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Cross-Cultural Explorations
Activities in Culture and Psychology
Second Edition
Susan Goldstein
University of Redlands
First published 2008 by Pearson Education, Inc.
Published 2016 by Routledge

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ISBN: 9780205484850 (pbk)

Table of Contents
Preface .............................................................................................__... vii
To the Student. ......................................................................................xi
To the Instructor...............................................................................__ .... xi
Acknowledgments .................................................................................xii
Chapter 1. The Concept of Culture

1.1 Is Psychology Culture Bound? .....................................................3
1.2 What Is Culture? ....................................................................._..... 5
1.3 The Role of Religion in Understanding Culture .............................. 9
1.4 A Search for Individualism and Collectivism ............................_.. 11
1.5 Shopping for Cultural Values ........................................................ 13
1.6 Cleanliness Beliefs ...................................................................... 17
1.7 Cultural Metaphors ........................................................................21
1.8 Cultural Relativism and Ethnocentrism ...................................._.. 23
1.9 Exploring the World Village .........................................................27
1.10 A Global View of Psychology .................................................. _... 29
Chapter 2. Culture and Psychological Research

2.1 Functions of Cross-Cultural Research ......................................... 33
2.2 Insiders and Outsiders ................................................................37
2.3 Emic and Etic Perspectives ........................................................41
2.4 Measuring Ethnic Identity ............................................................ .43
2.5 Writing Translatable Items ................................................_......... .47
2.6 Back Translation ...........................................................................49
2.7 Pagtatanong-Tanong: An Indigenous Research Method .... _...... 53
2.8 Ethics in Cross-Cultural Research .............................................. 57
2.9 Toward a More Inclusive Psychology ......................................... 59
2.10 Designing Cross-Cultural Research ....................................._....... 61
Chapter 3. Culture and Basic Processes

3.1 Magical Thinking ..........................................................................67
3.2 Implicit Theories of Intelligence ................................................... 71
3.3 Race and IQ: Evaluating the Assumptions ................................. 77
3.4 Testing Cognitive Abilities across Cultures ................................. 79
3.5 Video Games as Cultural Artifacts ..............................................81
3.6 Culture and Memory Strategies ................................................... 85
3.7 Culture and Aesthetics ................................................................89
3.8 Interplanetary Perception ............................................................99
3.9 Sound Symbolism ..................................................................... 101
3.10 Linguistic Relativity ................................................................... 103
iii
Chapter 4. Culture and Developmental Processes
4.1 Parental Ethnotheories ....................................................................... 109
4.2 Your Social Networks .......................................................................... 115
4.3 Formal and Informal Learning .............................................................. 119
4.4 Home Culture and School Environment Fit.. ....................................... 123
4.5 A Culturally Appropriate Piagetian Task .............................................. 127
4.6 The Resilience of Child Soldiers .......................................................... 129
4.7 Culture and Gender Role Expectations ............................................... 133
4.8 Culture and Perceptions of Growing Old ............................................. 137
4.9 Ethnographic Studies of Human Development.. .................................. 141
4.10 Textbook Rewrite ................................................................................. 145
Chapter 5. Personality, Emotion, and the Self in Cultural Context

5.1 The Interdependent and Independent Selves ...................................... 149
5.2 Multiple and Shifting Identities ............................................................. 153
5.3 Biracial Identity .................................................................................... 155
5.4 Nicknaming across Cultures ................................................................ 159
5.5 Taboo Topics across Cultures ............................................................. 165
5.6 The Colors of Emotion ......................................................................... 173
5.7 Cultural Display Rules ......................................................................... 179
5.8 The Culture and Personality School-Old and New............................ 183
5.9 Dear Sigmund (or Carl} ........................................................................ 187
5.10 Culture and the Big Five ...................................................................... 189
Chapter 6. Health, Stress, and Coping across Cultures

6.1 What Is Abnormal? ............................................................................. 195
6.2 Culture and Health: The Ni Hon San Study ......................................... 197
6.3 Culture and the Treatment and Prevention of HIV/AIDS ..................... 201
6.4 Explaining Cultural Differences in Drinking Behavior .......................... 205
6.5 Culture and Mental Health Self-Quiz ................................................... 207
6.6 Altered States of Consciousness .........................................................209
6.7 Culture-Specific Disorders ................................................................... 213
6.8 Self-Help and Well-Being .....................................................................217
6.9 Client's and Counselor'S Thoughts ......................................................219
6.10 Culture and Psychotherapy ................................................................. 223
iv
Chapter 7. Culture and Social Behavior
7.1 Violating Cultural Norms ............................................................ 229
7.2 The Teleconditioning of the College Classroom ........................ 233
7.3 Ethnic Communities in Cyberspace .......................................... 235
7.4 Analyzing Insults ....................................................................... 239
7.5 Aggression across Cultures: A Self-Quiz .................................. 243
7.6 An Intercultural Conflict.. ........................................................... 245
7.7 Work-Related Values ................................................................ 253
7.8 Leadership Styles ..................................................................... 257
7.9 Love and Marriage .................................................................... 261
7.10 Intercultural Partnerships .......................................................... 265
Chapter 8. Intergroup Relations

8.1 Discrimination Incidents ............................................................ 273
8.2 Exploring Privilege ..................................................................... 277
8.3 Institutional Discrimination ......................................................... 281
8.4 Marginality and Privilege on a College Campus ........................ 285
8.5 Internalized Oppression ............................................................ 287
8.6 Cognitive Aspects of Stereotyping ............................................ 289
8.7 The Psychology of Ethnopolitical Warfare ................................. 301
8.8 Enemy Images .......................................................................... 305
8.9 The Contact Hypothesis ............................................................ 307
8.10 Responding to Stereotypes ....................................................... 309
Chapter 9. Intercultural Interaction

9.1 Communicating Humor across Cultures .................................... 315
9.2 Nonverbal Communication ........................................................ 319
9.3 Conflict Communication Style ................................................... 323
9.4 Clock Time and Event Time ...................................................... 329
9.5 Acculturation Strategies ............................................................ 333
9.6 A Culture Shock Interview ......................................................... 337
9.7 Intercultural Competence: A Self-Assessment.. ........................ 343
9.8 The Psychology of Tourism ....................................................... 347
9.9 The Culture Assimilator ............................................................. 351
9.10 A Diversity Training Investigation .. : ........................................... 357
Answers .............................................................................................. 361

