BioTextbook3 Ver2c

Produced by JOCV Zambia teachers‟ committee
BIOLOGY (5090)
(for Zambian pupils G10-12)
To do or not to do, that is the problem.
NAME
SCHOOL My Friend
Contents
INTRODUCTION UNIT 07 Growth and Development p.53

07-1 Growth in plants
UNIT 00 Preface p.4 07-2 Growth in insects
07-3 Growth in vertebrates
UNIT 01 Living Organism p.6
01-1 Cell structure UNIT 08 Responses p.56
01-2 Classification of living organisms 08-1 Response in plants
01-3 Movement of molecules cross the 08-2 Endocrine system
cell membrane 08-3 Nervous system
01-4 Enzyme 08-4 Sense organs
UNIT 02 Nutrition p.16 UNIT 09 Skeleton and movement p.68

02-1 Classes of nutrients 09-1 The skeleton
02-2 Nutrition in plants 09-2 Bones
02-3 Animal nutrition 09-3 Joints
09-4 Muscles
UNIT 03 Transport p.31
03-1 Transport in plants UNIT 10 Reproduction p.73
03-2 Transport in animals 10-1 Sexual reproduction in plants
03-3 Lymphatic systems 10-2 Reproduction in human
10-3 Asexual reproduction
UNIT 04 Respiration p.38
04-1 Respiration in a cell UNIT 11 Health p.86
04-2 Gaseous exchange 11-1 Diseases
04-3 Breathing 11-2 Immune system
UNIT 05 Excretion p.46 UNIT 12 Genetics p.90

05-1 Excretion 12-1 Mitosis and meiosis
05-2 The kidneys 12-2 Inheritance
12-3 Mutation
UNIT 06 Homeostasis p.49
06-1 Homeostasis UNIT 13 Ecology p.97
06-2 The skin 13-1 Ecosystem
13-2 Human impact on ecosystem
2
Introduction
1. The purpose of this booklet is to understand Biology that follows the BIOLOGY HIGH SCHOOL
SYLLABUS GRADES 10-12 established by Zambia Curriculum Developing Centre (CDC).
2. The wish of the author is to spread this book to whole Zambia and what all pupils have this book let
to learn Biology.
3. The topics of this booklet are based on above syllabus with slight modification of arrangement.
Therefore, this booklet is essential for your knowledge.
4. I wish you to do EXTRA work, and to treasure regular classes. If you do so, you must be
happy at the end of grade 12.
5. This booklet is sold through JOCV (Japan Overseas Cooperation Volunteer) teacher‟s committee,
however, other volunteers in Zambia (VSO, Peace Corps) also be able to sell this book if they
cooperate with JOCV.
6. The price can be decided as the lowest price in only JOCV teacher‟s committee.
7. If other volunteers sell this booklet, the profit can not be requested, and a selling price can not
exceed the price that JOCV teacher‟s committee decides.
8. Only JOCV can edit this booklet.
9. The digital data of this book can be used by only JOCV.
10. The author authorizes the chairperson of JOCV teacher‟s committee and the chief of JOCV
teacher‟s committee pamphlet to sell this booklet.
Acknowledgement
I would like to say thanks to all of the scientists, authors and publishers, especially to D. G. Mackean,
„IGCSE Biology‟ and A. R. Sebastian, „Biology KEY.POINTS‟, for giving me many useful ideas.
1st Edition: June 2008

Masashi ABE (19-2)
Japan Overseas Cooperation Volunteer
Luwingu High School
3
UNIT 00 Preface
Thank you for your great decision to use t his booklet!
* Why did I decide to make this Biology booklet.
The main reason for making this booklet is the fact that almost all the pupils do NOT have any textbook, because the price
of present textbooks is too expensive to buy for the pupils, so that, the regular biology lessons tend to do the COPYING activity.
Huge amounts of copying spoil your teacher‟s marvelous lessons as well as decrease the time to revise the lesson. Fortunately,
you have already taken this booklet. You can learn biology more effectively than before!
* What is this booklet including.
The arrangement of topics chosen in this textbook parallels, for the most part, BIOLOGY HIGH SCHOOL SYLLABUS
GRADE 10-12 by Zambia Curriculum Developing Centre (CDC). However, some changes and deletions have been introduced
to improve the logical flow of materials and to reduce the PRICE of this booklet. MAKE SURE that this textbook is NOT
PERFECT in topics. NEED YOUR EXTRA EFFORT!
* What are the features of this booklet.
This booklet is designed to be used as a revise for your regular lessons . „Objectives‟ indicate the essential abilities
expected in the unit. „Activity‟ sets provide opportunities for your revision and ntercosta knowledge. It is very diff icult to
remember the unfamiliar scientif ic terms by just looking them. I‟m sure that writing the terms again and again will support
your memory. „Creativity‟ sets are expected to use in the discussion in order to enhance your ability to problem solving . Let‟s
create and describe your own idea! There is no answer.
* Messages from the author.
How science is done

All sciences begin with an observation. A hypothesis is a suggested explanation that accounts for an observation.
An experiment is used to test a hypothesis, and/or eliminate one or more multiple hypotheses. Predictions should be
developed before the experiment is conducted in order to test the validity of the hypothesis.
4
How do I study Biology

Biology is the study of life… NOT copying activity.
1. Whenever I study biology, I try to keep 5W1H questions in my mind:

WHAT are raw materials for photosynthesis?
WHEN does cross-over between homologous chromosomes occur?
WHERE is adrenaline produced?
WHO introduced binomial nomencl ature?
Why do animals need oxygen?
HOW do humans keep body temperature constant?
2. One principle of biology:

“The structure is suited for its function.”
3. When I discuss functions, adaptations, advantages, and disadvantages of certain structure or a substance, I try to consider
by following three ways:
If the structure is NOTHING, what will happen? ( I name „deletion‟)
If the structure is DIFFERENT feature, what will happen? ( I name „replacement‟)
If the substance is MUCH, what will happen? (I name „addition‟)
These three ways of thinking can be applied in our daily life. Let‟s study biology and have fun!
Copyright problem
All pupils in senior secondary course anywhere in Zambia will f ind this book let to be a valuable supplement to his/her
regular notebook and use this booklet in much the same way UNTIL you buy more prof itable textbooks. Some f igures and
tables are quoted and referred with a modif ication from following books:
A. R. Sebastian, GCE „O‟ LEVEL BiologyKEY.POINTS, 2004

D. G. Mackean, IGCSE Biology, 2002
Michael Roberts, GCSE Biology QuickCheck Study Guides, 1988
D. G. Mackean, INTRODUCTION TO BIOLOGY, 1973
School and College Press, Senior Secondary Course Biology 10 Pupil‟s Book
School and College Press, Senior Secondary Course Biology 11 Pupil ‟s Book
School and College Press, Senior Secondary Course Biology 12 Pupil ‟s Book
The copyright of these f igures and tables are those reference books . This booklet is just summary. If you want to
understand deeply and to know more detail information, I recommend you buy above excellent textbooks . I wish to reduce the
number of selling those JOCV booklets and increase the number of abovementioned textbooks. I think this is one of the f irst
steps of development of the nation.
My hope
I‟m sure that this booklet will be a “spring board” for your career of future. And I hope you will be a good citizen in the
world.
Your success depends on...
“WHAT YOU DID” and “WHAT YOU WILL DO”
Not „Who you are‟ neither „Books you have‟
Apr 2008, Masashi ABE, JOCV (Japan Overseas Cooperation Volunteer) teacher
5
UNIT 01 Living Organism
Objectives
□ 01-1 Describe a typical cell.
□ 01-1 Distinguish between an animal and a plant cell.
□ 01-2 Formulate a simple key for classification of animals and plants.
□ 01-3 Explain the term: Diffusion, Osmosis and Active transport.
□ 01-4 Describe properties of an enzyme.
 Properties of life are cellular organization, metabolism, homeostasis and reproduction.
01-1 Cell structure
01-1-01 Process in living organisms .

 Organisms are distinguished from non-living things by the processes they carry out. These processes are described below;
1. Feeding : An organism takes in materials from its environment for use in its body.
2. Respiration : From food, organisms obtain the energy they need to live.
3. Growth : This is a permanent increase in size of the organism which is accompanied by an increase in mass.
4. Excretion : Organisms remove harmful substances out of their bodies.
5. Sensitivity : This is the ability organisms have to detect and respond to changes in the environment.
6. Movement : This process is more obvious among animals as they move the whole body from one place to another.
7. Reproduction : This is the process of forming younger organisms from the older ones.
* Introduction of the cell (The Cell Theory)

 A cell is the basic unit of structure and function in an organism.
 All organisms are composed of one (unicellular organisms) or more cells (multicellular organisms).
 Cells are produced only from existing cells.
01-1-02 Observation of a cell (hand lens and compound microscope).

 There are several types of microscope. One type is a hand lens.
 It is a simple microscope made up of a convex lens f ixed in a frame with a handle.
* How to handle a microscope.

 Another type of microscope is a compound microscope.
 It consists of two sets of lens. The lenses are f itted at the
opposite ends of a body tube.
 The lenses closer to the eye are called the eyepiece and the
ones nearer the object are called the objective lenses.
 The objective lenses are f itted into a revolving nose piece in
order of low power, medium power and high power.
Activity 01-1-02: Name the part ①-⑨ of a compound microscope.
01-1-03 Magnif ication.

 Magnif ication is the number of times the images of the object is enlarged (magnif ied) as compared to the specimen.
 For example, a magnif ication of a hundred (x100), means that the object is enlarge d a hundred times.
6
 To obtain the total magnif ication of the specimen which you observe under a compound microscope, use the fomula below;
Magnif ication = Power of eyepiece lens x Power of objective lens
 After drawing a specimen, calculate the mag nif ication of your drawing by using the formula below;
* Exercise
Actual size of a hand lens is 16 cm. Your drawing was 4 cm. Calculate the magnif ication of your drawing.
* Steps for answering
1. Write the magnif ication formula.
2. Put the numbers into the formula with units.
3. Convert the units (if the units differ). It is better that the larger unit converts to the smaller unit (eg 1 cm  10 mm).
4. Calculate division.
5. Answer followed by the letter “X” (meaning the unit of magnif ication) .
Activity 01-1-03: Fill in the blank ①②.
01-1-04 Basic structure of an animal and a plant cell.

 Although cells differ in shape and size, they all have general characteristics.
 Figure below is a generalized cell showing basic structures.
Activity 01-1-04: Identify the organelle ①-⑰.
01-1-05 Similarity and difference between animal and plant cells .

Three similarities; Five differences;
Both animal and plant cells have… 1. Only plant cells have ④
1. ① 2. Only plant cells have ⑤
2. ② 3. Plant cells have large sap vacuole.
3. ③ 4. Animal cells are irregular; plant cells are regular in shape.
5. Animal cells are smaller; plant cells are larger in size.
Activity 01-1-05: Write the organelle ①-⑤.
7
01-1-06 Detail structure of a cell.

 Cell structures, nucleus and cytoplasm, together make protoplasm.
 Apart from dissolved substances in the cytoplasm, there are suspended structures called organelles.
Structure Description Function
Nucleus Usually spherical in shape  Control all cellular activities
Bound by two membranes forming nuclear envelope  Involve in ①
 House genetic materials
Contains chromatin
(② )
A thin, delicate mono-layer made of lipids and  Control the transport of materials in and
Cell membrane
proteins out of the cell
 Allow certain small substances like water,
Completely surrounds all living cells
oxygen, glucose to enter the cell
 Prevent larger molecules like proteins and
Separatesone cell from another adjacent cell
starch from leaving cell
③ membrane
Cytoplasm Jelly-like substance  Where the metabolism takes place
Fills up the cell
Suspension of various organelle
Layer of ④ surrounding
Cell wall  Strengthen and protect the cells
plant cells
Mitochondria Rod-shape  Generate energy for all the cellular
Dual-membrane activities
Sometimes refered to as „power houses‟ of the cell  Site for ⑤
Vacuole Large compartments  Involve in osmoregulation
Fluid-filled cavity in the cytoplasm  Help to maintain the shape of the cell
Sacs filled with cell sap, a watery solution of sugars,
salts and pigments
Membrane that surrounds the vacuole called a
⑥ in plant cells
Chloroplasts Round-shape  Absorb light
Dual-membrane  Involve in ⑦
Store chlorophyll
Endoplasmic Network of membrane-lined channels in the  Transport substances in and out of the cell
reticulum (ER) cytoplasm and within the cell itself
Stacks of flattened vesicles which together make up  Transport materials like enzymes from the
Golgi body
the Golgi apparatus ER to the sites of reactions
Ribosome Tiny particles  Control ⑧
Some attach to the membranes of ER
Activity 01-1-06: Write the process ①⑤⑦⑧. Fill in the blank ②③④⑥.
01-1-07 Example of specialized cells.

