CNR Module 4.1 Notes

Conservation of natural resources 21CV654
CONSERVATION OF NATURAL RESOURCES - 21CV654
MODULE 4 - BIODIVERSITY
INTRODUCTION
Biodiversity is the biological variety and variability of life on Earth. Biodiversity is a
measure of variation at the genetic, species, and ecosystem level. Terrestrial
biodiversity is usually greater near the equator, which is the result of the warm climate
and high primary productivity. Biodiversity is not distributed evenly on Earth, and is
richer in the tropics.
The term biodiversity was coined in 1985. It is important in natural as well as artificial
ecosystems. It deals with nature’s variety, the biosphere. It refers to variabilities among
plants, animals and microorganism species.
FLORA AND FAUNA

The ecosystem is a complex, interconnected network comprising biotic and abiotic
elements. Biotic elements include all living organisms such as plants, animals and
microorganisms. Abiotic components, on the other hand, include non-living entities
that are vital for the survival of life and these include soil, water, climate, etc.
Among all biotic elements, Flora and Fauna are the most fascinating ones.
Department of Civil Engg, CITECH, Bangalore. Page 1

Flora
The term flora in Latin means “Goddess of the Flower.” Flora is a collective term
for a group of plant life found in a particular region. The whole plant kingdom is
represented by this name.
Flora is classified and differentiated based on many factors. The best one among
them is the area in which they grow or are found. Some grow in desert regions or in
water, some are found in hilly areas while some are endemic to a specific geographic
location.
According to the place at which they grow, they have adaptations also. For example,
Cactus plants are naturally seen in deserts. They have adaptations like modified leaves
or prickles to preserve water and protect themselves from predators.
The agricultural flora consists of plants cultivated by men for their use. Horticulture
is the practice of growing ornamental and decorative flowers, which are also known as
garden flora.
Fauna
Fauna represents the animal life indigenous to a region. Animal kingdom
comprises a variety of animal life forms. Hence, the classification of fauna is much
more complex than the floral division. Therefore, for ease of classification
• Birds are categorized under the name Avifauna.
• Fishes under Pisci Fauna.
• Microorganisms including bacteria and virus are generally considered under
animal kingdom, they are known as Microfauna.
• All unknown and undiscovered animals are named as cryptofauna.
The earth is beautiful because of all these life forms. Other life forms depend
on them for various resources and exploit them.
TYPES OF BIODIVERSITY
There are the following three different types of biodiversity:
• Genetic Biodiversity
• Species Biodiversity
• Ecological Biodiversity

Species diversity
Species diversity refers to the variety of different types of species found in a particular
area. It is the biodiversity at the most basic level. It includes all the species ranging
from plants to different microorganisms.
Genetic diversity
It refers to the variations among the genetic resources of the organisms. Every
individual of a particular species differs from each other in their genetic constitution.
That is why every human looks different from each other. Similarly, there are different
varieties in the same species of rice, wheat, maize, barley, etc.
Ecological diversity
An ecosystem is a collection of living and non-living organisms and their interaction
with each other. Ecological biodiversity refers to the variations in the plant and animal
species living together and connected by food chains and food webs.
IMPORTANCE OF BIODIVERSITY
Biodiversity and its maintenance are very important for sustaining life on
earth. A few of the reasons explaining the importance of biodiversity are:
Ecological Stability
Every species has a specific role in an ecosystem. They capture and store
energy and also produce and decompose organic matter. The ecosystem supports the
services without which humans cannot survive. A diverse ecosystem is more
productive and can withstand environmental stress.
Economic Importance

Biodiversity is a reservoir of resources for the manufacture of food, cosmetic

products and pharmaceuticals.
Crops livestock, fishery, and forests are a rich sources of food. Wild plants
such as Cinchona and Foxglove plant are used for medicinal purposes.
Wood, fibres, perfumes, lubricants, rubber, resins, poison and cork are all
derived from different plant species.
The national parks and sanctuaries are a source of tourism. They are a source
of beauty and joy for many people.
Ethical Importance
All species have a right to exist. Humans should not cause their voluntary
extinction. Biodiversity preserves different cultures and spiritual heritage. Therefore, it
is very important to conserve biodiversity.
Importance of Biodiversity has a number of functions on the Earth.

 Maintaining the balance of the ecosystem: Recycling and storage of nutrients,
combating pollution, stabilizing climate, protecting water resources, forming and
protecting soil and maintaining eco-balance
 Provision of biological resources: Provision of medicines and pharmaceuticals,
food for the human population and animals, ornamental plants, wood products,
breeding stock and diversity of species, ecosystems and genes.
 Social benefits: Recreation and tourism, cultural value and education and
research.
 The vital part of biodiversity is ‘crop diversity’, which is also known as
agrobiodiversity.
 Provide Utilitarian values include the many basic needs humans obtain from
biodiversity such as food, fuel, shelter, and medicine.
 Ecosystems provide crucial services such as pollination, seed dispersal, climate
regulation, water purification, nutrient cycling, and control of agricultural pests.
 Biodiversity has cultural value to humans as well, for spiritual or religious
reasons for instance.
 Wildlife support healthy ecosystems that we rely on.
 Keeping biodiverse ecosystems intact helps humans stay healthy.
 Biodiversity is an essential part of the solution to climate change.
 Biodiversity is good for the economy.
 Biodiversity is an integral part of culture and identity.

ECONOMIC VALUES OF MEDICINAL PLANTS

Medicinal plants hold significant economic importance worldwide.
Global Trade: The international trade of medicinal plants and their products was
estimated to be USD 60 billion in 2010, and by 2050, it is expected to reach USD 5
trillion. Asian countries, rich in medicinal plant species, are major exporters of these
plants and their derivatives.
Employment and Livelihood: Cultivation of medicinal plants within low-income
countries offers employment opportunities, supporting livelihoods for local
communities. These plants play a crucial role in sustaining economies by providing
essential medicines and promoting health.
Soil Stabilization: Many medicinal plant roots help stabilize soil, preventing erosion on
hilly slopes. Their ability to thrive in adverse environmental conditions, such as poor
soil fertility and low rainfall, contributes to natural regeneration.
Cultural and Indigenous Value: Beyond economic benefits, medicinal plants also hold
cultural significance, contribute to indigenous knowledge sharing, and aid in
environmental preservation.
In countries like India, where plant-derived drugs constitute up to 80% of total drugs,
the economic importance of medicinal plants is particularly pronounced. These valuable
resources deserve conservation and sustainable utilization for the well-being of both
people and the planet.
 Global trade in herbs is over USD 100 Billion per annum

 India and China's medicinal plant trade is about two to five billion US dollars
annually
 In Germany, it is over one billion US dollars annually
 Rose Periwinkle which is endemic to Madagascar fetches US$100 million per
annum
 China trades in 7,000 species and 700,000 tons of medicinal plants per annum
 India trades in 7,000 species of medicinal plants
 Morocco exports 58.7 tons of medicinal plants annually
 In the last 5 years, sales of medicinal plants doubled in China, tripled in India and
grew by 25% in Europe.

