent Regan)
The 2005–2007 HBO/BBC TV series
Rome (played by James Purefoy)
The 2009–2013 TV series Horrible
Histories (played by Mathew Baynton),
and the 2015 reboot series of the same
name (portrayed by Tom Stourton in
2019)
The 2006 BBC One docudrama Ancient
Rome: The Rise and Fall of an Empire
(played by Alex Ferns)
As Cleopatra's guardian and level boss
(of Lust) in the Xbox 360 game Dante's
Inferno released by Visceral Games in
2010.
The Choices: Stories You Play visual
novel A Courtesan of Rome, in which he
is depicted as one of the love interests.
 The 2021 TV series Domina (played by
Liam Garrigan)
2023 Netflix TV series African Queens,
portrayed by Craig Russell.

Novels

In Colleen McCullough's Masters of

Rome series (1990–2007), Antony is
portrayed as a deeply flawed character,
a brave warrior but sexually
promiscuous, often drunk and foolish,
and a monster of vanity who loves riding
in a chariot drawn by lions.
Margaret George's The Memoirs of
Cleopatra (1997)
 Conn Iggulden's Emperor novels (2003–
13)
Robert Harris's Dictator (2015)
Michael Livingston's The Shards of
Heaven (2015)[162][163]

Poetry

Geoffrey Chaucer's fourteenth-century

poem The Legend of Good Women.
Lytle, William Haines (1826–1863),
Antony and Cleopatra.
Constantine P. Cavafy's poem The God
Abandons Antony (1911), a hymn to
human dignity, depicts the imaginary last
 moments of Mark Antony while he sees
his fortunes turning around.

See also

Flamen Divi Julii, priest of the cult of

Caesar, of which Mark Antony was the
first to serve.
Antonia gens, the ancestral gens of
Mark Antony.

Notes

1. As recorded by a calendar inscription

known as the Fasti Verulani (c. 17–37 AD)
for 14 January = Degrassi, Inscriptiones
Italiae 13.2.397–398, as cited by Jerzy
Linderski and Anna Kaminska-Linderski,
"The Quaestorship of Marcus Antonius,"
Phoenix 28.2 (1974), p. 217, note 24. The
religious prohibition placed by Augustus on
the day, marked as a dies vitiosus
("defective" day), is explained by Linderski,
"The Augural Law", Aufstieg und
Niedergang der römischen Welt II.16
(1986), pp. 2187–2188. 14 January is
accepted as Antony's birthday also by
C.B.R. Pelling, Plutarch: Life of Antony
(Cambridge University Press, 1988), p. 299,
commentary to Plutarch, Antony 73.5 (http
s://penelope.uchicago.edu/Thayer/E/Roma
n/Texts/Plutarch/Lives/Antony*.html#73) ;
Nikos Kokkino, Antonia Augusta
(Routledge, 1992), p. 11; Pat Southern,
Mark Antony (Tempus, 1998), p. ii; Adrian
Goldsworthy, Antony and Cleopatra (Yale
University Press, 2010), n.p. (https://books.
google.com/books?id=YguHDNElxpMC&dq
=%22a+grand+celebration+for+his+birthda
y+on+14+january%22&pg=PT421) .
According to Suetonius (Claudius 11.3 (http
s://penelope.uchicago.edu/Thayer/E/Roma
n/Texts/Suetonius/12Caesars/Claudius*.ht
ml#11.3) ), the emperor Claudius, Antony's
grandson through maternal lineage, evaded
the prohibition on commemorating
Antony's birthday by calculations showing
that had he been born under the Julian
calendar he would have shared his birthday
with Drusus, the emperor's father. Drusus
was born in late March or early April, based
on a reference that he was born "within the
third month" after his mother Livia married
Augustus on 17 January; G. Radke, "Der
Geburtstag des älteren Drusus," Wurzburger
Jahrbucher fur die Altertumswissenschaft
4 (1978), pp. 211–213, proposed that a
birth date of 28 March for Drusus would
resolve the chronological difficulties.
Radke's proposal is summarized in English
by the commentary on Suetonius' sentence
by Donna W. Hurley, Suetonius: Divus
Claudius (Cambridge University Press,
2001), p. 106 (https://books.google.com/b
ooks?id=9yVR5Fac278C&dq=drusus+anton
y+birthday+january&pg=PA106) , and by
Marleen B. Flory, "The Symbolism of Laurel
in Cameo Portraits of Livia," in Memoirs of
 the American Academy in Rome (University
of Michigan Press, 1995), vol. 40, p. 56,
note 48.
2. Cicero is the only ancient source to mention
a first marriage to an otherwise unknown
Fadia (Philippics, XIII, 10)
3. Ancient writers (e.g. Appian, Civil Wars
5.8.1) place the beginning of their famous
romance at this meeting with Antony totally
surrendering to Cleopatra's beauty but
modern historians reject this notion as
retrospective historical propaganda on the
part of Augustus.
4. Lepidus, though still a member of the
Triumvirate, was relegated to a junior
position within the three-man dictatorship
 as Antony and Octavian established
themselves.
5. It is also speculated that Antony's legions,
composed largely of Caesarian veterans,
did not wish to fight the adoptive son of
their former general.
6. After celebrating his triumph, Ventidius
disappears from the historical record.

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External links

M. Antonius (30) M. f. Wikimed

ia
M. n. (https://romanrep
Commo
ublic.ac.uk/person/239 ns has
media
2) in the Digital
related
Prosopography of the to
Marcus
Roman Republic (http
Antoniu
s://romanrepublic.ac.u s.
k) .
Chaumont, M. L. (1986). "Antony, Mark".
Encyclopaedia Iranica, Vol. II, Fasc. 2 (htt
p://www.iranicaonline.org/articles/anton
y-mark-roman-gencral-ca) . pp. 136–
138.
MarkAntony.org (http://www.markanton
y.org) Archived (https://web.archive.or
g/web/20200106112309/https://markan
tony.org/) 6 January 2020 at the
Wayback Machine
Shakespeare's Funeral Oration of Mark
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ttp://homepages.wmich.edu/~johnsorh/
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