 Cells are specialized to carry out specif ic function hence they differ in structure.
 Within an organism there are various types of specialized cells.
 This specialization of cells is more prominent in complex organisms than in simple organisms.
 Differentiation is the process that allows cells to develop special structures and functions.
* Examples of animal cells;
8
 Nerve cells ( nterco), which found in the brain, have dendrites and a long axon. They conduct electrical impulses.
 Sperms (male cells), which found in the testes, have a long tail for movement (propulsion).
 Red blood cells (erythrocytes) have no nucleus in human. They have haemoglobin for carring oxygen and carbon dioxide.
 Muscle cells are spindle shaped. They are capable of contracting and relaxing for movement.
* Examples of plant cells;
 Root hair cells have elongated out growth to increase the surface area for eff icient absorption of water and mineral salts.
 Guard cells, which found in lower surface of leaves, contain chloroplasts for photosynthesis. They control size (opening
and closing) of the stoma.
 Palisade cells, which found in leaves, are oblong shaped. They have a lot of chloroplasts for eff icient photosynthesis.
 Epidermal cells protect inner tissues of roots, stems and leaves.
Activity 01-1-07: Name the specialized cell ①-④ and ⑥-⑨. Identify the organelle ⑤, ⑩-⑬.
01-1-08 Cell ntercostals.

 We have seen that cells of higher plants and animals differ in shape because of their specialization.
 These cells work together for the benef its of the organism.
 A tissue is a group of similar cells that together perform a particular function.
 An organ is made with two or more types of tissues, and is a distinct part of the body which carries out one or more specif ic
functions.
 A system usually refers to a group of organs whose functions are closely related.
 Organisms can either be unicellular or multicellular. Unicellular organisms (eg amoeba) have one cell only. However the
cell is capable of carrying out all cellular functions such as movement, respiration, excretion and reproduction.
 The following summerises stages in cell organization.
Organelle – ① - ② - ③ - ④ - Organism
* Main tissues in animals;
Name of tissue Cells in the tissue Main functions
⑤ tissue Layer of lining cells Cover the external surface
Serve as a protective lining
⑥ tissue Bone, Ligament Bind together other tissues and organs
Blood Store and transport materials
Spindle-shaped Contract and relax for movement such as locomotion
⑦ tissue
muscle cells (voluntary) and breathing (involuntary).
⑧ tissue Nerve cells Conduct and coordinate nerve impulses throughout the body
* Main tissues in plants;
Name of tissue Cells in the tissue Main functions
⑨ tissue One layer of cells Cover surface of the plant
May be covered with a waxy cuticle Protect from physical damage and infection
Reduce water loss
⑩ tissue Palisade cells, spongy cells Absorb light
Guard cells Photosynthesis
⑪ tissue Undifferenciated cells Cell division for producing new cells
⑫ tissue Xylem cells Transport water and mineral salts
Phloem cells Transport food substances
Provide support
* Main organs in animal and plant;
 The eye, which functions for sight, includes ntercos, sclera, retina, nerve, blood, and so on.
 The stomach, which functions for digestion of food, includes smooth muscle, blood, mucus producing cell , and so on.
9
 The lungs, which function for breathing, include alveolus, muscle, blood, blood vessels, and so on.
 The heart, which functions for transport oxygen and carbon dioxide, includes cardiac muscle, pacemaker, bulbs, and so on.
 The stem, which functions for transport, has phloem, xylem, cambium, epidermis, an d so on.
 The leaf, which functions for photosynthesis and transpiration, has epidermis, mesophyll, vascular bundle, and so on.
 The flower, which functions for reproduction, has pistil, stamens, petal, sepal, and so on.
* Main systems in human;
Name of system Main organs in the system Main functions
⑬ system Stomach, liver, pancreas Take in and break down food
Absorb nutrients
Undigested food is eliminated
⑭ system Nose, trachea, lungs Take in oxygen
Release carbon dioxide
⑮ system Heart, blood vessels Regulate body temperature
Transport food substances, wastes, and gases
into and from cells
⑯ system Kidneys, bladder Remove wastes from the body
Integumentary system Skin Waterproof barrier
Regulate body temperature
Sensory system Eyes, ears, nose Detect stimuli
Nervous system Brain, spinal cord Control and coordinate body movements
Transmit information from the brain
Musculo-skeletal system Muscles, skeleton Support and move the body
Protect internal organs
Reproductive system Testes, ovaries Produce offsprings
Activity 01-1-08: Name the stage ①-④ of cell organization. Name the tissue ⑤-⑫. Name the system ⑬-⑯.
01-2 Classification of living organisms
01-2-01 Scientif ic name – binomial system.

 The scientif ic name of any organism is in Latin and has two parts.
 This system was f irst introduced in 1753 by Carl Linnaeus, a Swedish naturalist, in a book called Species Plantarum.
 This system is referred to as binomial system of nomenclature, which is a standard system of naming things.
* Formula: The name of genus followed by the name of species
eg: (human) ① (maize) ②
Activity 01-2-01: Write the binomial nomenclature ①②.
01-2-02 Sequence of classif ication.

 In addition to naming organisms, biologists also classify them into various groups.
 Scientists have developed a method of placing organis ms in related groups.
 Placing organisms into groups is called classification.
 Most biologists use a system of classif ication which arranges organisms in groups of descending hierarchy as follow;
Kingdom – ① - ② - ③ - ④ -
Genus – Species
 Species is the basic unit of biological classif ication.
 Today, most biologists use a system that ntercosta f ive kingdoms: Animalia, Plantae, Fungi, Protista and Monera.
 Examples of divisions in Animalia are Arthropoda (eg insect) and Chordata (eg f ish, bird, human), which has subdivision
named Vertebrate.
 Examples of classes under division, Chordata, are Osteichthyes (f ish), Amphibia (amphibian s), Reptilia (reptile), Aves (bird)
and Mammalia (human, cattle, lion).
 Example of divisions in Plantae is Tracheophyte (eg plants with vascular system).
 Example of classes under division, Tracheophyte, is Angiospermeae which includes two subclasses, M onocotyledoneae and
Dicotyledoneae.
 Fungi kingdom is made up of eukaryotic, heterotrophic organisms. The organisms in this kingdom are generally
10
saprophytes or parasites. They do not make their own food. Their cell wall is made of chitin.
 Protista kingdom contains organisms that are heterotrophic and autotrophic. Most organisms in this kingdom are
unicellular and eukaryotic (ie chromosomes are covered with nuclear membranes).
 Monera kingdom contains prokaryotic organisms, which are organisms where cells have no nucleus and nuclear membranes.
They are simple organisms which include both heterotrophs and autotrophs.
Activity 01-2-02: Write the stage of classif ication ①-④.
01-2-03 An example of classif ication using vertebrate key.

 The differeneces that exist between organisms can be used to identify organisms especially those that are new.
 A key is a device for easy and quick identif ication of an unknown organism.
Key1 Key3
Poikilothermic ------------- go to key2 Has no scale on body ----- ②
Homoiothermic ------------ go to key4 Has scales ------------------ ③
Key2 Key4
Has fins but no limbs ---- ① Has feathers --------------- ④
Has 4 limbs ---------------- go to Key3 Has fur ---------------------- ⑤
Activity 01-2-03: Name the group of animals ①-⑤.
01-3 Movement of molecules cross the cell membrane
 The human body is mostly made up of water which constitutes about 60 % of its mass. The human cell is made up of
approximately 80 % water.
 Water is essential for keeping the tissue fluids at the correct concentration.
 Water is also the medium for biological reactions.
 Cell membranes are selectively permeable to solutes only and are completely permeable to water.
 Movement of molecules in and out of the cell is controlled by various methods.
 Passive transport (eg diffusion and osmosis) does not require energy for the movement of molecules, while active
transport requires energy for movement of molecules.
 As a result of passive transport, the molecules will be equal concentration. While as a result of active transport, the molecules
will be different concentration.
01-3-01 Description of diffusion.

 Diffusion is def ined that the movement of molecules from a region of higher concentration to a region of lower
concentration down a concentration gradient.
* Importance of diffusion
1. Gaseous exchange during respiration and photosynthesis.
2. Excretion of waste products.
3. Absorption of digested food.
* Factors affecting rates of diffusion
Factor
Temperature (↑) temperature = (① ) rate of diffusion
Size of particles (↓) molecular size = (② ) rate of diffusion
Thickness of the barrier (cell wall) (↑) cell wall thickness = (③ ) rate of diffusion
Concentration gradient (↑) gradient = (④ ) rate of diffusion
Total surface area of cell membrane (↑) surface area = (⑤ ) rate of diffusion
 Diffusion will stop when the state of equilibrium (, which is the state the concentration gradient is zero) reached.
Activity 01-3-01: Write the arrow ①-⑤.
11
01-3-02 Description of osmosis.

 If a dilute solution is separated from a concentrated solution by a partially permeable membrane, water diffuses across the
membrane from the dilute to the concentrated solution. This is known as osmosis.
 Osmosis is def ined that the movement of ① across ② membrane

from a region of lower concentration to a region of higher concent ration.
Activity 01-3-02: Fill in the blank ①-②.
01-3-03 Water potential.

 Distilled water has the highest possible water potential.
Types of solution Concentration as compared to cell Movement of water in the cell
Hypotonic Low outside, high inside Water flows into the cell
① water
Cell becomes ②
potential than cell
Isotonic Equal No net flow of water
② water
potential
Hypertonic High outside, low inside Water flows out of the cell
④ water potential
Cell becomes ⑤
than cell
Activity 01-3-03: Fill in the blank ①-⑤.
01-3-04 Osmosis in animal and plant cells.
12
 Animal cells only have the elastic cell membrane which encloses the internal soluti on.
 Plant cells have a cell wall around the cell membrane. The cell wall is slightly elastic but mostly it is a rigid structure.
Activity 01-3-04: Write the condition of cell ①③④. Name the organelle ②⑤.
01-3-05 Description of active transport.

 Active transport is def ined that the movement of particles through a membrane from a region of low concentration to a
region of high concentration by using energy.
 For example, plants absorb mineral salts as charged ions present in soil. The concentratio n of ions in the soil is less than in
the vacuole. Therefore uptake of ions is assisted by active transport across the root hair.
Activity 01-3-05: Fill in the blank ①.
01-4 Enzyme
 In order to carry on with life processes, many chemical reactions are constantly taking place in all living cells.
 Enzymes are necessary in ALL chemical reactions which take place in organisms.
 All chemical reactions ntercost in a living cell are collectively known as metabolism.
 Metabolism consists of anabolism and catabolism.
 Anabolism is chemical reactions which involve the building up of small molecules into large complex molecules.
 Catabolism is chemical reactions which involve the breakdown of complex compounds into simple molecules.
 Both chemical reactions are catalysed by enzymes.
01-4-01 Characteristics of enzymes.

 Enzymes have several physical and chemical properties as
follows;
1. Made of proteins that function as biological catalysts.

