UNIT 2

1.Write a short note on reflection with a suitable

diagram.
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Reflection:

1. Definition: Reflection is the phenomenon of bouncing back of light,

sound, or any wave from a surface when it encounters it.
2. Surface Interaction: Reflection occurs when waves encounter a
surface that does not absorb the energy of the wave but instead
reflects it.
3. Angle of Incidence: The angle at which the wave strikes the surface
is called the angle of incidence.
4. Angle of Reflection: The angle between the reflected wave and the
normal (a line perpendicular to the surface) is called the angle of
reflection.
5. Law of Reflection: According to the law of reflection, the angle of
incidence is equal to the angle of reflection. Mathematically, θi = θr.
6. Types of Reflection:
 Regular Reflection: When parallel light rays strike a smooth
surface, they reflect uniformly in a single direction, leading to a
clear image formation.
 Diffuse Reflection: When light rays strike an uneven or rough
surface, they reflect in various directions, resulting in a
scattered image.
7. Applications:
 Mirrors: Reflection is used in mirrors for reflection of light,
enabling us to see ourselves or objects.
 Acoustics: Sound reflection is utilized in designing concert
halls and auditoriums for better sound distribution.
 Optical Devices: Reflection plays a crucial role in optical
devices such as telescopes, microscopes, and cameras.

Diagram:
Diagram depicting reflection

[Diagram Description: The diagram shows a ray of light striking a smooth

surface. The angle of incidence (θi) is equal to the angle of reflection (θr).
The normal (perpendicular line to the surface) is shown, indicating the
direction of reflection. This illustrates the law of reflection.]

You
2.Describe homogeneous coordinate system for
translation and scaling.
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The homogeneous coordinate system is a mathematical framework
commonly used in computer graphics and computer vision to represent
geometric transformations such as translation and scaling. It extends the
Cartesian coordinate system by introducing an additional coordinate,
typically denoted as 'w', to represent points in space. This system is
particularly useful for representing affine transformations, including
translation and scaling, as well as perspective transformations.

Homogeneous Coordinate System for Translation:

1. Representation: In homogeneous coordinates, a point in 2D space is

represented as (x, y, w), and in 3D space as (x, y, z, w), where 'w' is a
scaling factor.
 2. Translation Matrix: To perform translation using homogeneous
coordinates, a translation matrix is used. For 2D translation, the
translation matrix looks like:
3. | 1 0 tx |
4. | 0 1 ty |
5. | 0 0 1 |
Where 'tx' and 'ty' represent the translation in the x and y directions,
respectively.
3. Homogeneous Coordinates Transformation: To apply translation to
a point (x, y, w), it's multiplied by the translation matrix:
| x' | | 1 0 tx | | x |
| y' | = | 0 1 ty | * | y |
|w' | | 0 0 1 | w || | w |

The resulting point (x', y', w') represents the translated point.

Homogeneous Coordinate System for Scaling:

1. Scaling Matrix: Scaling in homogeneous coordinates is represented

using a scaling matrix. For 2D scaling, the matrix looks like:
| sx 0 0 |
| 0 sy 0 |
| 0 0 1 |
Where 'sx' and 'sy' represent scaling factors in the x and y directions,
respectively.
2. Homogeneous Coordinates Transformation: To apply scaling to a
point (x, y, w), it's multiplied by the scaling matrix:
| x' | | sx 0 0 | | x |
| y' | = | 0 sy 0 | * | y |
3. | w' | | 0 0 1 | | w |

The resulting point (x', y', w') represents the scaled point.

Benefits of Homogeneous Coordinates:

 Uniformity: Homogeneous coordinates provide a unified

representation for different geometric transformations.
  Efficiency: Homogeneous coordinates facilitate concatenation of
transformations through matrix multiplication, making computations
more efficient.
 Convenience: Homogeneous coordinates simplify representation
and manipulation of points undergoing complex transformations.