ECONOMIC VALUES OF DRUGS/PHARMACEUTICAL INDUSTRY

Biodiversity plays a crucial role in pharmaceutical development, offering a wealth of
natural resources that inspire and contribute to the creation of new medicines. Here are
some key points on its economic impact
Source of Medicines: A significant portion of pharmaceuticals is derived from natural
sources. For example, over 40% of pharmaceutical formulations come from natural
products. This includes plants, fungi, and marine organisms, which provide unique
compounds that can be used to develop new drugs.
Economic Value: The global trade in medicinal plants alone is valued at over $2.5
billion. Additionally, the potential value of undiscovered medicines in marine
environments is estimated to be between $563 billion and $5.69 trillion.
Biodiversity Loss: The loss of biodiversity poses a significant risk to pharmaceutical
development. It is estimated that at least one important undiscovered drug is lost every
two years due to biodiversity loss3. This not only impacts the availability of new
medicines but also the economic potential of the pharmaceutical industry.
Corporate Strategies: Many pharmaceutical companies are recognizing the importance
of biodiversity and are implementing strategies to conserve it. For instance, companies
like Bayer are integrating biodiversity conservation into their corporate strategies to
ensure sustainable sourcing of natural resources.
Health and Ecosystem Services: Biodiversity contributes to ecosystem services that are
vital for human health. Healthy ecosystems help in disease regulation and provide
resources for traditional and modern medicines.
Protecting biodiversity is not just about preserving nature; it’s also about safeguarding
the future of medicine and the economic benefits it brings.
ECONOMIC VALUES OF FISHERIES:

Enhanced Fish Stocks: Biodiversity supports a variety of fish species, which can lead
to more stable and resilient fish populations. This diversity helps maintain the balance of
marine ecosystems, ensuring sustainable fish stocks.
Economic Benefits: Healthy and diverse ecosystems can boost fisheries’ productivity,
leading to higher catches and increased revenue. For example, coral reef biodiversity
alone is valued at billions of dollars due to its support for fisheries, tourism, and other
ecosystem services.
Resilience to Environmental Changes: Diverse ecosystems are more resilient to
environmental changes and stressors, such as climate change. This resilience can help

sustain fisheries over the long term, providing economic stability for communities
dependent on fishing.
Tourism and Recreation: Biodiversity also attracts tourism, which can be a significant
source of income for coastal communities. The economic value of tourism often
surpasses that of fisheries, highlighting the multifaceted benefits of preserving
biodiversity.
However, it’s important to note that overfishing and habitat destruction can
negatively impact biodiversity, leading to reduced fish stocks and economic
losses. Sustainable management practices are essential to balance the needs of fisheries
and biodiversity conservation
BIOGEOCHEMICAL CYCLES
Also known as nutrient cycles, describe the movement of chemical elements through
different media, such as the atmosphere, soil, rocks, bodies of water, and organisms.
Biogeochemical cycles keep essential elements available to plants and other organisms.
Energy flows directionally through ecosystems, entering as sunlight (or inorganic

molecules for chemoautotrophs) and leaving as heat during energy transformation
between trophic levels. Rather than flowing through an ecosystem, the matter that makes
up organisms is conserved and recycled. The law of conservation of mass states that
matter is neither created nor destroyed. For example, after a chemical reaction, the mass
of the products (ending molecules) will be the same as the mass of the reactants (starting
molecules). The same is true in an ecosystem. Matter moves through different media,
and atoms may react to form new molecules, but the amount of matter remains constant.
The biogeochemical cycles of four elements—carbon, nitrogen, phosphorus, and

sulfur—are discussed below. The cycling of these elements is interconnected with
the water cycle. For example, the movement of water is critical for the leaching of sulfur
and phosphorus into rivers, lakes, and oceans. Today, anthropogenic (human) activities
are altering all major ecosystems and the biogeochemical cycles they drive.

The Carbon Cycle
Carbon is the basic building block of all organic materials, and therefore, of living
organisms. The carbon cycle is actually comprised of several interconnected cycles: one
dealing with rapid carbon exchange among living organisms and the other dealing with
the long-term cycling of carbon through geologic processes. The overall effect is that
carbon is constantly recycled in the dynamic processes taking place in the atmosphere,
at the surface and in the crust of the earth. The vast majority of carbon resides as
inorganic minerals in crustal rocks. Other reservoirs of carbon, places where carbon
accumulates, include the oceans and atmosphere. Some of the carbon atoms in your
body today may long ago have resided in a dinosaur's body, or perhaps were once buried
deep in the Earth's crust as carbonate rock minerals.
Figure : Carbon dioxide in the atmosphere is converted to organic carbon through

photosynthesis by terrestrial organisms (like trees) and marine organisms (like
algae). Respiration by terrestrial organisms (like trees and deer) and marine
organisms (like algae and fish) release carbon dioxide back into the atmosphere.
Additionally, microbes that decompose dead organisms release carbon dioxide
through respiration. Weathering of terrestrial rocks also brings carbon into the
soil. Carbon in the soil enters the water through leaching and runoff. It can
accumulate into ocean sediments and reenter land through uplifting. Long-term
storage of organic carbon occurs when matter from living organisms is buried
deep underground and becomes fossilized. Volcanic activity and, more recently,
human emissions stored carbon back into the carbon cycle.
Carbon Cycles Slowly between Land and the Ocean: On land, carbon is stored in soil as
organic carbon in the form of decomposing organisms or terrestrial rocks. Decomposed
plants and algae are sometimes buried and compressed between layers of sediments.
After millions of years fossil fuels such as coal, oil, and natural gas are formed.
The weathering of terrestrial rock and minerals release carbon into the soil.
Carbon-containing compounds in the soil can be washed into bodies of water

through leaching. This water eventually enters the ocean. Atmospheric carbon
dioxide also dissolves in the ocean, reacting with water molecules to form carbonate
ions (CO32-). Some of these ions combine with calcium ions in the seawater to form
calcium carbonate (CaCO3), a major component of the shells of marine organisms.
These organisms eventually die and their shells form sediments on the ocean floor. Over
geologic time, the calcium carbonate forms limestone, which comprises the largest
carbon reservoir on Earth.
Carbonate also precipitates in sediments, forming carbonate rocks, such as limestone.