2. Specif ic in their action called “Lock and key theory”.
3. Can be used over and over again, as it remains unchanged at
the end of the reaction.
4. Named by adding suff ix „ase‟ to the name of its substrate.
13
5. Sensitive to heat and pH. Have optimum pH and temperature for their action.
6. Inactivated by poisons.
Activity 01-4-01: Write the word ①②. Identify enzyme or non-biological catalyst ③④. Name the process ⑤⑥. Name
the enzyme ⑦-⑨.
01-4-02 Biological and non-biological catalyst

 Enzymes and non-biological catalysts are similar in that they both increase rates of chemical reactions.
* Differences between enzyme and non-biological catalyst
Biological catalysts (Enzymes) Non-biological catalysts
They are proteins. They are mostly metals.
They are denatured at high temperature. They work better at high temperature.
They are affected by pH. They are not affected by pH.
They are specific. They can catalyse only particular They are non-specific. They can be used in many
substrates or class of substrates. reactions.
They are made from living tissues and therefore they They are made from non-living materials and
are organic. therefore they are inorganic.
01-4-03 Intra- and extra-cellular enzymes

 Most reactions (eg respiration) in organisms occur within cells.
 However some take place outside the cell membranes (eg digestion).
 The enzymes which catalyse reactions within cells are called intra -cellular enzymes. And those that catalyse reactions
outside cells are called extra-cellular enzymes.
 Enzymes which are found in the alimentary canals are called digestive enzymes. All digest ive enzymes are extra-cellular
enzymes (eg lipase, protease).
01-4-04 Industrial applications of enzyme.

 Reseach in enzymes from plant and animal tissues has led to the discovery of their uses in industry.
1. ① : Contain proteases, lipases, amylases.
2. ② : Breakdown sucrose to alcohol.
3. ③ : Soften the animal skins into leather by tannic acid.
4. ④ : The action of enzymes in the yeast.
Activity 01-4-04: List the example ①-④.
<Creativity> What is „LIFE‟?
[A living organism] – [the dead organism] = ??LIFE??
14
If the equation is true, what is „LIFE‟?

What is the differences between living organism and dead organism?
<Creativity> Clone animals

Nowadays, we can make clone mouse, sheep, cow, monkey and also human (but ethically we never make clone human).
Clone organs such as an ear, liver, cardiac muscles, and so on are more easy to make.
However, we cannot produce only one cell from inorganic substances chemically.
What are the differences between making clone animals and producing cells chemically?
Unit 01 Answers for the activities

<01-1-04> ①Nucleus ②Cytoplasm ③Cell membrane ④Nucleus ⑤Cytoplasm ⑥Cell membrane ⑦Cell wall ⑧Vacuole
⑨Mitochondrion ⑩Golgi body ⑪Ribosomes ⑫Endoplasmic reticulum ⑬Mitochondrion ⑭Golgi body ⑮Ribosomes
⑯Endoplasmic reticulum ⑰Chloroplast
<01-1-06> ①cell division ②chromosomes ③Semi-permeable (or selectively permeable or partially permeable) ④cellulose
⑤aerobic respiration ⑥tonoplast ⑦photosynthesis ⑧protein synthesis
<01-1-05> ①Nucleus ②Cell membrane ③Cytoplasm ④cell wall ⑤chloroplasts
<01-1-07> ①Nerve cell (neurone) ②Sperm ③Red blood cell ④Muscle cell ⑤nucleus ⑥Root hair cell ⑦Guard cells
⑧Palisade cell ⑨Epidermal cell ⑩nucleus ⑪vacuole ⑫cell wall ⑬cytoplasm
<01-1-03> ①Size of drawing ②Actual size of specimen ③x0.25 (or 0.25x)
<01-1-02> ①Eye piece ②Coarse adjustment ③Fine adjustment ④Revolving nose piece ⑤Objective lens ⑥Stage
⑦Stage clip ⑧Iris diaphragm ⑨Mirror
<01-1-08> ①Cell ②Tissue ③Organ ④System ⑤Epithelial ⑥Connective ⑦Muscular ⑧Nervous ⑨Epidermal
⑩Photosynthetic ⑪Meristematic ⑫Vascular ⑬Digestive ⑭Respiratory ⑮Circulatory ⑯Excretory
<01-2-01> ① Homo sapiens ② Zea mays
<01-2-02> ①Division (or phylum) ②Class ③Order ④Family
<01-2-03> ①Fish ②Amphibian ③Reptile ④Bird ⑤Mammal
<01-3-01> ①↑ ②↑ ③↓ ④↑ ⑤↑
<01-3-02> ①water molecules ②selectively permeable
<01-3-03> ①Higher ②turgid ③Zero ④Lower ⑤flaccid
<01-3-04> ①Haemolysis ②Cell wall ③Crenation ④Plasmolysis ⑤Cell membrane
<01-3-05> ①energy
<01-4-01> ①Substrate ②Product ③Enzyme ④Non-biological catalyst ⑤Inactivation ⑥Denaturation ⑦Pepsin ⑧Amylase
⑨Trypsin
<01-4-04> ①Biological washing powder ②Brewing ③Tanning ④Baking
<Sample question>
1. A red blood cell and a plant root hair cell both have…
A. Cell wall. B. A large surface area.
C. Haemoblobin. D. A nucleus.
2. The temperature of the environment of an enzyme is raised from 20℃ to 30℃. Which of the statements below best
describes the enzyme activity after the temperature rise?
A. The enzyme would be denatured. B. The enzyme reaction rate would be higher.
C. The enzyme activity would be at optimum. D. The enzyme would now catalyze the reaction.
3. A mixture of food gives the following results on testing:

1. A purple colour in the biuret test.
2. A blue colour when heated with Benedict ‟s solution.
3. A yellow colour with iodine.
4. A white emulsion with ethanol.
What does the mixture contain?
A. Fat and protein. B. Protein and reducing sugar. C. Reducing sugar and starch. D. Starch and fat.
15
<Answer> 1. B. 2. B. 3. A.
16
UNIT 02 Nutrition
Objectives
□ 02-1 Describe the importance of nutrients.
□ 02-2 Explain the process of photosynthesis.
□ 02-2 Demonstrate the conditions necessary for photosynthesis.
□ 02-2 Explain how leaves are adapted to carry out photosynthesis.
□ 02-3 Describe the dental formula.
□ 02-3 Identify and illustrate the main regions of the alimentary canal.
□ 02-3 State the main functions of the parts of the alimentary canal.
02-1 Classes of nutrients
02-1-01 Types of feeding.

 There are two principle methods of obtaining food, called autotrophic and heterotrophic nutrition.
 Autotrophic organisms (autotrophs) can build up all the organic molecules they need from simple inorganic su bstances.
 Heterotrophic organisms (heterotrophs) use ready-made organic compounds as their food source.
 The heterotrophs digest the organic compounds to simpler substances and absorb the products into their bodies.
 Saprotrophs decompose dead organisms. Decomposition makes available nutrients.
 Saprotrophic bacteria help in the recycling of carbon and nitrogen.
Activity 02-1-01: Name the type of nutrition ①-⑦.
02-1-02 Introduction about food.

 Source of energy for the body.
 Eaten in the right amounts and types, it leads to good health.
 It serves to; supply energy, promote body growth and repair of tissues, regulate body functions.
 Carbohydrates, fats, and proteins are nutrients that provide energy.
 Vitamins, mineral salts, and water are not digested. They are used to regulate body function.
 Dietary fibre is important in preventing constipation.
02-1-03 Carbohydrates.
 Contain compounds of carbon, hydrogen, and oxygen in the ratio of 1:2:1.
 Provide energy during respiration (glucose, other sugars).
 Store energy until using respiration (starch, glycogen).
 Material of cell wall (cellulose).
17
Carbohydrate Types Sources Function

① Glucose Fruits Provide energy
(simple sugar) Fluctose Vegetables Converted into glycogen for storage
Galactose
② Sucrose Sugar cane Excess is stored as fats
(complex sugar) Maltose Beetroot
Lactose Milk
③ Starch Potatoes Used in synthesis of DNA
Cellulose Cereal Composed of cell wall
Glycogen Bread
Activity 02-1-03: Name the type of carbohydrate ①-③.
02-1-04 Fats and lipids.

 Composed of carbon, hydrogen, and oxygen.
 Oils (fatty acids and glycerol) are liquid at room temperature , while waxes are solid at room temperature.
 Provide much energy. Keep water out on the surface of the body. Keep mammals and birds warm.
 There are saturated and unsaturated fats .
 Saturated fats increase the level of cholesterol in the blood. It may be deposited on the inner surface of the artery, causing
an obstruction in the blood flow.
Fats Sources Function
Saturated Butter Provide energy
Animal fats Medium for intake of vitamin A,D,E,K
Unsaturated Fish oil Synthesis of cell membrane
Vegetable oil Insulation layer under skin
Protect organs from physical injury
02-1-05 Proteins.
 Composed of carbon, hydrogen, oxygen, and nitrogen. May contain sulphur and phosphorous.
 Made up of large numbers of amino acids linked together by peptide bonds.
 Lack of proteins leads to kwashiorkor.
Sources Function
Lean meat, Fish Growth of new tissue
Eggs, Liver Replacement of cell components
Milk, Cheese Build up body structure like hair and nails
Soya beans Function of muscles, tendons and ligaments
Cereals Formation of enzymes, hormones and antibodies
02-1-06 Description of food test (it usually comes in Biology Paper3 Practical test).
1. Starch test
* Methods:
1. Put 3 cm 3 of a solution in a test tube.
2. Add 3 drops of iodine solution to the test tube. Shake gently and observe.
* Two possible observations:
 The colour changed as follows: from ① - ② - ③ - ④
 The colour changed to light brown. (Note that light brown is natural colour of iodine solution.)
* Results of each observation:
 Starch is present in the solution.
 Starch is absent in the solution.
2. Reducing sugar test
 The brick-red precipitate obtained is due to the fact that monosaccharide reduces the copper (II) ions in the Benedict‟s
solution to copper (I) ions. Maltose also reacts in a similar way with Benedict‟s solution.
* Methods:
2. Add 2 cm 3 of Benedict’s solution to the test tube. Shake gently.
18
3. Boil the contents using a water bath. Observe.

 The colour changed as follows: from ⑤ - ⑥ - ⑦ - ⑧ - ⑨
 The colour changed to blue. (Note that blue is natural colour of Benedict‟s solution.)
 Reducing sugar is present in the solution.
 Reducing sugar is absent in the solution.
3. Protein test
 When a few drops of sodium hydroxide solution are added to a food substance which contains proteins, followed by the
addition of copper sulphate solution, purple colour is obtained. This test is called biuret test for protein.
* Methods:
2. Add 5 drops of 5% sodium hydroxide solution to the test tube.
3. Add 2 drops of 1% copper sulphate solution drop by drop, shaking at each drop and observing .
Or in place of 2 and 3,
2‟. Add 5 drops of biuret reagent to the test tube. Observe. (If the reagent has been prepared.)
 The colour changed from ⑩ to ⑪ .
 The colour changed to blue. (Note that blue is natural colour of biuret reagent.)
 Protein is present in the solution.
 Protein is absent in the solution.
4. Lipid test
 The presence of lipids can be determined in two ways: by emulsion test or by brown paper test.
* Methods:
2. Add some ethanol to the test tube. Shake thoroughly.
3. Add little distilled water to the test tube contained lipid-ethanol mixture. Observe.
 The mixture turned cloudy.
 The mixture did not change.
 Lipid is present in the solution.
 Lipid is absent in the solution.
5. Non-reducing sugar test
 After confirming that reducing sugar is absent in the solution by conducting reducing sugar t est, you will conduct
non-reducing sugar test.
* Methods:
2. Add 2 cm 3 of dilute hydrochloric acid (HCl) solution to the test tube.
3. Boil the mixture by using water bath, and then allow it cool.
4. Add some sodium hydrogen carbonate (NaHCO 3) solution to the test tube, and then allow it stop f izzing (bubbling).
5. 2 cm 3 of Benedict’s solution to the test tube. Shake gently.
6. Boil the contents using a water bath. Observe.
 The colour changed as follows: from ⑫ - ⑬ - ⑭ - ⑮ - ⑯
 The colour changed to blue.
 Non-reducing sugar is present in the solution.
 Non-reducing sugar is absent in the solution.
* Meaning of solutions:
> HCl : hydrolysis of non-reducing sugar.
> NaHCO3 : neutralization of solution.
Activity 02-1-06: Write the colour ①-⑯.
19
02-1-07 Food test series.