In summary, the homogeneous coordinate system enables convenient

representation and computation of translation and scaling transformations
in both 2D and 3D space, offering efficiency and flexibility in geometric
manipulation.

You
3.Distinguish between cavalier and cabinet
projection.
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Cavalier and cabinet projections are both types of parallel projection
techniques used in technical drawing and engineering graphics. However,
they differ in terms of the degree of foreshortening and how objects are
represented on the projection plane.

Cavalier Projection:

1. Degree of Foreshortening: In cavalier projection, all three

dimensions (length, width, and height) of an object are represented
with equal foreshortening.
2. Scale: The scale used in cavalier projection is typically 1:1 for all
dimensions, resulting in no distortion in the direction perpendicular
to the projection plane.
3. Appearance: Objects appear elongated in the direction of the
projection plane, making it easier to visualize the object's three-
dimensional form.
4. Angles: Lines that are parallel to each other in the object are parallel
in the projection as well.
5. Application: Cavalier projection is commonly used in technical
drawing, architectural drawings, and engineering designs where
accurate representation of object proportions is not critical.
Cabinet Projection:

1. Degree of Foreshortening: In cabinet projection, one dimension

(usually the depth or height) of an object is foreshortened while the
other two dimensions remain unscaled or foreshortened to a lesser
extent.
2. Scale: The scale used in cabinet projection is often reduced for the
foreshortened dimension, typically to 0.5 or less, to create a more
aesthetically pleasing representation.
3. Appearance: Objects appear slightly flattened in the direction of the
foreshortened dimension, giving a more realistic depiction of depth
while still maintaining some level of distortion.
4. Angles: Lines that are parallel to each other in the object may not
remain parallel in the projection, particularly if they are perpendicular
to the direction of foreshortening.
5. Application: Cabinet projection is commonly used in technical
drawing, furniture design, and woodworking where a more visually
appealing representation of objects with depth is desired, but without
sacrificing too much accuracy.

In summary, cavalier projection maintains equal foreshortening along all

three dimensions, resulting in elongated objects, while cabinet projection
introduces foreshortening primarily in one dimension to create a more
visually appealing representation of depth. Both techniques have their
advantages and are used depending on the specific requirements of the
application.

You
4.What is transformation? Explain translation
transformation with the help of example.
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In computer graphics, a transformation refers to the process of altering the
position, orientation, or size of objects in a graphical scene.
Transformations are fundamental for manipulating objects in 2D and 3D
space to achieve desired visual effects or animations.

Translation Transformation:

Translation is a type of transformation that involves moving an object from

one position to another in space without changing its size, shape, or
orientation. It shifts every point of the object by the same distance in a
specified direction.

Mathematically, in 2D space:

 If we have a point (x, y) and we want to translate it by distances dx

horizontally and dy vertically, the translated point becomes (x + dx, y
+ dy).

In 3D space:

 Similarly, for points (x, y, z), if we want to translate them by distances

dx, dy, and dz in the x, y, and z directions respectively, the translated
point becomes (x + dx, y + dy, z + dz).

Example of Translation Transformation:

Let's consider a simple example of translating a square in a 2D space.

Original Square:
  Vertices: A(1, 1), B(1, 3), C(3, 3), D(3, 1)

Now, let's perform a translation of this square by dx = 2 units horizontally

and dy = 3 units vertically.

Translation Process:

 Each vertex of the square is translated by adding dx to its x-

coordinate and dy to its y-coordinate.
 So, the new coordinates become:
 A'(1 + 2, 1 + 3) = A'(3, 4)
 B'(1 + 2, 3 + 3) = B'(3, 6)
 C'(3 + 2, 3 + 3) = C'(5, 6)
 D'(3 + 2, 1 + 3) = D'(5, 4)

Translated Square:

 Vertices: A'(3, 4), B'(3, 6), C'(5, 6), D'(5, 4)

This translation has shifted the entire square 2 units to the right and 3 units
upwards, maintaining the shape and size of the square.