Appendix: Resources on Culture and Psychology ............................ 373
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Preface
The Study of Culture and Psychology
Imagine that a visitor from another nation comes to your country to write a travel guide
for his compatriots. He writes about various aspects of life that a traveler would need to
understand, such as customs, food, transportation, and regulations. However, he
gathers all of his information in one large city and never travels to other areas of the
country. Would you feel you could rely on this guide were you to journey to areas
outside of that city? In many ways this situation is analogous to research in the field of
psychology. North America contains about five percent of the world's people, but sixty
percent of the world's psychologists (Takooshian, Mrinal, & Mrinal, 2001). Most of the
research findings included in psychology textbooks are derived from the study of a
rather limited population, primarily white, middle-class college students from the United
States, Canada, and Western Europe. Yet these findings are often presented as if they
apply to the behavior of all humans throughout the world. Cross-cultural psychologists
have produced data to challenge the notion that these research findings are universal
(Smith, Bond, & Kagitcibasi, 2006, for example, discuss challenges to the universality of
social psychological principles). Not only are many of these findings of questionable
validity when applied outside of the regions where the research was conducted, they
are of questionable validity when applied uniformly within those regions. This lack of
applicability within the United States, Canada, and Western Europe is due to biases in
psychological theory and research that result from the failure to acknowledge diversity
associated with gender, ethnicity, social class (Denmark, 1994; Graham, 1992; Reid &
Kelly, 1994), age (Schaie, 1988), sexual orientation (Herek, Kimmel, Amaro, & Melton,
1991) and disability (Fine & Asch, 1988). Thus, just as we may be misled by using the
travel guide described above to negotiate through diverse regions of your country, we
may also be misled by using "mainstream" psychological research to understand the
diversity of human behavior.
Psychology as an academic discipline has only recently begun to recognize the

importance of a cultural perspective. When I finished graduate school and began
interviewing for college teaching positions 16 years ago, I found I often had to explain to
potential employers what it meant to be trained in cross-cultural psychology (in fact, one
department chair asked if my background prepared me to teach parapsychology -- the
study of psychic phenomena!). While cultural perspectives remain somewhat
marginalized in the field of psychology (Hall & Maramba, 2001), they have clearly
gained a more central role in recent years. More colleges and universities are offering
courses in cross-cultural psychology or have revised courses in traditional areas of
psychology so as to be more inclusive of a cultural perspective. Authors of textbooks
across the psychology curriculum have made corresponding changes with greater focus
on the role of culture in understanding human behavior. This book was designed to
contribute to the inclusion of cultural perspectives in the psychology curriculum by
providing students with hands-on experiences that facilitate the understanding and
application of major concepts and principles in the study of culture and psychology.
vii
Psychologists have taken a number of approaches to studying the impact of culture on
human behavior:
Cross-cultural psychology focuses on comparing specific behaviors across cultures.

For example, Gonzalez, Moreno, & Schneider (2004) examined differences between
Cuban and Canadian adolescents in expectations of friendship ties. Cross-cultural
psychologists work within a wide variety of research areas including social,
developmental, cognitive, clinical, and organizational psychology. Rather than being
characterized by a distinct content area, cross-cultural psychology is identified by the
unique methods used to make comparisons across cultures, methods that are used to
strive toward identifying universal principles of human behavior.
The indigenous psychologies approach utilizes concepts and methods that arise from
within the culture of interest (Kim, Yang, & Hwang, 2006). Boski (2006), for example,
has described a form of indigenous psychology in Poland derived from a Catholic,
noble-agrarian heritage that emphasizes humanism and anti-materialism.
Cultural psychology focuses on detailing the interrelationships among forms of behavior

within a specific culture and is generally less concerned with cross-cultural comparisons
and the use of quantitative research methods. An example of this approach to culture
and psychology might be the study of social ethnotheories in which interviews or open-
ended questions are used to gather information about the human qualities valued by a
specific group, such as in regard to child rearing (Harkness & Super, 2006).
Multicultural psychology, which grew from what is sometimes termed ethnic psychology,
is concerned with the use of culturally appropriate methods to understand the behavior
and experiences of people in culturally diverse environments, and has focused primarily
on the experiences of historically marginalized groups in North America. For example,
one recent study examined the coping strategies used by Asian American families of
victims of the September 11 World Trade Center attacks (Yeh, Inman, Kim, & Okubo,
2006).
Psychological anthropology involves anthropological studies that make explicit and