Carbon sediments from the ocean floor are taken deep within Earth by the process
of subduction: the movement of one tectonic plate beneath another. The ocean
sediments are subducted by the actions of plate tectonics, melted and then returned to
the surface during volcanic activity. Plate tectonics can also cause uplifting,
returning ocean sediments to land.
Carbon Cycles Quickly between Organisms and the Atmosphere
Carbon dioxide is converted into glucose, an energy-rich organic molecule

through photosynthesis by plants, algae, and some bacteria (figure 7.3.b7.3.𝑏). They
can then produce other organic molecules like complex carbohydrates (such as starch),
proteins and lipids, which animals can eat. Most terrestrial autotrophs obtain their
carbon dioxide directly from the atmosphere, while marine autotrophs acquire it in the
dissolved form (bicarbonate, HCO3–).

Figure 7.3.b7.3.𝑏: (a) Plants, (b) algae, and (c) certain bacteria, called
cyanobacteria, are can carry out photosynthesis. Algae can grow over enormous
areas in water, at times completely covering the surface
Plants, animals, and other organisms break down these organic molecules during the
process of aerobic cellular respiration, which consumes oxygen and releases energy,
water and carbon dioxide. Carbon dioxide is returned to the atmosphere during gaseous
exchange. Another process by which organic material is recycled is the decomposition
of dead organisms. During this process, bacteria and fungi break down the complex
organic compounds. Decomposers may do respiration, releasing carbon dioxide, or other
processes that release methane (CH4).
Photosynthesis and respiration are actually reciprocal to one another with regard to the
cycling of carbon: photosynthesis removes carbon dioxide from the atmosphere and
respiration returns it (figure 7.3.c7.3.𝑐). A significant disruption of one process can
therefore affect the amount of carbon dioxide in the atmosphere.
Figure : This equation means that six molecules of carbon dioxide (CO2) combine
with six molecules of water (H2O) in the presence of sunlight. This produces one
molecule of glucose (C6H12O6) and six molecules of oxygen (O2).

Cellular respiration is only one process that releases carbon dioxide. Physical processes,
such as the eruption of volcanoes and release from hydrothermal vents (openings in
the ocean floor) add carbon dioxide to the atmosphere. Additionally, the combustion of
wood and fossil fuels releases carbon dioxide. The level of carbon dioxide in the
atmosphere is greatly influenced by the reservoir of carbon in the oceans. The exchange
of carbon between the atmosphere and water reservoirs influences how much carbon is
found in each.
Importance of the Carbon Cycle
The carbon cycle is crucially important to the biosphere. If not for the recycling
processes, carbon might long ago have become completely sequestered in crustal rocks
and sediments, and life would no longer exist. Photosynthesis not only makes energy
and carbon available to higher trophic levels, but it also releases gaseous oxygen (O 2).
Gaseous oxygen is necessary for cellular respiration to occur. Photosynthetic bacteria
were likely the first organisms to perform photosynthesis, dating back 2-3 billion years
ago. Thanks to their activity, and a diversity of present-day photosynthesizing
organisms, Earth’s atmosphere is currently about 21% O2. Also, this O2 is vital for the
creation of the ozone layer, which protects life from harmful ultraviolet radiation
emitted by the sun. Ozone (O3) is created from the breakdown and reassembly of O2.
Figure Decomposers will break down the organic compounds in this fallen tree at
Cliffs of the Neuse State Park in Wayne County, North Carolina, releasing carbon
dioxide into the atmosphere. Decomposition ensures that carbon dioxide will be
available in the atmosphere for photosynthetic organisms, which then provide
carbon for consumers. Image by Gerry Dincher (CC-BY-SA).

The global carbon cycle contributes substantially to the provisioning ecosystem services
upon which humans depend. We harvest approximately 25% of the total plant biomass
that is produced each year on the land surface to supply food, fuel wood and fiber from
croplands, pastures and forests. In addition, the global carbon cycle plays a key role in
regulating ecosystem services because it significantly influences climate via its effects
on atmospheric CO2 concentrations.
Human Alteration of the Carbon Cycle
Atmospheric CO2 concentration increased from 280 parts per million (ppm) to 413 ppm
between the start of industrial revolution in the late eighteenth century and 2020. This
reflected a new flux in the global carbon cycle—anthropogenic CO2 emissions—where
humans release CO2 into the atmosphere by burning fossil fuels and changing land use.
Fossil fuel burning takes carbon from coal, gas, and oil reserves, where it would be
otherwise stored on very long time scales, and introduces it into the active carbon
cycle. Land use change releases carbon from soil and plant biomass pools into the
atmosphere, particularly through the process of deforestation for wood extraction or
conversion of land to agriculture. In 2018, the additional flux of carbon into the
atmosphere from anthropogenic sources was estimated to be 36.6 gigatons
of carbon (GtC = 1 billion tons of carbon)—a significant disturbance to the natural
carbon cycle that had been in balance for several thousand years previously. High levels
of carbon dioxide in the atmosphere cause warming that results in climate
change. (See Threats to Biodiversity and Climate Change for more details.).
The Nitrogen Cycle
All organisms require nitrogen because it is an important component of nucleic acids,