Visual Representation:

 If you were to plot the original square and the translated square on a
2D coordinate plane, you would observe that all points of the square
have been shifted by the same amount in the specified directions,
resulting in a parallel displacement of the square.

Translation transformations are fundamental in computer graphics for

moving objects around the screen, creating animations, and positioning
elements within a scene. They play a crucial role in achieving dynamic visual
effects and user interactions in graphical applications.
You
5.Explain the matrix representation of 3D translation
scaling.
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The matrix representation of 3D translation and scaling involves using
transformation matrices to perform these operations on points or objects in
three-dimensional space. Both translation and scaling can be represented
using homogeneous coordinates, which include an additional coordinate
'w' to facilitate matrix multiplication.

Matrix Representation of 3D Translation:

Translation in 3D space involves moving an object from one position to

another along the x, y, and z axes. The translation matrix is a 4x4 matrix,
with the translation distances specified in the last column.

The translation matrix for a 3D translation along the x, y, and z axes by dx,
dy, and dz units respectively looks like this:

| 1 0 0 dx |
| 0 1 0 dy |
 | 0 0 1 dz |
| 0 0 0 1 |

To apply this translation matrix to a point (x, y, z, 1) in homogeneous

coordinates, you multiply the translation matrix by the point:

| x' | | 1 0 0 dx | | x |
| y' | = | 0 1 0 dy | * | y |
| z' | | 0 0 1 dz | | z |
| 1 | | 0 0 0 1 | | 1 |

The resulting point (x', y', z', 1) represents the translated point in 3D space.

Matrix Representation of 3D Scaling:

Scaling in 3D space involves enlarging or reducing the size of an object

along the x, y, and z axes. The scaling matrix is also a 4x4 matrix, with the
scaling factors specified along the diagonal.

The scaling matrix for a 3D scaling by factors sx, sy, and sz along the x, y,
and z axes respectively looks like this:

| sx 0 0 0 |
| 0 sy 0 0 |
| 0 0 sz 0 |
| 0 0 0 1 |

To apply this scaling matrix to a point (x, y, z, 1) in homogeneous

coordinates, you multiply the scaling matrix by the point:

| x' | | sx 0 0 0 | | x |
| y' | = | 0 sy 0 0 | * | y |
| z' | | 0 0 sz 0 | | z |
| 1 | | 0 0 0 1 | | 1 |

The resulting point (x', y', z', 1) represents the scaled point in 3D space.

Combined Transformation:
If you want to perform both translation and scaling on a point or object,
you can multiply the translation matrix and the scaling matrix together to
obtain a single combined transformation matrix. Then, you apply this
combined matrix to the point in the same manner as described above.

Using transformation matrices provides a concise and efficient way to

perform translation and scaling operations in 3D space, which is essential
for various applications in computer graphics, computer-aided design
(CAD), and animation.

You
6.Write a note on 2 point perspective
transformation.
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2-Point Perspective Transformation:

2-point perspective is a drawing technique used in art and architecture to

create the illusion of depth and distance in a two-dimensional image. It is a
form of linear perspective where two vanishing points are used to represent
objects receding into the distance along two principal axes. This technique
is widely used in architectural drawings, urban sketches, and illustrations to
achieve realistic spatial representation.

Key Concepts:

1. Vanishing Points: In 2-point perspective, two vanishing points are

used. These points are located on the horizon line, which represents
the viewer's eye level. The position of these vanishing points
determines the direction in which objects appear to recede into the
distance.
2. Principal Axes: In 2-point perspective, there are two principal axes:
the horizontal axis (usually the x-axis) and the vertical axis (usually the
y-axis). These axes intersect at the viewer's eye level, forming the
horizon line.
3. Lines of Convergence: Parallel lines that are perpendicular to the
viewer's line of sight appear to converge towards one of the
 vanishing points. Horizontal lines recede towards one vanishing
point, while vertical lines remain parallel to the picture plane.
4. Depth and Foreshortening: Objects closer to the viewer appear
larger, while objects farther away appear smaller due to
foreshortening. This creates the illusion of depth and distance in the
drawing.