systematic use of psychological methods and concepts (Bock, 1995). Rabain-Jamin,
Maynard, and Greenfield (2003), for example, analyzed ethnographic video data to
examine the social and cognitive implications of sibling caregiving for cultural
transmission among the Zinacantec Maya of Mexico and the Wolof of Senegal.
The majority of activities in this book are derived from the fields of cross-cultural and
multicultural psychology, although research findings from indigenous psychology,
cultural psychology, and psychological anthropology are also represented.
I hope that as you progress through the activities in this book you will gain a better
understanding of how each of these approaches has contributed to our knowledge of
the impact of culture on human behavior.
viii
References
Bock, P. K., (1995). Rethinking psychological anthropology: Continuity and change in the study of human
action. Prospect Heights, IL: Waveland Press.
Boski, P. (2006). Humanism-materialism: Century -long Polish cultural origins and twenty years of
research in cultural psychology. In U. Kim, K.-S.Yang, & K.-K. Hwang (Eds.). Indigenous and cultural
psychology: Understanding people in context (pp. 373-402). New York: Springer.
Denmark, F. (1994). Engendering psychology. American Psychologist, 49, 329-334.
Fine, M., & Asch, A. (1988). Disability beyond stigma: Social interaction, discrimination, and activism.
Journal of Social Issues, 44, 3-21.
Gonzalez, Y. S., Moreno, D. S., & Schneider, B. (2004). Friendship expectations of early adolescents in
Cuba and Canada. Journal of Cross-cultural Psychology, 35, 436-445.
Graham, S. (1992). Most of the subjects were white and middle class. American Psychologist, 47,
629-639.
Hall, G. C. N., & Maramba, G. G. (2001). In search of cultural diversity: Recent literature in cross-cultural
and ethnic minority psychology. Cultural Diversity and Ethnic Minority Psychology, 7, 12-26.
Harkness, S., & C. M. Super (2006). Themes and variations: Parental ethnotheories in Western cultures.
In K. R. Rubin & O. B. Chung (Eds.), Parenting beliefs, behaviors, and parent-child relations: A cross-
cultural perspective (pp. 61 - 79). New York: Taylor & Francis.
Herek, G., Kimmel, D. L., Amaro, H., & Melton, G. B. (1991). Avoiding heterosexist bias in psychological
research. American Psychologist, 46, 957-963.
Kim, U., Yang, K.-S., & Hwang, K.-K. (Eds.). (2006). Indigenous and cultural psychology: Understanding
people in context. New York: Springer.
Reid, P. T., & Kelly, K. (1994). Research on women of color: From ignorance to awareness. Psychology
of Women Quarterly, 18,477-486.
Rabain-Jamin, J., Maynard, A. E., & Greenfield, P. (2003). Implications of sibling caregiving for sibling
relations and teaching interactions in two cultures. Ethos Special Issue: The Cultural Construction of
Childhood, 31, 204-231.
Schaie, K. W. (1988). Ageism in psychological research. American Psychologist, 43, 179-183.
Smith, P. B., Bond, M. H., & Kagitcibasi, C. (2006). Understanding social psychology across cultures:
Living and working in a changing world. London: Sage.
Takooshan, H., Mrinal, N. R., & Mrinal, U. S. (2001) Research methods for studies in the field. In L. L.
Adler & U. P. Gielen (Eds.), Cross-cultural topiCS in psychology (pp. 29-46). Westport, CT: Praeger.
Yeh, C. J., Inman, A. G., Kim, A. B., & Okubo, Y. (2006), Asian American families' collective coping
strategies in response to 9/11. Cultural Diversity and Ethnic Minority Psychology, 12, 134-148.
The Content and Structure of This Book

The activities that compose this book revolve around case studies, self-administered
scales, mini-experiments, and the collection of content-analytic, observational, and
interview data. Background material is included for any concepts not commonly
addressed in introductory texts.
In this book, I have chosen to use a broad conceptualization of culture, inclusive of

groups identified on a variety of dimensions in addition to nationality or race/ethnicity.
This expanded view of culture and psychology reflects current thinking among cross-
cultural scholars and allows for a discussion of culture in a context more relevant to the
lives of many student readers.
The book is organized in terms of nine chapters of 10 activities each, representing

major content areas in research on culture and psychology:
ix
• Chapter 1, The Concept of Culture, addresses the definition of culture and
some basic dimensions on which cultures differ.
• Chapter 2, Culture and Psychological Research, explores major issues and

techniques in the conduct of cross-cultural research.
• Chapter 3, Culture and Basic Processes, brings a cross-cultural perspective to

the processes of cognition, memory, perception, and language.
• Chapter 4, Culture and Developmental Processes, focuses on socialization in

cultural context and cultural variation in developmental processes.
• Chapter 5, Personality, Emotion, and the Self in Cultural Context, addresses

the impact of culture on the construal of self, the study of personality across
cultures, and the cross-cultural relevance of Western personality theory.
• Chapter 6, Health, Stress, and Coping across Cultures, deals with major
issues in cross-cultural research on physical and mental well-being.
• Chapter 7, Culture and Social Behavior, explores major research findings in

the areas of conflict resolution, work-related behavior, close interpersonal
relationships, and the impact of technology on social behavior.
• Chapter 8, Intergroup Relations, explores the phenomena of prejudice,

discrimination, stereotyping, and marginalization.
• Chapter 9, Intercultural Interaction, deals with research on intercultural

communication, adjustment, and training.
You will also find an appendix at the end of the book that includes a variety of resources
to assist you in exploring culture and psychology. These include professional
associations, scholarly journals, anti-hate organizations, and Internet resources. I hope
that this appendix will serve as a useful reference as you approach the activities in this
book as well as for cross-cultural pursuits outside of this course.
New to the Second Edition