 When you use unknown food sample, try to do the following ways.
Activity 02-1-07: Name the food substance or ntercos ①③⑤⑦. Name the food test ②④⑥⑧.
02-1-08 Minerals.
 Inorganic chemical elements.
 Regulate body processes. Not stored in the body. Quickly used or lost.
Minerals Sources Function Deficiency
Calcium Milk, Cheese Harden of bones and teeth Rickets (children)
Fish Muscle contraction Soft bones
①
Iron Liver, Kidney Form haemoglobin in blood ②
Egg, Lean meat Tiredness
Phosphorus All foods Form DNA and ATP Weakness
Harden of bones and teeth Soft bones
Iodine Drinking water Form thyroxine ③
Fluorine Drinking water Prevent tooth decay Bad teeth
Activity 02-1-08: Name the process ①. Name the def iciency ②③.
02-1-09 Vitamins.
 Organic compounds. Required on small quantities.
 There are water soluble vitamin (BC) and fat soluble vitamin (ADEK).
Vitamins Sources Function Deficiency
A (Retinol) Liver Healthy growth ①
Carrot Maintenance of skin tissue Poor skin
Formation of pigments in eye
D (Calciferol) Fish liver oil Harden bones and teeth Rickets in children
Dairy products Absorption of phosphorous and calcium Soft bones
K Cabbage Blood clotting Long clotting time
Spinach
B1 (Thiamin) Cereals Help enzymes in respiration Wasting of muscle
Yeast ②
20
B2 (Riboflavin) Leafy vegetables Help enzymes in respiration Sore mouth

Fish, Eggs Ulcers
B12 (Cyanocobalamin) Meat, Fish Formation of red blood cells Anaemia
Dairy products
C (Ascorbic acid) Citrus fruits Formation of connective tissue ③
Green vegetables
Activity 02-1-09: Name the def iciency ①-③.
02-1-10 Fibre (Roughage).

 Consists of carbohydrates, mainly cellulose and lignin.
 Not digested by the human body.
Sources Function
Fruits, Vegetables Stimulate peristalsis
Bread, Cereals Prevent constipation
02-1-11 Water.
 Lost urine, perspiration and breathing.
 If not replaced, the body gets dehydrated.
Function Mode of action
Transport Main constituent of blood and fluids
Medium for transport of nutrients, hormones
Reactions Solvent for chemical reactions
Hydrolytic reations during digestion
Lubrication Constituent of synovial fluids in joints and mucus
Homeostasis Sweating cools the body (heat of vaporization)
02-2 Nutrition in plants
 Green plants make their own food (meaning autotrophic) by using

inorganic substances to build up (meaning anabolism) organic
substances from sunlight.
02-2-01 Equation of photosynthesis.

 Photosynthesis is the process by which green plants make glucose
from carbon dioxide and water in the presence of light.
 The light energy is trapped by a green pigment called chlorophyll
which is found in small sacs called chloroplasts.
Activity 02-1-01: Name the chemical ①②⑤⑥. Write the material ③④. Write the molecular formula ⑦-⑩.
02-2-02 Experiments involved in photosynthesis.
02-2-02A Let‟s try EXP: Testing a leaf for starch.

* Suggested materials: a leaf / alcohol / water bath system / iodine solution
* Methods:
1. Detach a leaf from a plant that has been exposed to light .
2. Boil it in water (to make it soft and to stop the chemical reactions).
3. Boil the leaf in alcohol using a water bath (to remove chlorophyll and decolourise).
4. Wash the leaf in warm water (to remove alcohol and to make it soft since alcohol
makes the leaf brittle).
5. Spread the bleached leaf on a white tile or Petri dish .
6. Add drops of iodine solution.
21
* Questions:
1. Explain why chlorophyll is removed before adding drops of iodine solution.
2. Why should the chemical reaction be stopped in this experiment?
3. Account for the use of the water bath in the experiment.
* Hints: The colour of chloroplasts.
02-2-02B Let‟s try EXP: To show whether light is necessary for photosynthesis .
* Suggested materials: potted Geranium plant / aluminium foil / razor blade / paper clips
* Methods:
1. The plant is destarched by leaving it in complete darkness for at least 24 hours .
(Destarching)
2. Test one of the leaves for starch (to ensure that it does not contain any starch).
3. Arrange the experiment as shown in f igure.
4. Leave the plant in light for 4 to 6 hours (photosynthesis).
5. Make a diagram of the leaf and label the covered and the uncovered parts.
6. Remove the cover and test the leaf for starch .
* Questions:
1. Which part of the leaf shows colour changes?
2. What conclusion can you make from the experiment?
3. What is the control for this experiment?
* Hints: Which parts of the leaf were lighting.
02-2-02C Let‟s try EXP: To see if carbon dioxide is necessary for photosynthesis .
* Suggested materials: potted Geranium plant / Vaseline / conical flasks / distilled water
rubber bungs / potassium hydroxide or sodium hydroxide (soda lime)
* Methods:
1. Destarch the leaves.
2. Arrange the apparatus as shown in f igure.
3. Leave the plant in light for 4 to 6 hours.
4. Test each leaf in the flask for starch.
* Questions:
1. What is the purpose of using potassium hydroxide in this experiment?
2. What role is the flask with distilled water playing in this experiment?
* Hints: Soda lime would absorb carbon dioxide.
02-2-02D Let‟s try EXP: To show that chlorophyll is necessary for photosynthesis .
* Suggested materials: plant with variegated leaves / pencil
* Methods:
1. Destarch the plant with variegated (green and white) leaves .
2. Leave the plant in sunlight for 4 to 6 hours.
3. Draw a leaf and label the green and white parts .
4. Test the leaf for starch.
* Questions:
1. Which parts of the leaf show colour changes?
2. What was the control in this experiment?
02-2-02E Let‟s try EXP: To investigate if oxygen is produced during the process of
photosynthesis.
* Suggested materials: water plant / test-tube / beaker / funnel / water /
glowing splint
* Methods:
1. Using a water weed eg. Elodea or Hydrilla, arrange the apparatus as shown in
f igure.
2. Leave the apparatus in sunlight until enough gas has been collected .
3. Without allowing the gas escape, carefully remove the test-tube.
4. Put a glowing splint into a gas. If it bursts into a flame, then the gas is oxygen. This method is usually used to
22
check the presence of oxygen.
02-2-03 Process of photosynthesis.

 Whole equation summarises a series of chemical reactions which take place in chloroplasts.
(6CO2 + 6H 2 O  C 6 H12 O6 + 6O 2)
 In fact, carbondioxide and water do NOT combine directly.
 The reaction occurs in two stages called light reaction and dark reaction.
Light reaction: Using light energy, water split into hydrogen and oxygen.
[water + light  hydrogen + oxygen]
Dark reaction: Not use light. By several enzymatic reactions, hydrogen combines carbon dioxide to form glucose .
[hydrogen + carbon dioxide  glucose]
 (Equation of light reaction) + (Equation of dark reaction) =
water + carbon dioxide + light  oxygen + glucose (note: it‟s same as the word equation of ntercostals z.)
 Water: From the soil, through the roots, by osmosis.

 Carbon dioxide: From the atmosphere, through stomata in leaves, by diffusion.
Activity 02-2-03: Write the material ①④⑤. Name the chemical ②③⑦⑧⑨⑪⑫. Name th place ⑥⑩.
Name the reaction ⑬⑭. In terms of the fate of glucose, name the chemical ⑮-⑲.
02-2-04 Three factors affected for photosynthesis and the limiting factor.
 The rate of the light reaction will depend on the light intensity.
 The rate of the dark reaction will be affected by temperature and carbon dioxide concentration.
 When light intensity is increased to certain brightness, the rate of photosynthesis does not increase further.
23
 Any one of the external factors such as

temperature, light intensity or carbon dioxide
concentration, may limit the effects of the other two.
 In each range ③④⑤, limiting factors are different.
Activity 02-2-04: Name the point ①②. Write the limiting factor ③-⑤.
02-2-05 Structure of a leaf.

 The main organ of photosynthesis in green plants is the leaf.
 Chloroplasts are present in abundance in leaves. Water and carbon dioxide combine in the chloroplasts.
 The structure of the leaf enables light, carbon dioxide and water to reach the chloroplasts eff iciently.
 Vein contains vascular bundles which are made up of xylem vessels and phloem tubes.
 Althought the leaf appears to be thin, it is made up of several layers of cells.
 Waxy cuticle: Reduces the loss of water by evaporation.
24
 Upper epidermis: Are transparent and do not contain chloroplasts.

 Mesophyll layer, Palisade cells: Contain lots of chloroplast, and are closely packed. Main site for photosynthesis.
 Mesophyll layer, Spongy cells: Contain chloroplasts, and are loosely arranged.
 Stoma: The place where gaseous exchange takes place, and locates mainly lower epidermis.
 Guard cells: Surrounds stoma, contains chloroplasts, and control the opening and closing of stomata.
Activity 02-2-05: Identify the part of a leaf ①-⑲.
02-2-06 Adaptation of a leaf for photosynthesis.

 When biologists say that something is adapted, they mean that its structure is well suited to its function.
Structure Adaptation Results
Leaf ① Trapping as much light and carbon dioxide as possible
Lamina ② Efficient penetration of light and diffusion of gases
Stomata ③ Taking in carbon dioxide
Palisade cells ④ Trapping as much light as possible
Spongy layer ⑤ Rapid diffusion of carbon dioxide
Vascular bundle ⑥ Bringing water to the ntercostals zed cells and taking away glucose
Activity 02-2-06: List the adaptation of each structure ①-⑥.
02-2-07 Importance of photosynthesis.

 The organic substances produced in photosynthesis are used later by animals and non -photosynthetic plants.
 Thus, in all ecosystems, plants are the producers on which consumers depend for energy and nutrients.
 Green plants help to maintain 0.03% of carbon dioxide in the air during photosynthesis.
 Provide oxygen to organisms for respiration.
02-3 Animal nutrition
 Unlike plants, animals take in large, complex food molecules. This type of nutrition is called holozoi c nutrition.
02-3-01 Feeding processed for alimentary canal.

 Holozoic type of nutrition in animals involves the following processes;
1. Ingestion: Food is taken into the alimentary canal through the mouth.
2. Digestion: The food is broken down into soluble substances.
3. Absorption: The soluble products of digestion are absorbed into the bloodstream and transported round the body.
4. Assimilation: The soluble products of digestion are taken into the cells .
5. Egestion: Components of the food which cannot be digested are got rid of through the anus.
Activity 02-3-01: Write the process ①-⑤.
02-3-02 Overview of alimentary canal in human.

 The alimentary canal is a tube running through the body.
 It runs from the mouth to the anus of any mammals.
25
Activity 02-3-02: Identify the part of human digestive system ①-⑲.
02-3-03 Description of alimentary canal .

 Different parts of the alimentary canal are adapted to carrying out these processes.
Structure Function Peristalsis
Teeth Physical digestion by mastication (cutting and grinding)
Salivary glands Chemical digestion of starch
Oesophagus Move food down to stomach by peristalsis (See right)
Stomach Store food for 2-6 hours
Secretion of hydrochloric acid to kill bacteria and
provide acidic pH for functioning pepsin
Chemical digestion of proteins
Absorption of water, alcohol, drugs
Pancreas Secretion of digestive enzymes for starch, protein, fat
Secretion of insulin for stimulating glycogen synthesis
Production of bile, storing in gall bladder, for
Liver Emulsification
emulsification of fats (See right)
Bile salts provide alkaline pH for functioning trypsin
Secretion of digestive enzymes for protein/peptide and
Duodenum
starch/disaccharide
Ileum Absorption of food substances
Colon Absorption of water
Form faeces
Rectum Store faeces before defaecation
Activity 02-3-03: Name the muscle ①②. Name the chemical ③.
02-3-04 Digestion.
 Digestion in mammals is divided into two ways;
1. ① : Mastication by the teeth. Rolling action by tongue. Peristalsis.
2. ② : Action of digestive enzymes (See below). Hydrolysis.
Juice Source Site of action Enzymes Substrate Product
Saliva Salivary glands Mouth cavity ③ Starch Maltose
Gastric Stomach wall Stomach ④ Protein Polypeptides
26
Bile Liver Duodenum Bile salts (not enzyme) Fats Fat droplets
Pancreatic Pancreas Duodenum ⑤ Starch Maltose
⑥ Protein polypeptides
⑦ Fats Fatty acids and glycerol
Intestinal Wall of small Small ⑧ Maltose Glucose
intestine intestine ⑨ Sucrose Glucose and Fructose
⑩ Lactose Glucose and Galactose
⑪ Polypeptides Amino acids
Activity 02-3-04: Name the process ①②. Name the enzyme ③-⑪.
02-3-05 Absorption in ileum.