proteins, and other organic molecules. Getting nitrogen into living organisms is difficult.
Plants and algae are not equipped to incorporate nitrogen from the atmosphere (where it
exists as tightly bonded, triple covalent N2) although this molecule comprises
approximately 78 percent of the atmosphere. Because most of the nitrogen is stored in
the atmosphere, the atmosphere is considered a reservoir of nitrogen.
The nitrogen molecule (N2) is quite inert. To break it apart so that its atoms can combine
with other atoms requires the input of substantial amounts of energy. Nitrogen

fixation is the process of converting nitrogen gas into ammonia (NH3), which
spontaneously becomes ammonium (NH4+). Ammonium is found in bodies of water and
in the soil (figure 7.3.f7.3.𝑓).
Figure: In the nitrogen cycle, nitrogen-fixing bacteria in the soil or legume root
nodules convert nitrogen gas (N2) from the atmosphere to ammonium (NH4+).
Nitrification occurs when bacteria convert ammonium to nitrites (NO 2-) and then to
nitrates (NO3-). Nitrates re-enter the atmosphere as nitrogen gas through denitrification
by bacteria. Plants assimilate ammonium and nitrates, producing organic nitrogen,
which is available to consumers. Decomposers, including aerobic and anaerobic bacteria
and fungi, break down organic nitrogen and release ammonium through
ammonification.
Three processes are responsible for most of the nitrogen fixation in the biosphere. The
first is atmospheric fixation by lightning. The enormous energy of lightning breaks
nitrogen molecules and enables their atoms to combine with oxygen in the air forming
nitrogen oxides. These dissolve in rain, forming nitrates, that are carried to the earth.
Atmospheric nitrogen fixation probably contributes some 5-8% of the total nitrogen
fixed. The second process is industrial fixation. Under great pressure, at a temperature
of 600°C (1112°F), and with the use of a catalyst (which facilitates chemical reactions),
atmospheric nitrogen and hydrogen can be combined to form ammonia (NH 3).
Ammonia can be used directly as fertilizer, but most of it is further processed to urea
and ammonium nitrate (NH4NO3).
The third process is biological fixation by certain free-living or symbiotic bacteria.

Some form a symbiotic relationship with plants in the legume family, which includes
beans, peas, soybeans, alfalfa, and clovers (figure 7.3.g7.3.𝑔). Some nitrogen-fixing
bacteria even establish symbiotic relationships with animals, e.g., termites and
"shipworms" (wood-eating bivalves). Nitrogen-fixing cyanobacteria are essential to
maintaining the fertility of semi-aquatic environments like rice paddies. Although the
first stable product of the process is ammonia, this is quickly incorporated into protein
and other organic nitrogen compounds.
Figure : Nitrogen-fixing bacteria live in the spherical nodules of this soybean root.
Ammonium is converted by bacteria and archaea into nitrites (NO2−) and then nitrates
(NO3−) through the process of nitrification. Like ammonium, nitrites and nitrates are
found in water and the soil. Some nitrates are converted back into nitrogen gas, which is
released into the atmosphere. The process, called denitrification, is conducted by
bacteria.
Plants and other producers directly use ammonium and nitrates to make organic
molecules through the process of assimilation. This nitrogen is now available to
consumers. Organic nitrogen is especially important to the study of ecosystem dynamics
because many processes, such as primary production, are limited by the available supply
of nitrogen.
Consumers excrete organic nitrogen compounds that return to the environment.

Additionally dead organisms at each trophic level contain organic

nitrogen. Microorganisms, such as bacteria and fungi, decompose these wastes and dead
tissues, ultimately producing ammonium through the process of ammonification.
In marine ecosystems, nitrogen compounds created by bacteria, or through

decomposition, collects in ocean floor sediments. It can then be moved to land in
geologic time by uplift of Earth’s crust and thereby incorporated into terrestrial rock.
Although the movement of nitrogen from rock directly into living systems has been
traditionally seen as insignificant compared with nitrogen fixed from the atmosphere, a
recent study showed that this process may indeed be significant and should be included
in any study of the global nitrogen cycle.
Human activity can alter the nitrogen cycle by two primary means: the combustion of
fossil fuels, which releases different nitrogen oxides into the atmosphere, and by the
use of artificial fertilizers in agriculture. Atmospheric nitrogen (other than N2) is
associated with several effects on Earth’s ecosystems. Nitrogen oxides (HNO 3) can react
in the atmosphere to form nitric acid, a form of acid deposition, also known as acid
rain. Acid deposition damages healthy trees, destroys aquatic systems and erodes
building materials such as marble and limestone. Like carbon dioxide, nitrous oxide
(N2O) causes warming resulting in climate change.
Humans are primarily dependent on the nitrogen cycle as a supporting ecosystem

service for crop and forest productivity. Nitrogen fertilizers are added to enhance the
growth of many crops and plantations (figure 7.3.h7.3.ℎ). The enhanced use of fertilizers
in agriculture was a key feature of the green revolution that boosted global crop yields in
the 1970s. The industrial production of nitrogen-rich fertilizers has increased
substantially over time and now matches more than half of the input to the land from
biological nitrogen fixation (90 megatons = 1 million tons of nitrogen each year). If the
nitrogen fixation from legume crops is included, then the anthropogenic flux of nitrogen
from the atmosphere to the land exceeds natural fluxes to the land. Fertilizers
are washed into lakes, streams, and rivers by surface runoff, resulting in saltwater and
freshwater eutrophication, a process whereby nutrient runoff causes the overgrowth of
algae, the depletion of oxygen, and death of aquatic fauna.

The Phosphorus Cycle
Several forms of nitrogen (nitrogen gas, ammnoium, nitrates, etc.) were involved in the
nitrogen cycle, but phosphorus remains primarily in the form of the phosphate ion (PO43-
). Also in contrast to the nitrogen cycle, there is no form of phosphorus in the
atmosphere. Phosphorus is used to make nucleic acids and the phospholipids that
comprise biological membranes.
Rocks are a reservoir for phosphorus, and these rocks have their origins in the ocean.
Phosphate-containing ocean sediments form primarily from the bodies of ocean
organisms and from their excretions. However, volcanic ash, aerosols, and mineral dust
may also be significant phosphate sources. This sediment then is moved to land over
geologic time by the uplifting of Earth’s surface (figure 7.3.i7.3.𝑖). The movement of
phosphate from the ocean to the land and through the soil is extremely slow, with the
average phosphate ion having an oceanic residence time between 20,000 and 100,000
years.
Figure : In nature, phosphorus exists as the phosphate ion (PO43-). Phosphate

enters the atmosphere from volcanic aerosols, which precipitate to Earth.
Weathering of rocks also releases phosphate into the soil and water, where it
becomes available to terrestrial food webs. Some of the phosphate from terrestrial
food webs dissolves in streams and lakes, and the remainder enters the soil.