In the years since the first edition of this book was published, the need for intercultural
skills and understanding has become even more crucial as international conflicts erupt
throughout the world and technological innovations make communicating across and
within cultures more frequent and immediate. I have attempted to reflect these changes
in this new edition as activities were substantially updated, and others were revised or
replaced. Activities from the previous edition include new material on immigration,
bilingualism, and cultural clashes around the world. Entirely new activities address such
topics as the role of religion in understanding culture, the experiences of child soldiers,
internalized oppression, ethnopolitical warfare, and ethnic communities in cyberspace.
x
You will also find that the resources in the Appendix (as well as the Instructor's Manual)
are substantially updated and expanded.
To the Student
Since I began teaching Introductory Psychology and Cross-Cultural Psychology nearly
two decades ago, I have enjoyed devising new ways to involve my students in the
exploration of culture and psychology. The activities in this book are a result of these
efforts. I hope that you will find these activities exciting and challenging, that they
provide you with a new perspective on human behavior, and that they help you to
understand the role of culture in your own experiences and behaviors. Please read the
instructions included in each activity carefully. Some of the activities involve collecting
data from others and have specific directions regarding ethical considerations, such as
maintaining confidentiality. Many of the activities have been modified in response to the
feedback I received from my own students over the years. I would very much
appreciate hearing from you about your experiences with these activities as well. You
will find my e-mail address below.
To the Instructor
I often hear psychology instructors commenting on the difficulty of creating active
learning experiences exploring cultural perspectives in psychology. Unlike other areas
of psychology, one cannot easily ask students to replicate cross-cultural studies.
Instead, this activity book provides students with a cross-cultural perspective through
exploring their own cultural background, interviewing others with specific cross-cultural
experiences, making cross-cultural comparisons using a broad interpretation of culture,
and reading about cultures different from their own in the materials included in specific
activities.
This book is designed for use as a supplement for courses specifically focusing on
culture and human behavior, such as a cross-cultural psychology course, as well as a
means to integrate cultural perspectives into an introductory psychology course. The
nine chapters represent the topics addressed in most cross-cultural psychology
textbooks and correspond to the organization of most introductory psychology texts as
well.
The large number of activities included in this book allows you to select those best
suited to your course. Since the activities address thought-provoking issues and require
that students engage in critical thinking, they may be assigned prior to class or during
class to be used as the basis for class discussion. Several of the activities would be
appropriate as small group projects. Students can either complete the activity as a
group or bring the completed activity to class and work in a group to evaluate the pooled
data. Since the activities are printed on tear-out pages, they may be easily collected by
instructors as individual assignments. Each of the activities may be assigned
independently and out of sequence.
xi
The instructor's manual that accompanies this book is available online from the Allyn &
Bacon/Longman Instructor's Resource Center at www.ablongman.com. It provides
detailed suggestions on how to tailor specific activities to fit your course. It includes
ideas for using the activities with more advanced students and for expanding the writing
component of activities to include techniques drawn from the literature on writing across
the curriculum, such as free writing, journaling, and peer review. The instructor's
manual also includes a variety of lecture and discussion ideas, and video, text, and
Internet materials related to specific activities in this book. As in my message to the
students, I invite you to contact me with any feedback about your experiences with the
activities. I hope you will find this book to be a helpful tool in guiding students through
an exploration of the impact of culture on human behavior.
Acknowledgments
I have many people to thank for their generous assistance with this book, including Allyn
& Bacon editor, Carolyn Merrill, and editorial assistants, Lara Zeises and Amy
Goldmacher, on the first edition, and editors, Karon Bowers and Stephen Frail,
and editorial assistant, Allison Rowland on the second edition. My thinking about these
activities was guided by the helpful suggestions of my colleague, Cheryl Rickabaugh,
the students of the University of Redlands, and the reviewers: John Adamopoulos,
Grand Valley State University; Karen L. Butler, Johnson C. Smith University; Susan E.
Dutch, Westfield State College; G. William Hill, Kennesaw State University; James M.
Jones, University of Delaware; Frank F. Montalvo, University of Texas -- San Antonio;
Connie Schick, Bloomsburg University, Yvonne Wells, Suffolk University; and
Evangeline Wheeler, Towson University, on the first edition and Christine Bachman,
University of Houston; Dawna K. Coutant, University of Hawaii at Hilo; David C.
Devonis, Graceland University; and William R. Woodward, University of New
Hampshire, on the second edition. My thanks also go out to Sandi Richey, University
of Redlands Interlibrary Loan Librarian, who worked miracles to obtain resources from
across the globe. I would not have been able to complete this book without the
unending patience and encouragement of my family, in particular my husband, Paul
Hisada, who devoted many hours to the computer-related aspects of this project and
took on more than his share of juggling work and family in order to create time for me to
write. Finally, I am thankful to my wonderful daughters, Lauren and Rachel, who have
helped me to understand the need for all of us to embark upon cross-cultural
explorations.
Susan Goldstein
Department of Psychology, University of Redlands
1200 East Colton Avenue, P. O. Box 3080
Redlands, CA 92373
E-mail: susan_goldstein@redlands.edu
xii
About the Author
Susan B. Goldstein is Professor of Psychology at the University of Redlands in

Southern California. She received her PhD in Psychology from the University of Hawaii
while a grantee of the East West Center. Her research has focused on intergroup and
intercultural attitudes. She has been teaching courses on culture and psychology for
nearly two decades.
Cross-Cultural Explorations
Chapter 1. The Concept of Culture
1.1 Is Psychology Culture Bound?

1.2 What Is Culture?
1.3 The Role of Religion in Understanding Culture
1.4 A Search for Individualism and Collectivism
1.5 Shopping for Cultural Values
1.6 Cleanliness Beliefs
1.7 Cultural Metaphors
1.8 Cultural Relativism and Ethnocentrism
1.9 Exploring the World Village
1.10 A Global View of Psychology
1
The Concept of Culture
Name ___________________________ Date _________
Activity 1.1
IS PSYCHOLOGY CULTURE BOUND?
Psychology as a discipline strives to identify and describe universal principles of

behavior. However, most psychological research has focused on a very limited
population from which to draw conclusions about humans in general. Unfortunately,
many psychology textbooks discuss research findings as if they are universal, even in
cases where cross-cultural studies indicate otherwise. This activity asks you to think
about a number of concepts taken at random from introductory psychology textbooks
and consider the universality of each.
Directions: Read the description of each of the psychological concepts below. Then
indicate in the space provided after each concept whether you believe it applies to all
people or believe it to be limited to specific cultural groups. Write a brief explanation of
your response. When you are finished you can check your answers on page 361.
1. Susceptibility to visual illusions - Though the two lines in the MOlier-Lyer illusion
below are the same length, the second line with the reverse arrowheads looks
longer.
2. The serial-position effect (primacy and recency) -- The first few items and the last
few items in a list are remembered better than the items in the middle of the list.
3. The independent self -- Each of us has a "self' that includes the unique qualities
that distinguish us from others.
3
Chapter 1
4. Secure attachment -- Ainsworth and colleagues (1978) delineated three types of

attachment: secure, avoidant, and ambivalent. Secure attachment is viewed as
ideal in terms of the development of basic trust and other mental health indices
(Waters, Merrick, Treboux, Crowell, & Albersheim, 2003).
5. Delusions and hallucinations -- Delusions and hallucinations are signs of mental

illness, specifically schizophrenia.
6. Fundamental attribution error (also called correspondence bias) -- The tendency

to underestimate the impact of the situation and overestimate the impact of
dispositional (personality) factors in explaining the behavior of others.
7. Social loafing -- The tendency for people to exert less effort when working as a
group than when individually accountable.
Reference:
Ainsworth, M. D. S., Blehar, M. D., Waters, E., & Wall, S. (1978). Patterns of attachment: A psychological
study of the Strange Situation. Hillsdale, NJ: Lawrence Erlbaum.
Waters, E., Merrick, S., Treboux, D., Crowell, J., & Albersheim, L. (2003). Attachment security in infancy
and early adulthood: A twenty -year longitudinal study. In M. E. Herzig & E. A. Farber (Eds.), Annual
progress in child psychiatry and child development (pp. 63-72). New York: Brunner-Routledge.
4
Name Date ---------