 Ileum is long (5m) and folded thereby presenting an enormous surface area for absorption.
 Ileum has numerous projections on its surface called villi (singular = villus). These further increase the surface area.
 Each villus is divided into tiny microvilli which also greatly increase the surface area for absorption.
 Larger surface area gets more chance to absorb the food substances.
 Each villus has a dense network of blood capillaries which monosaccharides and amino acids are absorbed into it.
 Each villus contains a lacteal which fatty acids and glycerol are absorbed into it.
 Lacteal is the part of the lymphatic system.
Activity 02-3-05: Identify the structure ①③⑧. Name the food substance ④-⑦.
02-3-06 Associated vessels in the liver.

 Food substances absorbed in the capillaries in villi move to the liver for assimilation.
Activity 02-3-06: Name the blood vessel ①-④.
02-3-07 Function of the liver.

 Liver plays an important role in metabolism, homeostasis and excretion.
 The functions of the liver can be classif ied into f ive major groups;
1. Metabolic function. 2. Circulatory function. 3. Excretory function. 4. Protective function. 5. Haematologic function.
27
Function Mode of action

Metabolism of glucose Convert excess glucose to ⑧
Maintain constant glucose level in the blood
Metabolism of amino acids Deaminate excess amino acids and produces ⑨
Convert excess amino acids to glycogen
Production of bile Break down old red blood cells and makes bile
Synthesis of plasma protein eg. prothtombin and fibrinogen; they are used for blood clotting.
Detoxification Destroy poisons, alcohol and bacteria
Storage of minerals eg. iron, copper, potassium
Storage of vitamins eg. vitamin A and D
There are many chemical reactions in the liver that produce a lot of heat
Production of heat
which is used in maintaining the body temperature
Activity 02-3-07: Name the process ⑤. Write the chemical ⑥-⑨.
02-3-08 Tooth structure.

 Mechanical digestion is carried out in the mouth by the action of the teeth and the tongue.
 Although teeth may differ in shape, they all have the same structure.
 Each tooth has three parts, the crown, the neck and root. The crown is above the jaw bone. The root is embedded in the
28
jaw bone and is held f irmly by cement and f ibres growing out of it.
 A tooth is made up of enamel, dentine and pulp cavity.
 Enamel is a non-living substance. It is the hardest substance made in animals and contains a lot of phosphate and calcium
salts and it prevents wearing of the tooth. Enamel can be dissolved by acids.
 Dentine is similar to bone in structure. It is non-living but has strands of living cytoplasm penetrating it. The cells, from
which these cytoplasmic strands extend, are able to add move dentine to the inside of a tooth.
 In the middle of the dentine of a tooth, is a cavity known as the pulp cavity. This contains nerves and blood capillaries .
The blood capillaries supply the nerves and cytoplasm in the dentine with food and oxygen. The nerves are sensitive to heat,
cold and pressure.
Activity 02-3-08: Identify the part of teeth ①-⑪.
02-3-09 Types of teeth.

 There are four different types of teeth in mammals. These are incisors, canines, premolars and molars. Each type of teeth
is adapted for a specif ic function.
* Functions of the different types of teeth;

Herbivore Omnivore Carnivore
Incisors Chisel shaped and sharp edged. Chisel shaped and sharp edged. Almost pointed and much smaller.
Quite large to cut grass and Not very large to cut off pieces
Used for gripping food.
leaves of food.
Usually absent. If present very Pointed and about the same
Canines Long and pointed.
small and vesitigial. size as incisors.
Prominent and used for killing
To tear pieces of food.
prey and tearing flesh.
Premolars/ Broad with ridged top surface for Broad with two ridges on top of
Have sharp cutting edges.
Molars grinding the leaves and grass. surface.
Used for crushing and grinding Used for chopping food into
the food. pieces.
Activity 02-3-09: Name the type of teeth ①-④.
02-3-10 Dentition.
 Dentition refers to the type and arrangement of teeth in an animal.
 Teeth arrangement in an animal is specially modif ied and adapted to the type of nutrition.
 Dentition of a mammal can be represented conveniently by means of a dental formula. This shows the type and number
of teeth in one half of each jaw.
29
Herbivore Omnivore Carnivore

mode of
plant plant and animal animal
nutrition
goat human dog
example of
i:0/3 c:0/1 pm:3/3 m:3/3 i:2/2 c:1/1 pm:2/2 m:3/3 i:3/3 c:1/1 pm:4/3 m:2/3
dental
rat cat
formula
i:1/1 c:0/0 pm:0/0 m:3/3 i:3/3 c:1/1 pm:3/2 m:1/1
They have a diastema between
diastema
incisors and premolars.
Feeding Jaws move in circular and
Jaws move up and down. Jaws move up and down.
action sideways motion.
Grind food with lateral movements
Scissor-like action
(side to side) of lower jaw
02-3-11 Saprophytic nutrition.

 Some heterotrophs obtain their food from organic material of dead organisms. This mode of nutrition is called saprophytic
nutrition. The organism that obtains food by this type of nutrition is called a saprophyte.
 eg. Many bacteria and fungi, such as mushrooms, moulds, and yeasts.
 Rhizopus is a mould that forms a network of small strands on its food. It grows on different kinds of food substances such
as bread, fruits and nshima. The mould grows when these substances are left in warm, moist conditions for sometime.
 Hyphae (stolons and rhizoids) secrete enzymes onto the substrate. Then the complex food substances are broken down
(digested) to simple, soluble ones.
* Importance of saprophytic nutrition;

 Saprophytic bacteria help in the recycling of carbon and nitrogen due to the action of decomposition of dead organisms.
 Some moulds such as Penicillium are used in the production of antibiotics , ④ .
 Saprophytes are also used in baking, production of dairy products like cheese and brewing of alcohol.
Activity 02-3-11: Identify the part of the organism ①-③. Name the antibiotic ④.
<Creativity> Possibility of artif icial photosynthesis
When you mix water, carbon dioxide and chlorophyll in a beaker, and leave the beaker in light, what will happen?
Does glucose make in the beaker?
If you can make chlorophyll on your body, is it possible to live without feeding?
<Creativity> Preventing oxidation in the cell.
In chemistry, oxygen is caused oxidation. For example, iron will oxidized to ferrous oxide or ferric oxide and the property will
also change. They are completely different substance.
As the same way, living organisms and the cells are processed oxidation during aerobic respiration. It means that components
of the cell will be oxidized, leading to change the structure of the cells.
30
However, cells seem to be able to keep their structure their structure longer than chemical oxidation . How do cells keep their
structure? How do they prevent oxidation?
<Creativity> New gene
The genetic properties and natures are inherited through genes in all organisms.
But only in human, knowledges may be „inherited‟ through languages and letters.
We can understand ancient histories from some old books.
Consider that languages and letters are „genetic substances‟ or not.
Give your own idea.
<Calculation> How old are human beings? Let‟s compare to the earth history.
Earth: 5 billion-year-old
Human being: 4 million-year-old
Suppose that earth origin is 0:00 hours, present day is 24:00. What time do human beings appeared?

<02-1-01> ①Autotrophic nutrition ②Photosynthesis ③Chemosynthesis ④Heterotrophic nutrition ⑤Holozoic nutrition
⑥Saprotrophic nutrition ⑦Parasitic nutrition
<02-1-03> ①Monosaccharide ②Disaccharide ③Polysaccharide
<02-1-06> ①brown ②green ③blue ④bluish-black ⑤blue ⑥green ⑦yellow ⑧orange ⑨brick-red ⑩blue ⑪purple ⑫blue
⑬green ⑭yellow ⑮orange ⑯brick-red
<02-1-07> ①Fat ②Emulsion test ③Benedict‟s solution ④Reducing sugar test ⑤Protein ⑥Biuret test ⑦Iodine solution
⑧Starch test
<02-1-08> ①Blood clotting ②Anaemia ③Goitre
<02-1-09> ①Night blindness ②Beri-beri ③Scurvy
<02-2-01> ①Carbon dioxide ②Water ③Energy ④Chlorophyll ⑤Glucose ⑥Oxygen ⑦6CO 2 ⑧6H 2 O ⑨C 6 H12 O6 ⑩6O 2
<02-2-03> ①Light ②CO2 ③H2 O ④Light ⑤Chlorophyll ⑥Soil ⑦H 2 O ⑧O 2 ⑨H+ (Proton) ⑩Air ⑪CO 2 ⑫Glucose
⑬Light reaction ⑭Dark reaction ⑮Oil ⑯Cellulose ⑰Starch ⑱Sucrose ⑲Amino acids
<02-2-04> ①CO2 saturation point ②Light saturation point ③Light intensity ④Temperature ⑤No factor, because of saturation
<02-2-05> ①Lamina ②Mid vein (Mid-rib) ③Lateral vein ④epidermis ⑤palisade mesophyll ⑥spongy mesophyll ⑦stoma
⑧Upper epidermis ⑨Palisade mesophyll ⑩Spongy mesophyll ⑪Lower epidermis ⑫Cuticle ⑬Stoma ⑭Guard cell ⑮Cuticle
⑯Vascular bundle ⑰Xylem ⑱Phloem ⑲Air space
<02-2-06> ①Large surface area ②Thin ③Numerous number ④Lots of chlorophyll ⑤Large air spaces ⑥Presence
<02-3-01> ①Ingestion ②Digestion ③Absorption ④Assimilation ⑤Egestion
<02-3-02> ①Tongue ②Epiglottis ③Liver ④Gall bladder ⑤Bile duct ⑥Small intestine ⑦Duodenum ⑧Jejunum ⑨Ileum
⑩Anus ⑪Salivary glands ⑫Oesophagus ⑬Stomach ⑭Pancreas ⑮Large intestine ⑯Colon ⑰Caecum ⑱Appendix ⑲Rectum
<02-3-03> ①Circular muscle ②Longitudinal muscle ③Bile salts
<02-3-04> ①Physical digestion ②Chemical digestion ③Amylase ④Pepsin ⑤Amylase ⑥Trypsin ⑦Lipase ⑧Maltase
⑨Sucrase ⑩Lactase ⑪Peptidases
<02-3-05> ①Capillary ②Lacteal (lymph vessel) ③Epithelium ④Amino acids ⑤Glucose ⑥Fatty acids ⑦Glycerol ⑧Microvilli
<02-3-06> ①Aorta ②Hepatic vein ③Hepatic artery ④Hepatic portal vein
<02-3-07> ⑤Respiration ⑥Urea ⑦Glycogen ⑧glycogen ⑨urea
<02-3-08> ①Crown ②Neck ③Root ④Enamel ⑤Dentine ⑥Pulp cavity ⑦Blood capillary ⑧Nerve f ibre ⑨Gum ⑩Cement
⑪Jaw bone
<02-3-09> ①Incisor ②Canine ③Premolar ④Molar
<02-3-11> ①sporangium ②spores ③hyphae ④penicillin
31
UNIT 03 Transport
Objectives
□ 03-1 Describe the transport of water, salts and food substances.
□ 03-2 Describe the composition of blood.
□ 03-2 Describe the structure of the heart.
□ 03-2 Compare the structure and functions of arteries, veins and capillaries.
03-1 Transport in plants
 Plants transport and store various substances within their bodies. This transport is conducted by the vascular bundle
consisting of xylem and phloem cells which are continuous with those found from the root to leaves.
03-1-01 Internal structure of roots and stems .

 In the root, some of the cells in epidermis are specialized into root hair cells which are used to absorb water and mineral salts
from the soil.
 A dicotyledonous stem is made up of the epidermis on the outside and the cortex on the inside.
 Present between phloem and xylem is an actively dividing layer of cells called cambium.
Activity 03-1-01: Identify the part of root and stem ①-⑦⑩⑫⑬⑮⑰. Write the structure ⑧⑨⑪.
Write the function ⑭⑯⑱.
03-1-02 Mode of transport in xylem and phloem .