Phosphate enters the ocean via surface runoff, groundwater flow, and river flow,
where it becomes dissolved in ocean water or enters marine food webs. Some
phosphate falls to the ocean floor where it becomes sediment. If uplifting occurs,
this sediment can return to land.
Marine birds play a unique role in the phosphorous cycle. These birds take up
phosphorous from ocean fish. Their droppings on land (guano) contain high levels of
phosphorous and are sometimes mined for commercial use. A 2020 study estimated
that the ecosystem services (natural processes and products that benefit
humans) provided by guano are worth $470 million per year.
Weathering of rocks releases phosphates into the soil and bodies of water. Plants can
assimilate phosphates in the soil and incorporate it into organic molecules, making
phosphorus available to consumers in terrestrial food webs. Waste and dead organisms
are decomposed by fungi and bacteria, releasing phosphates back into the soil. Some
phosphate is leached from the soil, entering into rivers, lakes, and the ocean. Primary
producers in aquatic food webs, such as algae and photosynthetic bacteria, assimilate
phosphate, and organic phosphate is thus available to consumers in aquatic food webs.
Similar to terrestrial food webs, phosphorus is reciprocally exchanged between
phosphate dissolved in the ocean and organic phosphorus in marine organisms.
The movement of phosphorus from rock to living organisms is normally a very slow
process, but some human activities speed up the process. Phosphate-bearing rock is
often mined for use in the manufacture of fertilizers and detergents. This commercial
production greatly accelerates the phosphorous cycle. In addition, runoff from
agricultural land and the release of sewage into water systems can cause a local overload
of phosphate. The increased availability of phosphate can cause overgrowth of algae.
This reduces the oxygen level, causing eutrophication and the destruction of other
aquatic species.
Eutrophication and Dead Zones
Eutrophication occurs when excess phosphorus and nitrogen from fertilizer runoff
or sewage causes excessive growth of algae. Algal blooms that block light and therefore
kill aquatic plants in rivers, lakes, and seas. The subsequent death and decay of these
organisms depletes dissolved oxygen, which leads to the death of aquatic organisms

such as shellfish and fish. This process is responsible for dead zones, large areas in
lakes and oceans near the mouths of rivers that are periodically depleted of their normal
flora and fauna, and for massive fish kills, which often occur during the summer months
(figure 7.3.j7.3.𝑗). There are more than 500 dead zones worldwide. One of the worst
dead zones is off the coast of the United States in the Gulf of Mexico. Fertilizer runoff
from the Mississippi River basin created a dead zone, which reached its peak size
of 8,776 square miles in 2017. Phosphate and nitrate runoff from fertilizers also
negatively affect several lake and bay ecosystems including the Chesapeake Bay in the
eastern United States.
The Sulfur Cycle
Sulfur is an essential element for the molecules of living things. As part of the amino
acid cysteine, it is critical to the three-dimensional shape of proteins. As shown in
Figure 7.3.l7.3.𝑙, sulfur cycles among the oceans, land, and atmosphere. Atmospheric
sulfur is found in the form of sulfur dioxide (SO2), which enters the atmosphere in three
ways: first, from the decomposition of organic molecules; second, from volcanic activity
and geothermal vents; and, third, from the burning of fossil fuels by humans.
Figure 7.3.l7.3.𝑙: The sulfur cycle. Sulfur dioxide (SO2) from the atmosphere is
dissolved in precipitation as weak sulfuric acid or falls directly to Earth as fallout.
This releases sulfates (SO42-) into the soil and water. Soil sulfates can be carried as
runoff into the water. Marine sulfate can form pyrite, and this can break down to
release soil sulfates. Organisms in terrestrial and marine ecosystems assimilate
sulfate, adding sulfur to organic molecules, such as proteins (not shown).
Decomposition of these organisms returns sulfates to the soil. Microorganisms can
convert sulfates to hydrogen sulfide (H2S) and vice versa. Decomposition, volcanic
eruptions, and human activities (including burning fossil fuels) can release
hydrogen sulfide (H2S) or sulfur dioxide into the atmosphere.
On land, sulfur is deposited in four major ways: precipitation, direct fallout from the
atmosphere, rock weathering, and geothermal vents. Atmospheric sulfur is found in the
form of sulfur dioxide (SO2), and as rain falls through the atmosphere, sulfur is
dissolved in the form of weak sulfuric acid (H2SO4). Sulfur can also fall directly from
the atmosphere in a process called fallout. Also, as sulfur-containing rocks weather,
sulfur is released into the soil. These rocks originate from ocean sediments that are
moved to land by the geologic uplifting of ocean sediments. Terrestrial ecosystems can
then make use of these soil sulfates (SO42-), which enter the food web by being taken up
by plant roots. When these plants decompose and die, sulfur is released back into the
atmosphere as hydrogen sulfide (H2S) gas.
Sulfur enters the ocean in runoff from land, from atmospheric fallout, and from
hydrothermal vents. Some ecosystems rely on microorganisms using sulfur as a
biological energy source (in contrast to ecosystems with photosynthetic producers). This
sulfur then supports marine ecosystems in the form of sulfates.
Human activities have played a major role in altering the balance of the global sulfur
cycle. The burning of large quantities of fossil fuels, especially from coal, releases sulfur
dioxide, which reacts with the atmosphere to form sulfuric acid. Like nitric acid, sulfuric
acid contributes to acid deposition.
Loss or Threat to Biodiversity