---------------------------
Activity 1.2
WHAT IS CULTURE?
The concept of culture is not an easy one to define. Even among those who study
culture and human behavior there are a large number of definitions in use. Perhaps the
most straightforward definition is that of Melville Herskovits (1948) who proposed that
culture is the human-made part of the environment. Harry Triandis and colleagues
(1972) further suggest that culture has both physical components (such as tools,
buildings, and works of art) and subjective components (such as roles, values, and
attitudes). Recently, the term culture has been used more broadly to refer to the
common values, beliefs, and behaviors within groups who share a nationality, ethnic
heritage, disability, sexual orientation, or socioeconomic class, as well as to those who
share a corporate identity, occupation, sport, or college campus. This activity
encourages you to explore the meaning of culture by applying several commonly cited
criteria (see for example, Baldwin, Faulkner, Hecht, & Lindsley, 2005; Brislin, 2000) to
determine whether a specific group is, in fact, a culture.
Directions: Identify a group that you think of as having its own culture. First describe
this group, then by answering the questions below, decide whether this group has the
characteristics of a culture.
Group Name and Description:
1. Does the group hold shared perspectives, norms, values, or assumptions that direct
the behavior of its members? Please give an example.
5
Chapter 1
2. Is information important to this group handed down through generations (or cohorts)
of its members? Please give an example.
3. Does this group have a common language, dialect, or set of terms? Please give an
example.
4. Are the perspectives and practices of this group widely shared among its members?
Please give an example.
5. Do group members react emotionally when the perspectives or practices of this

group are not upheld? Please give an example.
6
Conclusions: Discuss your conclusions about whether the group you chose to examine
is a culture.
References:
Baldwin, J. R., Faulkner, S. L., Hecht, M. L., & Lindsley, S .L. (Eds.). (2005). Redefining culture:
Perspectives across the disciplines. Hillsdale, NJ: Lawrence Erlbaum Associates.
Brislin, R. (2000). Understanding culture's influence on behavior (2nd. ed.). Orlando, FL: Harcourt Brace
Jovanovich.
Herskovits, M. J. (1948). Man and his works: The science of cultural anthropology. New York: Knopf.
Triandis, H. C., Vassiliou, V., Vassiliou, G., Tanaka, Y., & Shanmugam, A. V. (1972). The analysis of
subjective culture. New York: Wiley.
7
Name Date ________

--------------------------
Activity 1.3
THE ROLE OF RELIGION IN UNDERSTANDING CULTURE
Nalini Tarakeshwar and colleagues (2003) point out that religion, while critical to
understanding culture, is very much overlooked in the research on culture and
psychology. In fact, their computer search found that the percentage of articles dealing
in some way with religion ranged from only 2% to just under 6% in cross-cultural
journals. This activity will explore the role of religion in understanding culture.
Directions: Provide an example of the influence of religion on each of the following

aspects of culture. In order to do so, you may need to gather additional information
about specific religions through discussions with others or library research.
1. Values
2. Child rearing practices
3. Health-related behaviors
4. Prejudice and stereotyping
9
Chapter 1
5. Gender roles
6. Concept of the self
7. Beliefs about interpersonal relationships
8. Beliefs about education and learning.
9. What do you conclude about the role of religion in cross-cultural research?
Reference:
Tarakeshwar, N., Stanton, J., & Pargament, K. I. (2003). Religion: An overlooked dimension in cross-
cultural psychology. Journal of Cross-Cultural Psychology, 34, 377-394.
10
Name Date ---------

---------------------------
Activity 1.4
A SEARCH FOR INDIVIDUALISM AND COLLECTIVISM
The concepts of individualism and collectivism have received great attention in recent
research on culture and psychology. These terms stem from Geert Hofstede's (1980)
classic cross-cultural study of workplace values. According to Hofstede (2005, p. 225),
Individualism stands for a society in which the ties between individuals are loose:
Everyone is expected to look after him/herself and her/his immediate family only.
Collectivism stands for a society in which people from birth onwards are
integrated into strong cohesive in-groups, which throughout people's lifetime
continue to protect them in exchange for unquestioning loyalty.
This activity encourages you to explore these concepts by seeking out real-life
examples of individualism and collectivism.
Directions: Reread the definitions of individualism and collectivism above. Then

identify one real-life example of individualism and one of collectivism (such as a
behavior, an object, a song, or an advertising slogan). The ease with which you can
find these examples will depend on whether you live in an individualistic or collectivistic
culture. However, you should be able to find some forms of collectivism within an
individualistic culture and some forms of individualism within a collectivist culture.
Examples of individualism might include an advertisement for an electric blanket that
has separate settings for the right and left sides of the blanket or a brochure for a
preschool curriculum in which activities depend on the individual child's skills and
interests. Examples of collectivism might include a beverage can designed to hold
enough drink for two people to share or a T-shirt imprinted with the insignia of one's
university. If possible, bring your examples in to class with this completed assignment.
1. Describe your example of individualism and explain why it illustrates individualism.
11
Chapter 1
2. Describe your example of collectivism and explain why it illustrates collectivism.
References:
Hofstede, G. (1980). Culture's consequences: International differences in work-related values. Beverly
Hills, CA: Sage.
Hofstede, G (2001). Culture's consequences: Comparing values, behaviors, and organizations across
nations (2nd. ed.). Beverly Hills, CA: Sage.
12
Name Date - - - - - - - -
--------------------------
Activity 1.5
SHOPPING FOR CULTURAL VALUES
Sometimes it is easier to identify the cultural values of groups that are more foreign to
us than to identify cultural values that permeate our day to day environment. This
activity is designed to give you some perspective on the values of the dominant culture
in your society through a trip to your neighborhood supermarket or grocery store.
Directions: Select a supermarket or grocery store that is part of the dominant culture.
Plan to spend 30 minutes to an hour making your observations. Take careful notes
about the shoppers, the products available for purchase, and the layout of the store so
that you can answer the questions below.
Name of store -------------
Type of store ______________
Time of day
1. What type of food or products were most plentiful in the store? What type of food
or products were scarce?
2. What claims were used to promote food items? Did these claims emphasize
taste, nutritional value, cost, ease of preparation?
13
Chapter 1
3. What were the most expensive items in the store? When a wide range of prices
exists for the same type of product, what distinguished the lower from the higher
cost versions?
4. What type of behavior did you observe on the part of the shoppers? Under what
circumstances did shoppers interact with each other?
5. How were meats and poultry packaged? Were they labeled and displayed in a
way that distances these products from their original animal form? Please
explain.
14
6. What did you observe about the sizes in which different types of products were
available? What did these sizes imply about the social settings in which the
products will be used?
7. How were foods from various ethnic groups distributed throughout the store?
Were some ethnic foods presented as normative whereas others were presented
as unusual or exotic?
8. What other observations did you make that informed you about cultural values?
9. Based on your answers to the questions above, what cultural values were
evident in the supermarket setting?
15
Chapter 1
10. Shalom Schwartz and colleagues have conducted extensive cross-cultural