Remember the arrangement of xylem and phloem in root, stem and leaf!
* Function of xylem and phloem;
Xylem: Transports ① and ② from the root.
Non-living parts. Thick lignif ied cellulose wall.
Mode of transport in xylem:
1. Root pressure (Osmosis draws water into the root system)
2. Capillary action (Strong cohesive forces between water molecules. Adhesion of water to xylem walls)
3. ③ (A suction force resulting from transpiration)
Phloem: Transports ④ dissolved in sap vacuole.
Consists of sieve elements which are placed end to end to form sieve tubes.
Companion cells (with nucleus) control activities of the sieve tubes by providing energy.
Mode of transport in phloem
1. ⑤ (Require energy to transport substances)
2. Translocation (A process that substances in solution are carried to all parts of the plant . Mechanism is not fully understood.
Affected by a lack of oxygen, temperature, poison.)
Activity 03-1-02: Write the chemical ①②④. Name the force ③. Name the process ⑤.
03-1-03 Transpiration.
 Transpiration is a process by which water evaporates from a plant. Mostly occurs through stomata in leaves.
32
 (See next diagram) Temperature and light intensity are related to the opening and closing stomata.
 (See next diagram) On a humid day, especially after a rain, the concentration gradient reduces.
 (See next diagram) On a windy day, the concentration gradient of water vapour increases because water vapour blows away
at the surface of leaves.
03-2 Transport in animals
 Large animals need a transport system that will carry substances to the regions where metabolism takes place.
 They also need to transport products of metabolism (eg respiration and digestion) to specif ic regions for metabolism or
excretion.
 As a result of the increase in size and the need to move materials around large animals, they have developed a complex
transport system known as the blood circulatory system.
 The system comprises blood, the heart and blood vessels.
03-2-01 Composition of blood.

 When a sample of blood is spun in a high speed centrifuge, blood separates into a fluid and a solid part.
 The fluid part is called plasma (55% of blood), and the solid part comprises blood cells and platelets (45% of blood).
Activity 03-2-01: Name the component of blood ①②. Name the blood cell ③-⑥.
03-2-02 Function of blood.

 Blood is highly specialized tissue that performs many functions;
33
1. ① :  Blood transports essential food nutrients, hormones, metabolic wastes and gases.
2. ② :  White blood cells protect from invading bacteria by phagocytes and antibodies.
 Excess loss of blood through bleeding is prevented by blood clotting.
3. ③ :  Blood fulf ils a homeostatic function, maintaining the constancy of the internal
environment (eg. osmorality and temperature)
 Each component of blood is responsible for some special functions.
Structure Contents Function
Plasma Water Buffer in the blood
Maintain osmotic pressure
Medium of transport for soluble food substances, minerals, wastes,
hormones, etc
④ Maintain normal blood pressure
(Albumin) Make blood viscous
(Globulin) Protein of which antibodies are made
(Fibrinogen) Clotting of blood
Cells Red blood cells Exchange of ⑤ and ⑥
(haemoglobin) Combine reversibly with oxygen
White blood cells
(Phagocytes) Kill germs by ingesting them (phagocytosis)
(Lymphocytes) Produce antibodies which kill germs
Platelets ⑦
Activity 03-2-02: List the function ①-③. Name the chemical ④-⑥. Name the process ⑦.
03-2-03 Transfusion and blood groups

 If somebody loses a lot of blood as a result of an injury or surgical operation, he/she can be given a blood transfusion.
 A person who gives blood is a donor, while the one receiving is a ntercost.
 For a transfusion to be successful, the blood type of the donor has to match the blood of the ntercost.
 If the two blood types do not match, the donor‟s red blood cells are clumped together (agglutination) in the patient‟s blood
vessels and cause serious harm.
 The factors which determine the blood types are inherited. eg ABO, Rhesus factor
 In ABO system, blood type O is universal donor, while blood group AB is universal ntercost.
 Group O does not have antigens while group AB does not have antibodies.
 The absence of antigen in group O means that the ntercost‟s blood antibodies have no antigen to react against. While in
group AB, the antigens will be present in the donated blood and the ntercost‟s blood has antibodies to attack the antigens,
leading the agglutination between two bloods.
* Antigens and antibodies
Group Antigen on cells Antibody in plasma
A A Anti-B
B B Anti-A
AB A and B Neither
O Neither Anti-A and anti-B
* Blood transfusion
Group Can donate blood to Can receive blood from
A A and AB A and O
B B and AB B and O
AB AB All groups
O All groups O
03-2-04 Structure of the heart.

 The heart is situated in the left side of the chest, behind the sternum and between the lungs.
 The walls of the heart are made of cardiac muscle.
 The heart contracts rhythmically because of the action of pacemakers found in right nterc.
 During rest, a healthy adult has a heart rate of 72 beats per minute.
34
Activity 03-2-04: Identify the part of the heart ①-⑯.
03-2-05 Function of the heart.

 The heart pumps blood throughout the body.
 Valves in the heart and blood vessels prevent backflow of blood. This ensures that blood travels in only one direction.
Structure Function
Left atrium Receive ① blood from the lungs via ②

Left ventricle Pump blood to all parts of the body except the lungs via aorta
Right atrium Receive ③ blood
Right ventricle Pump blood to the lungs via ④
Bicuspid valve Prevent backflow of blood to ⑤
Tricuspid valve Prevent backflow of blood to ⑥
Aorta Carry ⑦ blood to the body
Pulmonary artery Carry ⑧ blood to the lungs
Pulmonary vein Return ⑨ blood from the lungs to the heart
Vena cava Return ⑩ blood from the body
Activity 03-2-05: Write the state of blood ①③⑦⑩. Name the blood vessel ②④. Name the part of heart ⑤⑥.
03-2-06 Coronary heart diseases.

* Examples;
Coronary heart diseases Causes
① Sudden stopping of contractions of heart muscle
Block of the coronary arteries
Hypertension High blood pressure
Arteriosclerosis Narrowing and hardening of arteries
Fatty deposits (② ) on the walls of the artery
Coronary thrombosis Forming of blood clot (thrombus) in the artery
Likely to occur in arrow arteries
* Prevention;
Prevention Causes
③ and Unhealthy diet rich in cholesterol
④ Lead to high blood cholesterol level
Stop or do not start Increase heart rate and blood pressure
⑤ Cause blood to clot more easily
35
Tabacco has toxin which reduces the blood‟s ability to carry oxygen
Reduce ⑥ Release adrenaline which increases heart rate and blood pressure
Activity 03-2-06: Name the disease ①. Name the chemical ②. Fill in the blank ③-⑥.
03-2-07 Three type of blood vessels.

 Arteries divide into smaller vessels called arterioles.
 The arterioles divide repeatedly to form a branching network of microscopic vessels passing between the cells of every living
tissue. These f inal branches are called capillaries.
 The capillaries join up into larger vessels, called venules, which then combine to form veins.
 Arteries are made of thick walled smooth elastic muscles.

 Arteries carry blood from the heart to the body. Arteries carry oxygenated blood except the pulmonary artery.
 Veins are made of smooth thin muscles. Valves are present in veins.
 Veins carry blood to the heart from the body. Veins carry deoxygenated blood except the pulmonary vein.
 Capillaries are thin walled minute blood vessels which run through the tissues.
 Capillaries have walls that are one cell thickness to allow substances to move in and out of them by diffusion.
Activity 03-2-07: Name type of blood vessel ①-③. Identify the part of blood vessels ④-⑧.
Write the direction of blood flowing in (a).
03-2-08 Circulatory system in human.

 Circulation divides into oxygenated blood and deoxygenated blood system.
 Further division based on pulmonary circulation and systemic circulation.
 In one complete circulation, blood passes through the heart twice (called dual circulation).
36
Activity 03-2-08: Name the blood vessel ①-⑬.
03-3 Lymphatic systems
03-3-01 The lymphatic system.

 Tissue fluid which diffuses into lymphatic vessel is called lymph. Lymph is straw-coloured and lacks red blood cells but it
contains blood proteins hence it can clot.
 Lymphatic vessels have ① which prevent the backflow of lymph.
 At a certain points in the lymphatic vessels there are swellings called lymph nodes.
 Lymphocytes are stored in the lymph nodes and released into the lymph to reach, eventually, the blood system. There are
also phagocytes in the lymph nodes. The lymph nodes thus form part of the body‟s defence system against infection.
 The ⑬ is the largest organ in the adult lymphatic system. It lies in the left side of the upper
abdomen, between the lower ribs and the stomach. It contains lymphatics and blood vessels. Its main functions are to
remove worn-out red cells, bacteria and cell fragments from the blood, and to produce lymphocytes and antibodies.
 The ⑭ lies at the top of the thorax, partly over the heart and lungs. It is an important lymphoid
organ particularly in the newborn where it co ntrols the development of the spleen and lymph nodes. The thymus produces
lymphocytes and is the main centre for providing immunity against harmful micro -organisms.
* Importance of lymphatic system;

 It collects plasma and takes it back to the heart.
 It helps to remove harmful or waste products.
 It helps to distribute hormones and food nutrients.
 Lymph transports fats and oils from the small intestines to the liver.
37
 It produces macrophagocytes which helps to remove foreign particles and toxins which enter the body.
Activity 03-3-01: Fill in the blank ①. Identify the part of lymphatic system ②-④. Name the organ ⑤⑬⑭.
Name the blood vessel ⑥⑦. Name the structure ⑧⑨. Name the liquid ⑩-⑫. Name the chemical ⑮⑯.

<03-1-01> ①Xylem ②Phloem ③Cortex ④Root hair ⑤Epidermis ⑥Root cap ⑦Xylem ⑧vessels ⑨f ibres ⑩Phloem
⑪sieve tubes ⑫Epidermis ⑬Cortex ⑭Protection of inside ⑮Cambium ⑯Cell division ⑰Pith ⑱Support of plant
<03-1-02> ①water ②mineral ions ③Transpiration pull ④sugar ⑤Active transport
<03-2-01> ①Plasma ②Platelets ③Red blood cells ④White blood cells ⑤Phagocytes ⑥Lymphocytes
<03-2-02> ①Transport ②Protection ③Regulation ④Plasma protein ⑤oxygen ⑥carbon dioxide ⑦Clotting of blood
<03-2-04> ①Pulmonary artery ②Superior vena cava ③Pulmonary valve ④Right atrium ⑤Inferior vena cava
⑥Tricuspid valve ⑦Chordae tendineae ⑧Right ventricle ⑨Aorta ⑩Pulmonary vein⑪Left atrium ⑫Aotic valve
⑬Semi-lunar valve ⑭Bicuspid valve ⑮Septum ⑯Left ventricle
<03-2-05> ①oxygenated ②pulmonary vein ③deoxygenated ④pulmonary artery ⑤left atrium ⑥right atrium ⑦oxygenated
⑧deoxygenated ⑨oxygenated ⑩deoxygenated
<03-2-06> ①Heart attack ②cholesterol ③Healthy diet ④regular exercise ⑤smoking ⑥stress
<03-2-07> ①Artery ②Vein ③Capillary ④Outer wall ⑤Muscle tissue ⑥Lumen ⑦Inner layer ⑧Valve (a)←
<03-2-08> ①Anterior vena cava ②Pulmonary artery ③Vena cava ④Hepatic vein ⑤Hepatic portal vein ⑥Renal vein
⑦Femoral vein ⑧Carotid artery ⑨Pulmonary vein ⑩Aorta ⑪Hepatic artery ⑫Renal artery ⑬Femoral artery
<03-3-01> ①valves ②Lymph vessel ③Lymph node ④Lymph vesse ⑤Small intestine ⑥Vena cava ⑦Aorta ⑧Blood capillary
⑨Lymphatic ⑩Blood ⑪Tissue fluid ⑫Lymph ⑬spleen ⑭thymus gland ⑮Glucose, Oxygen ⑯Carbon dioxide
Supplement: Birth rate / Death rate

 Birth rate (or crude birth rate) refers to the number of live births (babies) born to a population per one thousand people in the
population.
 Death rate (or mortality rate) refers to the number of deaths which occur per population of 1000 human beings.
* Formula;
Number of births per year 1000

Crude Birth Rate  
Total population 1
Total number of deaths 1000
Death Rate  
Total population 1
* Exercise;
① the mid-year population of Zambia in 1972 was 4.600.000 and the number of babies born in the same year was 227.500.
Calculate the crude birth rate.
② Zambia‟s estimated population in 1992 was 8.6 million people and approximately 190.000 deaths occurred during the same
period as at 1 st July. Calculate the death rate.
* Answer;
227500 1000
① Crude birth rate =  = 49.5
4600000 1
190000 1000
② Death rate =  = 22.1
8600000 1
38
UNIT 04 Respiration
Objectives
□ 04-1 Define respiration.
□ 04-1 Compare and contrast aerobic and anaerobic respiration.
□ 04-2 List the tissues for gaseous exchange.
□ 04-3 Explain the mechanism of breathing in human.
□ 04-3 Describe the adverse effects of smoking on human health.
04-1 Respiration in a cell
 Respiration is the chemical process by which energy is produced from food.