The five major causes of loss in biodiversity are:
1. Climate change – Increase in the temperature of atmosphere has major effects on
environment such as seasons, rising of sea levels and glacial re-treats.
2. Deforestation and habitat loss- Habitat loss maybe caused by natural events like
calamities geological events or anthropogenic activities like deforestation and man
induced climate change.
3. Overexploitation- Refers to the act of over harvesting species and natural

resources at rates faster than they can actually sustain themselves in the wild.
4. Invasive species – An exotic or unnatural species can be any kind of organism
that has been introduced to a foreign habitat.This can cause major threat to native
species.
5. Pollution – All form of pollution threat to all life forms on Earth.
6. Other potential threats – Epidemics and infectious diseases of wildlife such as
Ebola virus, infectious bursal disease and flu affect wildlife and biodiversity.
 The loss of biodiversity and the related changes in the environment are now
faster than ever before in human history and there is no sign of this process
slowing down.
 Virtually all of Earth’s ecosystems have been dramatically distorted and altered
by human activities and continuously be converted for agricultural and other
uses. Many animal and plant populations have declined in numbers and
geographical spread.
 Loss of biodiversity is caused by a range of drivers. A driver is any natural or
human-induced factor that directly or indirectly causes a change in an ecosystem.
 A direct driver unequivocally influences ecosystem processes. An indirect driver
operates more diffusely by altering one or more direct drivers. Important direct
drivers affecting biodiversity are habitat alteration, climate change, invasive
species overexploitation and pollution
NATURAL AND ANTHROPOGENIC DISTURBANCES
Biodiversity is influenced by both natural and anthropogenic (human-caused)

disturbances.
Natural Disturbances:
1. Forest Fires: Naturally occurring fires can help maintain the health of certain
ecosystems by clearing out dead material and promoting new growth.
2. Windstorms: Strong winds can knock down trees and create gaps in forests,
allowing sunlight to reach the forest floor and support diverse plant growth.

3. Insect Outbreaks: Insects like bark beetles can cause significant tree mortality,
which can alter forest composition and structure.
4. Disease Outbreaks: Diseases can reduce populations of certain species, leading to

changes in community dynamics and biodiversity1.
Anthropogenic Disturbances
1. Climate Change: Human activities, such as burning fossil fuels, contribute to

climate change, which affects temperature and precipitation patterns, impacting
species distribution and ecosystem health.
2. Deforestation: Logging and land conversion for agriculture or urban development
lead to habitat loss and fragmentation, reducing biodiversity.
3. Pollution: Chemicals from industrial activities, agriculture, and urban runoff can
contaminate air, water, and soil, harming wildlife and ecosystems.
4. Invasive Species: Human activities can introduce non-native species that outcompete
or prey on native species, disrupting local ecosystems
Both types of disturbances can have profound effects on biodiversity, but natural
disturbances often play a role in maintaining ecosystem health and resilience, while
anthropogenic disturbances tend to have more negative impacts. Sustainable
management and conservation efforts are crucial to mitigate these effects and preserve
biodiversity.
NATURAL DISTURBANCES THREAT TO BIODIVERSITY

Natural disturbances include events like forest fires, hurricanes, floods, and insect
outbreaks. These events can:
Alter habitat structure: For example, fires can clear out underbrush, allowing new
plant species to grow.
Promote species diversity: Some species are adapted to thrive after disturbances,
leading to a more diverse ecosystem.
Accelerate succession: Disturbances can speed up the process of ecological succession,
where the species composition of an area changes over time.

ANTHROPOGENIC (HUMAN-CAUSED) DISTURBANCES: THREAT TO

BIODIVERSITY
Human activities often have more severe and long-lasting impacts on biodiversity.
These include:
Habitat destruction and fragmentation: Urbanization, agriculture, and deforestation
reduce the available habitat for many species, leading to population declines and
extinctions.
Pollution: Chemicals, plastics, and other pollutants can harm wildlife and disrupt
ecosystems.
Climate change: Human-induced climate change alters temperature and precipitation
patterns, affecting species’ survival and distribution.
Overexploitation: Overfishing, hunting, and logging can deplete populations of species
faster than they can recover.
Introduction of invasive species: Non-native species can outcompete, prey on, or bring
diseases to native species, disrupting local ecosystems.
COMBINED EFFECTS - THREAT TO BIODIVERSITY

The combined effects of natural and anthropogenic disturbances can be particularly
devastating. For example, climate change can increase the frequency and intensity of
natural disturbances like wildfires and storms, compounding their impact on
biodiversity.
Efforts to mitigate these threats include conservation strategies, habitat restoration, and
policies aimed at reducing human impact on the environment.
HABITAT LOSS – THREAT TO BIODIVERSITY

Habitat loss is indeed a significant threat to biodiversity. It is identified as the primary
threat to 85% of all species listed as “Threatened” and “Endangered” by the
International Union for Conservation of Nature (IUCN)1. The main drivers of habitat
loss include:
Deforestation: Large areas of forests are cleared for agriculture, logging, and urban
development.
Agriculture: Expanding agricultural land to meet the growing food demand leads to the
conversion of natural habitats1.
Urbanization: The development of cities and infrastructure fragments and destroys

natural habitats2.
Climate Change: Altering weather patterns and temperatures can make habitats
unsuitable for certain species3.
This loss of habitat can lead to the fragmentation of ecosystems, making it difficult for
species to survive and reproduce. It also increases the risk of species extinction. Efforts
to combat habitat loss include creating protected areas, restoring degraded habitats, and
promoting sustainable land-use practices1.
CONSERVATION OF BIODIVERSITY
Conservation of biodiversity is crucial for maintaining the health and stability of
ecosystems. It involves protecting and managing species, habitats, and ecosystems to
ensure their sustainability for future generations. Here are some key points:
Objectives of Biodiversity Conservation

 Preserve Species Diversity: Ensuring the survival of various species.
 Sustainable Utilization: Using species and ecosystems in ways that do not
deplete them.
 Maintain Ecological Processes: Supporting essential processes like nutrient
cycling and pollination1.
Methods of Conservation:
In-Situ Conservation: Protecting species in their natural habitats. Examples
include:
o National Parks: Areas protected from human exploitation (e.g., Kanha
National Park).
o Wildlife Sanctuaries: Areas where wildlife is protected, but some human
activities are allowed.
o Biosphere Reserves: Areas that protect both wildlife and human
communities.
Ex-Situ Conservation: Conserving species outside their natural habitats.
Examples include:
o Zoos and Botanical Gardens: Breeding and maintaining species in
controlled environments.
o Gene Banks: Storing genetic material for future use.