research on values (Schwartz & Sag iv, 1995; Schwartz & Boehnke, 2004).
These studies support the existence of 10 value types across cultures. Although
cultures may differ in terms of the degree to which specific values are endorsed,
there appears to be a consistent structure to these values. Descriptions of the 10
value types are listed below.
• Power: Social status and prestige, control and dominance over people or
resources.
• Achievement: Personal success through demonstrating competence
according to social standards.
• Hedonism: Pleasure and sensuous gratification for oneself.
• Stimulation: Excitement, novelty, and challenge in life.
• Self-Direction: Independent thought, and action choosing, creating,
exploring.
• Universalism: Understanding, appreciation, tolerance, and protection for
the welfare of all people and for nature.
• Benevolence: Preservation and enhancement of the welfare of people
with whom one is in frequent personal contact.
• Tradition: Respect, commitment, and acceptance of the customs and
ideas that traditional culture or religion provide the self.
• Conformity: Restraint of actions, inclinations, and impulses likely to upset
or harm others and violate social expectations or norms.
• Security: Safety, harmony, and stability of society, of relationships, and of
self.
Which of these value types were most evident in the products and behaviors you
observed in the grocery store? Please provide examples of the values that were
expressed.
Source:
Descriptions of value types adapted from Schwartz, S., & Sagiv, L. Identifying culture-specifics in the
content and structure of values. Journal of Cross-Cultural Psychology, 26, 92-116. Copyright (c) 1995 by
Sage Publications, Inc .. Adapted with permission.
Reference:
Schwartz, S. H. & Boehnke, K. (2004). Evaluating the structure of human values with confirmatory factor
analysis. Journal of Research in Personality, 38, 230-255.
16
Name __________________________ Date --------
Activity 1.6
CLEANLINESS BELIEFS
One of the complaints sojourners often have when they visit another culture is that
cleanliness practices are not adequate. This activity will help you to explore your own
cleanliness beliefs and put them in cross-cultural perspective.
Directions: For each of the items below, circle the number to indicate your cleanliness
beliefs. Where space is provided, respond to the follow-up question.
1. People in my culture value cleanliness.
STRONGLY STRONGLY
DISAGREE AGREE
1 2 3 4 5 6 7 8 9
Please explain:
2. One should wash one's body before entering a bathtub full of clean water.
STRONGLY STRONGLY
DISAGREE AGREE
1 2 3 4 5 6 7 8 9
3. Blankets and rugs should be hung out daily to air.
STRONGLY STRONGLY
DISAGREE AGREE
1 2 3 4 5 6 7 8 9
17
Chapter 1
4. Shoes should be removed before entering a home.
STRONGLY STRONGLY
DISAGREE AGREE
1 2 3 4 5 6 7 8 9
5. The left hand should not be used for eating or taking food from communal
dishes.
STRONGLY STRONGLY
DISAGREE AGREE
1 2 3 4 5 6 7 8 9
6. One should use a different washcloth and bar of soap to wash oneself above the
waist and below the waist.
STRONGLY STRONGLY
DISAGREE AGREE
1 2 3 4 5 6 7 8 9
7. One should shower or bathe daily.
STRONGLY STRONGLY
DISAGREE AGREE
1 2 3 4 5 6 7 8 9
8. Cleaning products should be used in the home to kill germs.
STRONGLY STRONGLY
DISAGREE AGREE
1 2 3 4 5 6 7 8 9
18
9. Hands should be washed upon returning home.
STRONGLY STRONGLY
DISAGREE AGREE
1 2 3 4 5 6 7 8 9
10. One should not eat with one's hands.
STRONGLY STRONGLY
DISAGREE AGREE
1 2 3 4 5 6 7 8 9
11. One should blow one's nose into the gutter rather than carry the mucus in a
cloth or tissue.
STRONGLY STRONGLY
DISAGREE AGREE
1 2 3 4 5 6 7 8 9
12. The toilet should not be located under the same roof as the place where people eat
and prepare food or sleep.
STRONGLY STRONGLY
DISAGREE AGREE
1 2 3 4 5 6 7 8 9
Reactions:
1. Look over your answers to the questions above. With which cleanliness
practices did you AGREE most strongly? What cultural messages were you taught
that support these practices?
19
Chapter 1
2. With which practices did you DISAGREE most strongly? What cultural messages
were you taught that conflict with these practices?
3. What other cleanliness practices not listed above are important to you?
4. How might someone from another culture view your beliefs if they endorsed the
practices with which you disagreed?
5. Look back at your response to item 1. Is there anything you would like to add or
change in your answer?
Sources:
Based on Fernea, E., & Fernea, R. A. (1994). Cleanliness and culture. In W. J. Lonner & R. S. Malpass
(Eds.), Psychology and culture (pp. 65-70). Boston: Allyn & Bacon, and Waxler-Morrison, N., Anderson, J.,
& Richardson, E. (1990). Cross-cultural caring: A handbook for health professionals in Western Canada.
Vancouver, BC: University of British Columbia Press.
20
Name _ _ _ _ _ _ _ _ _ _ _ _ ___ Date - - - - -
Activity 1.7
CULTURAL METAPHORS
Despite the large amount of information cross-cultural researchers have gathered, it is
often difficult to convey to others exactly what a specific culture is like. Kashima (1994)
explains that metaphors allow us to more easily grasp a new concept by framing it in
terms of something familiar. Martin J. Gannon (2002) proposes the use of cultural
metaphors as a way to easily express a cultural mindset and compare it to that of other
cultures. These metaphors involve identifying an activity or phenomenon that most
members of a culture would view as important, and then using it as a metaphor for
describing key features of the cultural group. While cultural metaphors are
generalizations and will not apply to all members of a group, these metaphors can
provide a framework for beginning to understand and compare cultural groups. For
example, Gannon (1994) uses the Turkish coffeehouse as a metaphor for
understanding everyday life in Turkey. The coffeehouse metaphor has four main
emphases:
• The formal and informal ties between Turkish coffeehouses and mosques, with
which they typically share a portion of the town square, are similar to the nature
of the coexistence of Islam and secular practices within Turkey.
• The Turkish coffeehouse functions as a place where group membership is valued