 All cells in living organisms need energy for carring out all the processes.
 There are two types of respiration: aerobic respiration and anaerobic respiration.
04-1-01 Difference between aerobic and anaerobic respiration.

Aerobic respiration Anaerobic respiration
Oxygen ① ②
Water Produced by vapour Not produced
Begin in ③ and
Location In ⑤
continue into ④
Efficiency Very good Inefficient
⑥ ATP from 1 glucose ⑦ ATP from 1 glucose
Example of
All organisms and some yeast Yeast, bacteria, whales
organisms
Activity 04-1-01: Fill in the blank ①②. Name the organelle ③-⑤. Write the number number of molecules ⑥⑦.
04-1-02 ATP as energy for cells.

 Energy from respiration is NOT directly used by the organism.
 It is temporarily stored in a chemical substance called adenosine triphosphate ( ATP).
 ATP is sometimes called „currency‟ of energy for the cell.
 When there is need for energy, ATP is decomposed to ADP and a phosphate group in the presence of the enzyme, ATPase.
* Uses of ATP in human;

Usage Mode of action
③ Cardiac muscles and peristalsis
39
④ Formation of peptide bonds

⑤ Growth, synthesis of chromosome, cell membrane, etc.
⑥ Conformational change of membrane proteins to transport
⑦ Along the axon, for the transport of sodium ions out
Regulation of body temperature Energy released to keep body warm
Activity 04-1-02: Name the chemical ①②. List the cellular process ③-⑦.
04-1-03 Cellular respiration.

 Cellular respiration is divided into two stages by the absence or presence of oxygen in the stage;
 Total equation is shown below.
Activity 04-1-03: Name the chemical ①-⑪. Write molecular formula ⑫-⑯.
04-1-04 Examples of anaerobic respiration.
Activity 04-1-04: Name the chemical ①-⑦.
40
04-1-05 Experiments involved in respiration.
04-1-05A Let‟s try EXP: To investigate whether carbon dioxide is produced in aerobic respiration .
* The presence of carbon dioxide will be indicated by the colour change in the bicarbonate indicator solution. The solution
changes from ① to ② in presence of carbon dioxide in the case of phenol red indicator.
* Suggested materials: bell jars / small animal like a mouse / Petri dishes / bicarbonate indicator solution
* Methods:
2. Leave the experiment for at least six hours .
3. Observe the colour change of indicator solution in each bell jar.
* Questions:
1. What colour changes occurred to the bicarbonate indicator solution?
2. How do you explain these changes?
Activity 04-1-05A : Write the colour ①②.
04-1-05B Let‟s try EXP: To investigate whether heat is given out during respiration.
* Suggested materials: bean seeds / two thermos flasks / two thermometers / cotton wool / disinfectant such as formalin
* Methods:
1. Soak a sample of bean seeds until they begin to germinate.
2. Boil the same number of bean seeds for at least 15 minutes .
3. Rinse the two sets of seeds separately in the disinfectant.
4. Place each sample in a thermos flask.
5. Set up the apparatus as indicated in f igure.
6. Record the initial and f inal temperatures in both thermometers .
* Questions:
1. In which flask did the thermometer show a higher temperature reading?
2. Why?
3. What is the reason for boiling the seeds?
4. What is the reason for rinsing the seeds in a disinfectant?
5. Apart from heat energy what else is produced in the reaction occurring in the flask
with a high temperature reading?
* Hints: Which set of seeds are alive or dead. Respiration is a process only for living organisms. Decay bacteria would
release heat energy during the decaying process.
04-1-05C Let‟s try EXP: To investigate whether oxygen is taken up during respiration .
* Suggested materials: two flasks / small animals such as cockroaches / two syringes / soda lime / wire gauze
* Methods:
2. Smear Vaseline between the stopper and the mouth of the vessel to make the vessel
air-tight.
3. Pull back the plunger of syringe so as to leave the syringe at maximum volume .
4. Record the volume of the syringe at the start of the experiment.
5. After every 10 minutes read off the position of the plunger against the reading on the
syringe.
6. Plot a graph of oxygen uptake against time.
* Questions:
1. What is the purpose of B in this investigation?
2. Explain the differences in observations made in A and B.
3. What gaseous product in A would interfere with the results?
4. How is the interference in question being avoided?
5. From your graph, calculate the rate of oxygen uptake by the cockroaches .
* Hints: Investigater has to show that no change can be seen naturally. As the equation of aerobic respiration, the volume s
of gases which are takeing in (oxygen) and releasing (carbon dioxide) are the same.
04-1-05D Let‟s try EXP: To investigate w hether carbon dioxide is produced in anaerobic respiration.
* Suggested materials: glucose / yeast / test-tubes / pipette / liquid paraff in / bicarbonate indicator solution
41
* Methods:
1. Boil some water to remove dissolved air.
2. Add some glucose to about 5 cm 3 hot water.
3. Allow the solution to cool.
4. Add some little yeast to the sugar solution and allow the yeast to dissolve .
5. Using a pipette, run down some liquid paraff in along the side of the test-tube containing
yeast and sugar solution.
6. Leave the apparatus as in f igure.
7. Using boiled yeast, set up a similar experiment .
8. Observe any colour changes in the indicator solution in both parts of the experiment .
* Questions:
1. Explain the purpose of the following in the experiment:
(a) cooling of sugar solution before yeast is added, and (b) liquid paraff in.
2. What colour changes occurred to the bicarbonate indicator solution?
3. Which other substance can be used in place of bicarbonate indicator?
* Hint: Yeast can conduct both aero bic and anaerobic respiration. Under the presense of oxygen, which is the best way to
produce energy?
04-2 Gaseous exchange
 Gaseous exchange is the process of uptaking of oxygen and releasing of carbon dioxide.
 There is a continuous exchange of these gases between the organism and its environment.
 The movement of these gases into and out of the organism occurs by diffusion.
 Diffusion gradients are always maintained between the environment and the organism because the cells of the organism u se
up oxygen and produce carbon dioxide.
04-2-01 Tissues for gaseous exchange.

Organism tissues
Plant ① in leaf, ② in stem

Amoeba The entire cell membrane
Insect Spiracles (openings to the atmosphere)
Tracheae (fine tubes in the whole body)
Tracheoles (very tiny tubes throughout the body)
Fish Gills
Human Alveoli in lungs
Activity 04-2-01: Name the tissue ①②.
04-2-02 Tracheal system in insects

 Many insects are terrestrial, that is they live on land.
 Like all other terrestrial animals, insects face a problem of water loss which can lead to dehydration.
 To prevent dehydration, insects are covered by a waterproof waxy cuticle.
 While offering protection against dehydration, the cuticle also acts as a barrier to gaseous exchange.
42
 Openings to the atmosphere are found in the cuticle of the thorax and abdomen. These openings are called spiracles.
 Spiracles allow air to pass into and out of the insect body. Spiracles are directly connected to a netw ork of f ine tubes
transversing the whole insect body called tracheae.
 Tracheae thus permeate throughout the insect body and end in the tissues as very tiny tubes called tracheoles. These
tracheoles are the sites for gaseous exchange in insects.
Activity 04-2-02: Identify the part for gaseous exchange in insect ①-③.
04-2-03 Geseous exchange in f ish

 Fish obtain their oxygen from the air dissolved in water by using the gills located in the gill chamber or opercular cavity.
 The gills are covered and hence protected by a semicircular flap called operculum or g ill cover.
 Each gill is made up of a curved bony bar called gill bar or gill arch to which are attached a large number of f ilamentous
outgrowth called gill f ilaments. The gill f ilaments provide a large surface area for gaseous exchange.
* Events in gaseous exchange in f ish;
Order Inspiration Expiration

1 Mouth open close
2 Volume of mouth and pharynx increase decrease
3 Operculum close open
4 Pressure in gill chamber decrease increase
5 Water enter come out
Activity 04-2-03: Name the part for gaseous exchange in f ish ①-⑤.
04-2-04 Gaseous exchange in alveolus.

 In the alveolus, gaseous exchange occurs by diffusion.
 There are many alveoli which greatly increase the surface area for gaseous exchange.
 Oxygen diffuses into the blood across the thin epithelium of the alveolus and blood capillaries.
 Carbon dioxide diffuses from the blood of the capillaries into the alveolus.
 The surfaces are thin, moist and permeable to gases in order to permit and facilitate diffusion.
43
Activity 04-2-04: Name the part ①②⑤⑥. Name the chemical ④⑧. Write the state of blood ③⑦.
Name the movement of gases ⑨.
04-3 Breathing
 The movement of air into and out of the lungs is brought about by changes in the volume of the thorax, or chest.
04-3-01 Breathing mechanism in human.

 These changes are caused by the action of two muscles; the diaphragm and ntercostals muscles.
 Only 4% of oxygen is used. No change in the % of nitrogen.

 Differences in the composition between inhaled and exhaled air can be explained by cellular respiration.
Activity 04-3-01: Name the organ ①-③. Write the movement of each organ ④-⑨.
Write the % of each gas ⑩-⑫, ⑮-⑰. Fill in the blank ⑬⑭⑱⑲.
04-3-02 Air passage in human.

 The structures involved in the passage of air are shown below;
44
 Pharynx: The part of throat that separate passage for food (oesophagus) and air (trachea).
 Trachea: The tube with rings that takes air from the throat to lungs.
 Bronchus (pl. Bronchi): The trachea branches into two narrow tubes called bronchi.
One bronchus goes into the left l ung, the other goes into right lung.
 Bronchiole: Each bronchus further subdivides into smaller tubes called bronchioles.
 Alveolus (pl. Alveoli): Bronchioles end in structures called alveoli or air sacs.
A network of blood capillaries covers in alveoli.
* Sequences of inhaled air:
Mouth  Pharynx  Trachea  Bronchus  Bronchiole  Alveolus
* Sequences of exhaled air:
Alveolus  Bronchiole  Bronchus  Trachea  Pharynx  Mouth
Activity 04-3-02: Name the part ①-⑤. Name the blood vessel ⑥⑦.
04-3-03 Examples of respiratory diseases .

* Diseases of breathing system;
Name Cause
Bronchitis Inflammation of the bronchial tubes
Pleurisy Inflammation of the pleural membranes
Pneumoconiosis Inflammation of the lungs due to, eg. asbestos or silica dust
Pneumonia Infection of the lungs by bacteria or viruses
Tuberculosis Infection of the lungs by bacteria
Emphysema Destruction of walls of the alveoli caused by, eg. smoking
Asthema Allergic reaction to many substances inducing those in tobacco smoke
Influenza Infection of the repiratory passages by viruses
Silicosis Prolonged inhaling of dust
Lung cancer Growths in walls of the bronchial tubes caused by, eg. smoking
04-3-04 Smoking effect on the lungs.

 Smoking causes many respiratory diseases.
 Harmful substances in tobacco are nicotine, tar, carbon monoxide, etc (about 20 substances).
 Affection is not only smokers but also the people in the same room. It is called “Passive smoking”.
Timing Symptoms / Reactions
Short term: Speed up heart rate and increase blood pressure
① Cause blood vessels to constrict
② Coughs, trying to clear the vessel
③ Damage lining of blood vessels while increasing fatty deposits on the walls
45
Long term: Bronchitis, Asthema, Emphysema, Lung cancer, Heart disease

④ Stain teeth and fingers
Deposit in the lung, leading to growth of cancerous cells
⑤ Make blood clot more easily
Increase risk of coronary diseases
Chemical irritants Cause narrowing of air passages
During pregnancy: Smaller baby at birth
Increase risk of miscarriage, stillbirth, and infant death
 The cancer inducing chemicals are called carcinogens.
Activity 04-3-04: List the harmful substance in tobacco ①-⑤.