Applications:

1. Architectural Drawings: 2-point perspective is commonly used in

architectural drawings to accurately represent buildings, interiors, and
urban landscapes. It allows architects and designers to visualize
spaces in a realistic manner.
2. Urban Sketching: Artists often use 2-point perspective to capture
cityscapes and street scenes. It helps them convey depth and
dimensionality in their sketches, adding realism to their drawings.
3. Illustrations: Illustrators and comic artists use 2-point perspective to
create dynamic and engaging compositions. It allows them to draw
characters and objects in a way that accurately reflects their spatial
relationships.

Tips for Drawing in 2-Point Perspective:

1. Start by establishing the horizon line and placing the vanishing

points.
2. Draw the front-facing surfaces of objects parallel to the picture plane.
3. Use converging lines to represent receding edges and surfaces.
4. Pay attention to scale and proportion to create a convincing sense of
depth.
5. Experiment with different compositions and viewpoints to achieve the
desired effect.

In summary, 2-point perspective transformation is a powerful drawing

technique that adds depth and realism to two-dimensional images. By
understanding the principles of linear perspective and practicing drawing in
2-point perspective, artists and designers can create compelling and
realistic drawings that accurately depict three-dimensional space.

You
7.Explain projection with the help of orthographic
projection.
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Projection, in the context of computer graphics and engineering drawings,
refers to the process of representing a three-dimensional object or scene
onto a two-dimensional surface. Orthographic projection is a type of
projection commonly used in technical drawings, architectural plans, and
engineering designs to accurately represent the shape and size of objects
without introducing perspective distortion.

Key Concepts of Orthographic Projection:

1. Parallel Projection: Orthographic projection is a form of parallel

projection, where lines of sight from the viewer to the object are
parallel and perpendicular to the projection plane. This means that
the distance between the object and the projection plane does not
affect the size or shape of the projected image.
2. Projection Planes: In orthographic projection, multiple projection
planes are used to represent different views of the object. The most
common views are front view, top view, and side view, although
additional views may be used depending on the complexity of the
object.
3. Projection Lines: Projection lines are drawn from each point on the
object to the corresponding point on the projection plane. These
lines are perpendicular to the projection plane and intersect it at right
angles.
4. True Shape and Size: Orthographic projection accurately represents
the true shape and size of objects, making it useful for technical
drawings and engineering designs where precision is essential.

Types of Orthographic Projection:

1. First Angle Projection: In first angle projection, the object is placed

between the viewer and the projection planes. The front view is
projected onto the plane closest to the viewer, while the top and side
views are projected onto planes behind the object.
 2. Third Angle Projection: In third angle projection, the object is
placed behind the projection planes. The front view is projected onto
the plane farthest from the viewer, while the top and side views are
projected onto planes between the viewer and the object.

Steps to Create Orthographic Projections:

1. Identify the object to be projected and choose the appropriate views

(front, top, side, etc.).
2. Position the object relative to the projection planes according to the
chosen projection method (first angle or third angle).
3. Draw projection lines from each point on the object to the
corresponding point on the projection plane, ensuring that the lines
are perpendicular to the projection plane.
4. Trace the projected views onto the projection planes, accurately
representing the shape and size of the object in each view.

Applications of Orthographic Projection:

 Orthographic projection is commonly used in engineering drawings,

architectural plans, and technical illustrations to communicate design
intent, dimensions, and spatial relationships.
 It is also used in computer-aided design (CAD) software to create
precise and detailed representations of mechanical parts, buildings,
and other objects.