and reinforced for the purposes of recreation, communication, and community
integration, illustrating the Turkish group-oriented lifestyle.
• The Turkish coffeehouse is primarily a male domain symbolic of Turkey's male-

dominated culture.
• The Turkish coffeehouse is characterized by simplicity, which reflects the Turkish

emphasis on substance rather than form.
The purpose of this activity is to familiarize you with the concept of cultural metaphor
and provide you with an experience constructing such metaphors.
Directions: Construct your own cultural metaphor for a culture with which you are
familiar. Gannon (2002) cautions that much thought is required to avoid inaccurate
stereotyping. You may select a culture based on nationality or may conceptualize
culture more broadly to include other groups based on such dimensions as social class,
age, gender, or ethnicity. You may even construct a metaphor to convey the essence of
a student group such as a dormitory or sorority. Choose four or five dimensions of the
culture to describe through your metaphor. Some suggestions for dimensions you
might address are listed on the following page.
21
Chapter 1
• basic values • gender roles

• social structure • work-related values
• view of cultural outsiders • communication style
• methods of socialization • key events, holidays or activities
• stressors and coping • rules for social interaction
mechanisms
In the space provided below, describe the culture you have selected and explain in
some detail your cultural metaphor.
Source:
Based on Gannon, M. J. Understanding global cultures: Metaphorical journeys through 17 countries.
Thousand Oaks, CA: Copyright (c) 1994 by Sage Publications, Inc. Adapted with permission.
References:
Gannon, M. J. (2002). Cultural metaphors: Readings, Research Translations, and Commentary. Beverly
Hills, CA: Sage.
Kashima, Y. (1994) Cultural metaphors of the mind and the organization. In A.-M. Bouvy, F. J. R. van de
Vijver, P. Boski, & P. Schmitz (Eds.), Journeys into cross-cultural psychology: Selected papers from
the eleventh international conference of the International Association for Cross-Cultural Psychology
(pp. 351-363). Amesterdam: Swets & Zeitlinger.
22
Name Date ---------

---------------------------
Activity 1.8
CULTURAL RELATIVISM AND ETHNOCENTRISM
Most researchers of culture have adopted a philosophy of cultural relativism to some
extent. Cultural relativism refers to the idea that behavior in a particular culture should
not be judged by the standards of another culture. The extreme opposite of cultural
relativism is ethnocentrism. An ethnocentric perspective uses the standards of one's
own culture to judge the practices of a different culture. This activity encourages you to
explore the complexities of the concepts of cultural relativism and ethnocentrism.
Directions: For each of the behaviors listed below, determine whether you would be
likely to take the perspective of cultural relativism or ethnocentrism.
1. Although bullfighting is illegal in the United States, a bullfighting academy has

been operating in Southern California since 1996. Students at this school do not
train with real animals, yet the San Diego County Humane Society opposes the
school, which it views as promoting animal cruelty. One of the founders of the
academy, however, takes the position that bullfighting is an important cultural
practice and should not be prohibited.
Would you support cultural relativism or ethnocentrism in this case? Please

explain.
2. In 2005, King Abdulaziz University of Saudi Arabia paid Virginia Tech University
in the U. S. $246,000 to design and operate summer courses for 60 of their
faculty. Following Saudi custom and the preferences of the King Abdulaziz
University professors, the 30 female professors and 30 male professors were
taught in separate classes. Several Virginia Tech faculty members objected,
stating that this action violates federal anti-discrimination laws.

explain.
23
Chapter 1
3. In some cultures eating dog meat is an acceptable practice. In fact, in response

to a 1988 incident in which two Southeast Asian immigrants to the United States
killed a German Shepard puppy for food, a state bill was passed prohibiting such
behavior.

explain.
4. A Quebec court has ruled that a 12-year old Sikh boy should be allowed to wear
his ceremonial sword - known as a kirpan - while he is at school. For devout Sikh
men, wearing the kirpan is an essential part of the religious faith. The decision
overturned one made by his school which banned him from carrying the small
blunt metal dagger because they regarded it as a weapon.

explain.
24
5. In many regions of India, sons are preferred to daughters for reasons related to
kinship, inheritance, marriage, identity, status, economic security and lineage.
Although laws have been passed to prohibit sex-selective abortion, this practice
continues and may be increasing due to new reproductive technology.
Campaigns by international health and human rights advocates have opposed
sex selection, yet some people argue that within this cultural context, sex
selection may be necessary to ensure the economic and social well being of the
child and family.

explain.
6. Upon learning that her husband had a mistress, a Japanese woman living in the
United States attempted parent-child suicide by walking into the ocean with her
two children. Her two children drowned in the attempt, but she survived and was
charged with first-degree murder. Although it is illegal in Japan, this ancient
Japanese custom, called oyako-shinju is sometimes viewed as a means by which
a family can avoid an otherwise unacceptable social predicament and is treated
rather leniently. Oyako-shinju is based on the cultural belief that it is crueler to
leave the children behind with no one to look after them than it is for the mother
to take them with her to the afterlife.