Challenges and Strategies

 Protected Areas: While the number of protected areas has increased, their
effectiveness can be limited by inadequate resources and management2.
 Integrated Approaches: Combining conservation efforts with sustainable
development and community involvement is essential2.
 Efforts to conserve biodiversity are vital for the health of our planet and the well-
being of all its inhabitants.
WHY CONSERVE BIODIVERSITY

Biodiversity conservation is about saving life on Earth in all its forms and
keeping natural ecosystems functioning and healthy. This incorporates the preservation,
maintenance, sustainable use, recovery and enhancement of the components of
biological diversity. Where - Conservation is the sustainable use of resources and
encompasses protection as well as exploitation and Preservation - is an aspect of
conservation meaning to keep something without altering or changing it.
Sustainable development is another intricate aspect of biodiversity
conservation. This refers to development that meets the needs of the current generation
without compromising the ability of future generations to meet their needs. It simply
refers to intra and intergenerational equity.
A balance between the environment, development and society results to sustainable
development which ensures biodiversity conservation. This is only possible in the
presence of proper enforcement and implementation policies/ conventions and
environmental institutions.
Biodiversity is the life support system of our planet- we depend on it for the air we
breathe, the food we eat, and the water we drink. Medicines originating from wild
species, including penicillin, aspirin, taxol, and quinine, have saved millions of lives
and alleviated tremendous sufferings.
Wetlands filter pollutants from water, trees and plants reduce global
warming by absorbing carbon. Bacteria and fungi break down organic material and
fertilize the soil. It has been observed that native species richness is linked to the health
of ecosystems, as is the quality of life for humans.
The connections between biodiversity and our sustainable future appear
closer and closer the more we look. We literally need to conserve biodiversity as our
lives depend on it.

ECOSYSTEM
An ecosystem is a structural and functional unit of ecology where the living organisms
interact with each other and the surrounding environment. In other words, an ecosystem
is a chain of interactions between organisms and their environment. The term
“Ecosystem” was first coined by A.G.Tansley, an English botanist, in 1935.
STRUCTURE OF THE ECOSYSTEM

The structure of an ecosystem is characterized by the organization of both biotic and
abiotic components. This includes the distribution of energy in our environment. It also
includes the climatic conditions prevailing in that particular environment.
The structure of an ecosystem can be split into two main components, namely:
• Biotic Components
• Abiotic Components
The biotic and abiotic components are interrelated in an ecosystem. It is an open
system where the energy and components can flow throughout the boundaries.
Biotic Components
Biotic components refer to all living components in an ecosystem. Based on nutrition,
biotic components can be categorized into autotrophs, heterotrophs and saprotrophs (or
decomposers).
• Producers include all autotrophs such as plants. They are called autotrophs as
they can produce food through the process of photosynthesis. Consequently, all
other organisms higher up on the food chain rely on producers for food.
• Consumers or heterotrophs are organisms that depend on other organisms for
food. Consumers are further classified into primary consumers, secondary
consumers and tertiary consumers.
• Primary consumers are always herbivores as they rely on producers for

food.
• Secondary consumers depend on primary consumers for energy. They can
either be carnivores or omnivores.
• Tertiary consumers are organisms that depend on secondary consumers for
food. Tertiary consumers can also be carnivores or omnivores.
• Quaternary consumers are present in some food chains. These organisms
prey on tertiary consumers for energy. Furthermore, they are usually at the
top of a food chain as they have no natural predators.
Decomposers include saprophytes such as fungi and bacteria. They directly thrive on
the dead and decaying organic matter. Decomposers are essential for the ecosystem as
they help in recycling nutrients to be reused by plants.
Abiotic Components
Abiotic components are the non-living component of an ecosystem. It
includes air, water, soil, minerals, sunlight, temperature, nutrients, wind, altitude,
turbidity, etc
FUNCTIONS OF ECOSYSTEM
The functions of the ecosystem are as follows:
1. It regulates the essential ecological processes, supports life systems and
renders stability.
2. It is also responsible for the cycling of nutrients between biotic and abiotic
components.
3. It maintains a balance among the various trophic levels in the ecosystem.
4. It cycles the minerals through the biosphere.
5. The abiotic components help in the synthesis of organic components that
involve the exchange of energy.
Functional components that work together in an ecosystem are:

• Productivity – It refers to the rate of biomass production.
• Energy flow – It is the sequential process through which energy flows from one
trophic level to another. The energy captured from the sun flows from producers
to consumers and then to decomposers and finally back to the environment.
• Decomposition – It is the process of breakdown of dead organic material. The
top-soil is the major site for decomposition.

• Nutrient cycling – In an ecosystem nutrients are consumed and recycled back in
various forms for the utilisation by various organisms.
TYPES OF ECOSYSTEM
An ecosystem can be as small as an oasis in a desert, or as big as an ocean,
spanning thousands of miles. There are two types of ecosystem:
• Terrestrial Ecosystem
• Aquatic Ecosystem
Terrestrial Ecosystem
Terrestrial ecosystems are exclusively land-based ecosystems. There are
different types of terrestrial ecosystems distributed around various geological zones.
They are as follows:
1. Forest Ecosystem
2. Grassland Ecosystem
3. Tundra Ecosystem
4. Desert Ecosystem
Forest Ecosystem
A forest ecosystem consists of several plants, particularly trees, animals and
microorganisms that live in coordination with the abiotic factors of the environment.
Forests help in maintaining the temperature of the earth and are the major carbon sink.
Grassland Ecosystem
In a grassland ecosystem, the vegetation is dominated by grasses and herbs.
Temperate grasslands and tropical or savanna grasslands are examples of grassland
ecosystems.
Tundra Ecosystem
Tundra ecosystems are devoid of trees and are found in cold climates or
where rainfall is scarce. These are covered with snow for most of the year. Tundra type
of ecosystem is found in the Arctic or mountain tops.
Desert Ecosystem
Deserts are found throughout the world. These are regions with little rainfall
and scarce vegetation. The days are hot, and the nights are cold.
Aquatic Ecosystem
are ecosystems present in a body of water. These can be further divided into two types,

namely:
1. Freshwater Ecosystem
2. Marine Ecosystem
Freshwater Ecosystem
The freshwater ecosystem is an aquatic ecosystem that includes lakes,
ponds, rivers, streams and wetlands. These have no salt content in contrast with the
marine ecosystem.
Marine Ecosystem
The marine ecosystem includes seas and oceans. These have a more
substantial salt content and greater biodiversity in comparison to the freshwater
ecosystem.