In summary, orthographic projection is a powerful tool for accurately

representing three-dimensional objects on two-dimensional surfaces,
providing valuable information for design, analysis, and communication in
various fields of engineering, architecture, and manufacturing.
You
8.Shear a unit cube situated at origin with a shear
transformation matrix.
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To shear a unit cube situated at the origin using a shear transformation
matrix, let's consider a shear transformation along the x-axis. This will
displace points in the y-z plane while leaving points on the x-axis
unchanged. The shear transformation matrix for shearing along the x-axis
is:

Copy code
|1s00||0100||0010||0001|
where 's' represents the shear factor.

For a unit cube, the vertices are situated at the following coordinates:

1. A(0, 0, 0)
2. B(1, 0, 0)
3. C(1, 1, 0)
4. D(0, 1, 0)
5. E(0, 0, 1)
6. F(1, 0, 1)
7. G(1, 1, 1)
8. H(0, 1, 1)

Let's assume a shear factor 's' of 1. This means that for every unit of
movement along the x-axis, there will be a corresponding movement of 1
unit along the y-axis.

Applying the shear transformation matrix:

Copy code
|1100||x||x+y||0100|*|y|=|y||0010||z||z||0001||1||1|

Let's apply this transformation to each of the cube's vertices:

1. A'(0, 0, 0)
2. B'(2, 0, 0)
3. C'(2, 1, 0)
4. D'(0, 1, 0)
5. E'(0, 0, 1)
6. F'(2, 0, 1)
7. G'(2, 1, 1)
8. H'(0, 1, 1)

The transformed vertices represent the sheared unit cube. The cube has
been sheared along the x-axis, causing its top and bottom faces to become
parallelograms while the side faces remain unchanged. This demonstrates
how a shear transformation matrix can be used to shear a unit cube
situated at the origin.

You
9.What is meant by view volume? Explain it with different
types of projection.
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A view volume, also known as a viewing frustum or viewing volume, is a
geometric region in three-dimensional space that represents the portion of
the scene visible to the viewer from a particular viewpoint or camera
position. It defines the boundaries of what can be seen within a given
perspective or projection. Understanding the concept of the view volume is
crucial in computer graphics for rendering objects within a scene and
determining which parts of the scene will be visible in the final image.

Different types of projection, such as perspective projection and

orthographic projection, result in different shapes and sizes of the view
volume. Here's an explanation of each:

1. Perspective Projection:
 In perspective projection, the view volume is shaped like a
frustum, which is a pyramid with its apex truncated.
 The view volume converges towards a single point called the
projection center or vanishing point, representing the
viewpoint of the observer.
 Objects closer to the viewer appear larger, while objects farther
away appear smaller, creating the perception of depth and
distance.
 The shape of the frustum depends on the field of view (FOV)
and aspect ratio of the viewing window or screen.
2. Orthographic Projection:
 In orthographic projection, the view volume is shaped like a
rectangular parallelepiped or cuboid.
 Parallel lines in the scene remain parallel in the projection, and
there is no foreshortening or perspective distortion.
 The view volume is defined by six clipping planes: left, right,
top, bottom, near, and far planes.
 Objects maintain their relative size and shape regardless of
their distance from the viewer, resulting in an orthographic
view of the scene.
Types of View Volume:

1. Canonical View Volume (CVV): The canonical view volume is a

standardized volume used in computer graphics algorithms. It is
typically a unit cube centered at the origin, with coordinates (-1, -1, -
1) to (1, 1, 1).
2. Clipped View Volume: The clipped view volume is obtained by
intersecting the canonical view volume with the view frustum or
orthographic cuboid. This results in a portion of the canonical view
volume that represents the visible region of the scene.

Understanding the view volume and its shape is essential for various
graphics algorithms, including clipping, culling, and rendering. It helps
determine which objects or parts of objects should be rendered within the
viewport, optimizing performance and ensuring accurate representation of
the scene to the viewer.