explain.
25
Chapter 1
Reactions: Based on your answers to the questions above, write a brief statement
explaining the conditions under which you would take a culturally relativist or
ethnocentric perspective when considering the practices of other cultures.
26
Name Date - - - - - - - -
-------------------------
Activity 1.9
EXPLORING THE WORLD VILLAGE
This activity, based on the format of The World Village Project, is designed to help you
view the population of the world from a more global perspective.
Directions: Imagine a village of 1,000 people that represents the planet Earth. Answer
the questions below, assuming that all of the human ratios in the village were the same
as those of the world.
Of the 1,000 inhabitants, indicate how many would fall into each of the following
categories. Please see page 363 for the correct answers.
1. Men and Women

_ _ are men
_ _ are women
2. Primary Language (of top ten spoken in the world)

_ _ speak Arabic _ _ speak Malay-Indonesian
_ _ speak Bengali speak Mandarin
_ _ speak English speak Portuguese
_ _ speak French speak Russian
_ _ speak Hindustani speak Spanish
3. Religion
_ _ are atheists - - are Jews
- - are Buddhists - - are Moslems
- - are Christians _ _ are non-religious
- - are Hindus _ _ are other religions
4. Places of Origin
- - are Africans - - are Latin Americans
- - are Asians - - are North Americans
_ _ are Europeans _ _ are Oceanians (Australia,
New Zealand, Papua New
Guinea)
27
Chapter 1
5. Age
_ _ are under age 16
_ _ are over age 65
6. Daily Life
_ _ have access to clean drinking water
_ _ live in urban areas
_ _ live in substandard housing
_ _ have access to modern methods of contraception
_ _ are affected by mental health problems
_ _ have HIV/AIDS
7. Wealth
_ _ live below the internationally defined poverty line
(less than U.S. $2 per day)
8. Education
_ _ are illiterate adults
- - are children without access to school
- - have Internet access
28
Name Date - - - - - - -
--------------------------
Activity 1.10
A GLOBAL VIEW OF PSYCHOLOGY
Most of what is published in psychology journals and textbooks takes a Western

perspective (or Western indigenous perspective) and ignores the psychologies that
have been developed by scholars across the globe to address concerns relevant to their
own cultures. The purpose of this activity is twofold. First, it will acquaint you with
some of the research interests of psychologists outside of Western Europe, the United
States, Canada, and Australia. Second, it will encourage you to think about some of the
influences on what is considered Western psychology. *
Directions: For this activity you are asked to search a psychology database (such as
PsycLiT or PsyciNFO) to locate a journal article that focuses on research developed in
a "non-Western" context. Such articles are often categorized under the heading of
indigenous psychology.
1. Provide the complete citation for your article (see references at the end of
activities in this book for examples of citation format and content).
2. In a paragraph or two, summarize this study. Include a description of the

purpose of the study, participants, procedures, and results.
29
Chapter 1
3. What social, cultural, political, historical, environmental, economic, or religious

factors may have shaped the research focus of this study?
4. Read about the field of psychology in a country other than your own (one good
source is the Psychology International newsletter of the American Psychological
Association's International Affairs office. Archived copies may be found at
www.apa.org/international). Describe below what you learned about the focus of
psychology in the country you investigated.
5. What do you conclude about the social, cultural, political, historical,

environmental, economic, or religious factors that may have shaped the research
focus of Western psychology? Please explain.
* The term Western psychology can itself be viewed as ethnocentric in that it ignores the diverse cultures
of the West and focuses only on those of European tradition.
30
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Cross-Cultural Explorations

Activities in Culture and Psychology

Published 2016 by Routledge

Routledge is an imprint of the Taylor & Francis Group, an informa business

Copyright © 2008 Pearson Education, Inc.

All rights reserved. No part of this book may be reprinted or reproduced or

ISBN: 9780205484850 (pbk)

Chapter 1. The Concept of Culture

Chapter 2. Culture and Psychological Research

Chapter 3. Culture and Basic Processes

Chapter 5. Personality, Emotion, and the Self in Cultural Context

Chapter 6. Health, Stress, and Coping across Cultures

Chapter 8. Intergroup Relations

Chapter 9. Intercultural Interaction

Answers .............................................................................................. 361

Psychology as an academic discipline has only recently begun to recognize the

Cross-cultural psychology focuses on comparing specific behaviors across cultures.

Cultural psychology focuses on detailing the interrelationships among forms of behavior

Psychological anthropology involves anthropological studies that make explicit and

The Content and Structure of This Book

In this book, I have chosen to use a broad conceptualization of culture, inclusive of

The book is organized in terms of nine chapters of 10 activities each, representing

• Chapter 2, Culture and Psychological Research, explores major issues and

• Chapter 3, Culture and Basic Processes, brings a cross-cultural perspective to

• Chapter 4, Culture and Developmental Processes, focuses on socialization in

• Chapter 5, Personality, Emotion, and the Self in Cultural Context, addresses

• Chapter 7, Culture and Social Behavior, explores major research findings in

• Chapter 8, Intergroup Relations, explores the phenomena of prejudice,

• Chapter 9, Intercultural Interaction, deals with research on intercultural

New to the Second Edition

Susan B. Goldstein is Professor of Psychology at the University of Redlands in

1.1 Is Psychology Culture Bound?

Name ___________________________ Date _________

Psychology as a discipline strives to identify and describe universal principles of

4. Secure attachment -- Ainsworth and colleagues (1978) delineated three types of

5. Delusions and hallucinations -- Delusions and hallucinations are signs of mental

6. Fundamental attribution error (also called correspondence bias) -- The tendency

Name Date ---------

Group Name and Description:

5. Do group members react emotionally when the perspectives or practices of this

Name Date ________

Directions: Provide an example of the influence of religion on each of the following

2. Child rearing practices

4. Prejudice and stereotyping

6. Concept of the self

7. Beliefs about interpersonal relationships

8. Beliefs about education and learning.

9. What do you conclude about the role of religion in cross-cultural research?

Name Date ---------

Directions: Reread the definitions of individualism and collectivism above. Then

1. Describe your example of individualism and explain why it illustrates individualism.

2. Describe your example of collectivism and explain why it illustrates collectivism.

Name of store -------------

Type of store ______________

10. Shalom Schwartz and colleagues have conducted extensive cross-cultural

Name __________________________ Date --------

1. People in my culture value cleanliness.

3. Blankets and rugs should be hung out daily to air.

4. Shoes should be removed before entering a home.

Name ___________________ Date _