An ecosystem is a community of organisms (biotic components) and

their abiotic (non-living) environment. Ecosystems can be small, such as the tide pools
found near the rocky shores of many oceans, or large,
Ecosystem Categories
There are three broad categories of ecosystems based on their general environment:
freshwater, marine, and terrestrial. Within these three categories are individual
ecosystem types based on the environmental habitat and organisms present.
Freshwater ecosystems are the least common, occurring on only 1.8 percent of Earth’s
surface. These systems comprise lakes, rivers, streams, and springs; they are quite
diverse and support a variety of animals, plants, fungi, protists and prokaryotes.
Marine ecosystems are the most common, comprising 75 percent of Earth’s surface and
consisting of three basic types: shallow ocean, deep ocean water, and deep ocean
bottom. Shallow ocean ecosystems include extremely biodiverse coral reef ecosystems.
Small photosynthetic organisms suspended in ocean waters, collectively known
as phytoplankton, perform 40 percent of all photosynthesis on Earth. Deep ocean
bottom ecosystems contain a wide variety of marine organisms. These ecosystems are so
deep that light is unable to reach them. Freshwater and marine ecosystems are found
in aquatic biomes.
Terrestrial ecosystems, also known for their diversity, are grouped into large categories
called biomes. A biome is a large-scale community of organisms, primarily defined on
land by the dominant plant types that exist in geographic regions of the planet with
similar climatic conditions. Examples of biomes include tropical rainforests, savannas,
deserts, grasslands, temperate forests, and tundras. Grouping these ecosystems into just
a few biome categories obscures the great diversity of the individual ecosystems within
them. For example, the saguaro cacti (Carnegiea gigantean) and other plant life in the
Sonoran Desert, in the United States, are relatively diverse compared with the desolate
rocky desert of Boa Vista, an island off the coast of Western Africa

CNR Module 4.1 Notes

Uploaded by

Copyright:

Available Formats

CNR Module 4.1 Notes

Uploaded by

Document Information

Copyright

Available Formats

Share this document

Share or Embed Document

Sharing Options

Did you find this document useful?

Is this content inappropriate?

Copyright:

Available Formats

CNR Module 4.1 Notes

Uploaded by

Copyright:

Available Formats

Conservation of natural resources 21CV654

CONSERVATION OF NATURAL RESOURCES - 21CV654

FLORA AND FAUNA

Department of Civil Engg, CITECH, Bangalore. Page 1

Department of Civil Engg, CITECH, Bangalore. Page 2

Department of Civil Engg, CITECH, Bangalore. Page 3

Biodiversity is a reservoir of resources for the manufacture of food, cosmetic

Importance of Biodiversity has a number of functions on the Earth.

Department of Civil Engg, CITECH, Bangalore. Page 4

ECONOMIC VALUES OF MEDICINAL PLANTS

 Global trade in herbs is over USD 100 Billion per annum

Department of Civil Engg, CITECH, Bangalore. Page 5

ECONOMIC VALUES OF DRUGS/PHARMACEUTICAL INDUSTRY

ECONOMIC VALUES OF FISHERIES:

Department of Civil Engg, CITECH, Bangalore. Page 6

Energy flows directionally through ecosystems, entering as sunlight (or inorganic

The biogeochemical cycles of four elements—carbon, nitrogen, phosphorus, and

Department of Civil Engg, CITECH, Bangalore. Page 7

The Carbon Cycle

Figure : Carbon dioxide in the atmosphere is converted to organic carbon through

human emissions stored carbon back into the carbon cycle.

Carbon-containing compounds in the soil can be washed into bodies of water

Carbonate also precipitates in sediments, forming carbonate rocks, such as limestone.

Carbon Cycles Quickly between Organisms and the Atmosphere

Carbon dioxide is converted into glucose, an energy-rich organic molecule

Department of Civil Engg, CITECH, Bangalore. Page 9

Department of Civil Engg, CITECH, Bangalore. Page 10

Importance of the Carbon Cycle

Department of Civil Engg, CITECH, Bangalore. Page 11

Human Alteration of the Carbon Cycle

The Nitrogen Cycle

All organisms require nitrogen because it is an important component of nucleic acids,

Department of Civil Engg, CITECH, Bangalore. Page 12

The third process is biological fixation by certain free-living or symbiotic bacteria.

Consumers excrete organic nitrogen compounds that return to the environment.

Department of Civil Engg, CITECH, Bangalore. Page 14

In marine ecosystems, nitrogen compounds created by bacteria, or through

Humans are primarily dependent on the nitrogen cycle as a supporting ecosystem

Department of Civil Engg, CITECH, Bangalore. Page 15

The Phosphorus Cycle

Figure : In nature, phosphorus exists as the phosphate ion (PO43-). Phosphate

Department of Civil Engg, CITECH, Bangalore. Page 16

Eutrophication and Dead Zones

Department of Civil Engg, CITECH, Bangalore. Page 17

The Sulfur Cycle

Loss or Threat to Biodiversity

3. Overexploitation- Refers to the act of over harvesting species and natural

NATURAL AND ANTHROPOGENIC DISTURBANCES

Biodiversity is influenced by both natural and anthropogenic (human-caused)

Department of Civil Engg, CITECH, Bangalore. Page 20

4. Disease Outbreaks: Diseases can reduce populations of certain species, leading to

1. Climate Change: Human activities, such as burning fossil fuels, contribute to

NATURAL DISTURBANCES THREAT TO BIODIVERSITY

Department of Civil Engg, CITECH, Bangalore. Page 21

ANTHROPOGENIC (HUMAN-CAUSED) DISTURBANCES: THREAT TO

COMBINED EFFECTS - THREAT TO BIODIVERSITY

HABITAT LOSS – THREAT TO BIODIVERSITY

Department of Civil Engg, CITECH, Bangalore. Page 22

Objectives of Biodiversity Conservation

Department of Civil Engg, CITECH, Bangalore. Page 23