<04-1-01> ①Present ②Absent ③cytoplasm ④mitochondria ⑤cytoplasm ⑥36 ⑦2
<04-1-02> ①ADP(Adenosine diphosphate) ②ATP(Adenosine triphosphate) ③Muscle contraction ④Protein synthesis ⑤Cell
division ⑥Active transport ⑦Transmission of nerve impulse
<04-1-03> ①Glucose ②Pyruvic acid ③Pyruvic acid ④Oxygen ⑤Carbon dioxide ⑥Water ⑦Glucose ⑧Oxygen
⑨Carbon dioxide ⑩Water ⑪Energy(2880kJ) ⑫C 6 H12 O6 ⑬6O 2 ⑭6CO2 ⑮6H2 O ⑯36ATP
<04-1-04> ①Glucose ②2 ethyl alcohol ③Carbon dioxide ④Energy (2ATP) ⑤Glucose ⑥2 lactic acid ⑦Energy (2ATP)
<04-1-05A> ①red ②yellow
<04-2-01> ①Stomata ②Lenticels
<04-2-02> ①Spiracle ②Trachea ③Tracheole
<04-2-03> ①Gill bar ②Gill f ilament ③Operculum ④Gill chamber ⑤Gill f ilament
<04-2-04> ①Moisture ②Red blood cell ③Deoxygenated blood ④Oxygen ⑤epithelium ⑥capillary ⑦Oxygenated blood
⑧Carbon dioxide ⑨Diffusion
<04-3-01> ①lungs ②ribs ③diaphragm ④expansion ⑤upwards,outwards ⑥contract,flatten ⑦reduction
⑧downwards,inwards ⑨relax,elevate ⑩21% ⑪0.03% ⑫79% ⑬Room temperature ⑭Variable ⑮17% ⑯4% ⑰79%
⑱36℃ ⑲100%
<04-3-02> ①Trachea ②Bronchus ③Bronchiole ④Alveolus ⑤capillary ⑥pulmonary artery ⑦pulmonary vein
<04-3-04> ①Nicotine ②Tar ③Carbon monoxide ④Tar ⑤Nicotine
<Sample question>
1. During the beating of the heart, in which region will the highest pressure develop?
A. Left atrium. B. Left ventricle. C. Pulmonary artery. D. Right ventricle.
2. Which substance is present in lower concentration in the renal artery than in the renal vein?
A. Amino acids. B. Carbon dioxide. C. Glucose. D. Urea.
3. Which substance occurs at a higher concentration in the pulmonary vein than in the pulmonary artery?
A. Carbon dioxide. B. Glucose. C. Oxygen. D. Water.
4. During inspiration, which of the following does NOT place?

A. Movement of the diaphragm down. B. Contraction of intercoastal muscles.
C. Movement of the rib cage down. D. Increase in volume of thoracic cavity.
5. An athlete runs a 1000m race. The following changes take place in the ath lete‟s body during the race.
1. Increased availability of oxygen to the muscles. 2. Increased breathing rate.
3. Increased carbon dioxide concentration in the blood. 4. Increased production of carbon dioxide by the muscles
In which order to these changes occur?
A. 1  2  3  4. B. 2  1  4  3. C. 2  4  3  1. D. 4  3  2  1.
<Answer> 1. B. 2. B. 3. C. 4. C. 5. D.
46
UNIT 05 Excretion
Objectives
□ 05-1 Define excretion.
□ 05-2 Explain the mechanism of excretion in the kidney.
05-1 Excretion
 Excretion is the removal of toxic wastes of metabolism from the body.

 Metabolic wastes in animals include carbon dioxide, water, bile pigments, nitrogenous products (urea, ammonia and uric acid),
etc.
 The accumulation of wastes in the body interferes with the proper functioning of cells .
 The term excretion should not usually be applied to the passing out of faeces (egestion), because most of the contents of the
faeces, apart from the bile pigments, have not taken part in reactions in the cells of the body.
05-1-01 Excretory organ in mammals.

Excretory organ Excretory products Form of excretion
① carbon dioxide Exhaled air
② water, mineral salts, urea, lactic acid Sweat
③ bile pigments Faeces
nitrogenous wastes, excess water, mineral salts, Urine
④
toxins, hormones, drugs
 Excess proteins and amino acids are deaminated by liver cells to produce ammonia. Ammonia is then converted to less
toxic urea.
Activity 05-1-01: List the organ ①-④.
05-2 The kidneys
 The kidneys are the most important excretory organ s in mammals.

 They are a pair of bean-shaped organs, and located toward the back of the abdominal cavity.
05-2-01 Structure of urinary system and the kidney in human.

 Attached to the kidney are the ureter, renal artery and renal vein.
Activity 05-2-01: Name the blood vessel ①⑤⑥⑦. Name the organ ②③④⑧⑨. Name the part of the kidney ⑩-⑭.
05-2-02 Detail structure of the kidney.

 A kidney is a compact organ which has its tissues in distinct regions.
47
 These main regions of the kidney are the cortex, medulla and pelvis.
 The renal artery divides up into a great many arterioles and capillaries, mostly in the cortex.
 Each arteriole leads to a glomerulus.
 Each glomerulus is almost entirely surrounded by a cup-shaped organ called Bowman’s capsule, which leads to a coiled
tubule.
 After a number of loops and coils, the renal tubules join a common collecting duct, which passes through the medulla to open
into the pelvis.
Activity 05-2-02: Name the organ ①-④. Name the region of the kidney ⑤-⑧.
05-2-03 Nephron.
 A nephron is the unit of function of the kidney.
 A nephron is a single glomerulus with its Bowman‟s capsule, renal tubule and blood capillaries.
 In a nephron, ultrafiltration (from blood to capsule) and selective reabsorption (from tubule to blood) are processed.
Activity 05-2-03: Name the part ①②,⑧-⑪,⑮. Name the process ③⑫. Name the chemical ④-⑦,⑬⑭.
05-2-04 Artif icial kidney.

 Sometimes, a kidney may stop working properly due to infection or accident. This condition is known as kidney failure.
 Kidney failure may be treated in two main ways: kidney transplant and dialysis (using artif icial kidney machines).
 Patient‟s blood from the artery is passed into the machines and returned t o a vein in the same arm.
 The dialysis fluid is changed regularly to remove wastes and maintain a diffusion gradient between the patient ‟s blood and the
dialysis fluid.
48
Activity 05-2-04: List the feature of each structure ①-④.

<05-1-01> ①Lungs ②Skin ③Liver ④Kidney
<05-2-01> ①Vena cava ②Right kidney ③Sphincter muscle ④Urethra ⑤Aorta ⑥Renal artery ⑦Renal vein ⑧Ureter
⑨Bladder ⑩Cortex ⑪Glomerulus ⑫Medulla ⑬Pelvis ⑭Capsule
<05-2-02> ①Glomerulus ②Bowman‟s capsule ③Branch of renal artery ④Collecting duct ⑤Cortex ⑥Pyramid ⑦Medulla
⑧Pelvis
<05-2-03> ①Glomerulus ②Bowman‟s capsule ③Filtration ④Glucose ⑤Amino acids ⑥Salts ⑦Wastes
⑧Descending renal tubule ⑨Ascending renal tubule ⑩Capillary ⑪Loop of Henle ⑫Reabsorption ⑬Water
⑭Useful substances (eg glucose, mineral ions) ⑮Collecting duct
<05-2-04> ①37℃ ②Salts and sugars ③Semi-permeable ④Large surface area
<Sample question>
1. Which process can take place in a root hair cell when oxygen is NOT available?
A. Active transport only. B. Diffusion only.
C. Active transport and osmosis. D. Diffusion and osmosis.
2. Which process does not use energy released by respiration?

A. Active transport of glucose into the villi. B. Diffusion of oxygen across the alveolar.
C. Maintainance of a constant body temperature. D. Passage of nerve impulses.
3. Which is the best equation to represent aerobic respiration?

A. carbon dioxide + water + energy  oxygen + sugar
B. energy + oxygen  carbon dioxide + water + sugar
C. oxygen + sugar  carbon dioxide + water + energy
D. sugar + carbon dioxide  oxygen + water + energy
4. What are the products of aerobic and anaerobic respiration in muscle tissue?
Aerobic respiration Anaerobic respiration
A. Cabon dioxide and water Ethanol
B. Cabon dioxide and water Lactic acid
C. Ethanol Cabon dioxide and water
D. Lactic acid Cabon dioxide and water
5. What is the approximate oxygen content of expired air?

A. 0%. B. 4%. C. 16%. D. 20%.
<Answer> 1. D. 2. B. 3. C. 4. B. 5. C.
49
UNIT 06 Homeostasis
Objectives
□ 06-1 List the important organs in homeostasis.
□ 06-1 Describe the negative feedback loop.
06-1 Homeostasis
 Homeostasis is the maintenance of a constant internal environment.

 The internal environment of the human body is the blood and tissue fluid.
 The concentration, acidity and temperature of this fluid are being adjusted all the time to prevent any big changes.
* Importance;
 Organisms are alive because of the metabolic reactions going inside their cells.
 All the reactions are controlled by enzymes, and enzymes are extremely sensitive to changes in temperature and pH.
06-1-01 Organ involved in homeostasis.

 The hypothalamus in the brain plays an important role in homeostasis as a control centre.
Activity 06-1-01: Fill in the blank ①-⑧.
06-1-02 Mechanism for homeostasis (feedback loop) .

 Feedback is needed to maintain homeostasis.
 For example, when in a hot environment, thermoreceptors send information to the brain. This is processed in the brain and
information is sent to cooling systems in the body to be activated. When adjusted, another feedback is sent to inform the
brain and loop continues.
50
Activity 06-1-02: Fill in the blank ①-⑥.
06-1-03 Thermoregulation. Means control of the body temperature.

Low temperature
Stimulus Sensor Integrator Effector Response Feedback
② Facilitate heart rate
Cold spot in
Increase metabolic
skin ③
reaction
Low Temperature controlling
④ Constrict Raised body
temperature Heat sensitive centre in the
⑤ temperature
in outside neurones in ① Contract
in skin
the
⑥
hypothalamus Not produce the sweat
in skin
High temperature
② Suppress heart rate
Warm spot
Decrease metabolic
in skin ③
reaction
High Temperature controlling Lowered
④ Dilate
temperature Heat sensitive centre in the body
⑤
in outside neurones in ① Relax temperature
in skin
the
⑥ Increase production of
hypothalamus
in skin sweat
* Methods of heat gain/loss
Heat gain/loss Mode of action
Radiation Transfer of heat from hot object to cold through the air
Evaporation Change of liquid to vapour accompanied by cooling
Conduction Transfer of heat when in contact with each other
Convection Movement of air in which the warmer air is replaced by cooler air
 Constriction of capillary prevents the heat from radiating.
 Contraction of muscle leads erection of the hair thus helps the air to be trapped.
 Less sweat production leads less evaporation.
 As a result of these responses, body temperature will raise.
Activity 06-1-03: Name the organ ①-⑥.
06-1-04 Skin structure.
 The skin (Cutaneous layer) consists of two layers, an epidermis and a dermis.
51
 The epidermis can be subdivided into three layers, an outer cornif ied layer, a middle granular layer and an in ner Malpighian
layer.
 Cornif ied layer contains keratin, an effective waterproof layer. Granular layer replaces dead cells from the cornif ied layer.
Malpigian layer contains melanin to protect genetic material from UV radiation.
 The dermis consists of a thick layer of connective tissues. Within the dermis are capillaries and nerve endings.
 The nerve endings are sensitive to touch, pain and temperature.
 There are sweat glands, hair follicles and oil producing glands, called sebaceous glands, in the dermis.
 The capillaries are important in the control of the temperature of the body. The sweat glands act as excretory organs.
Activity 06-1-04: Name the part in the skin ①-⑩.
06-1-05 Osmoregulation. Means control of the water and salts balance.

Low osmolarity (dilute blood)
Osmolarity
Secret
sensitive Osmolarity
Low ②
neurones in controlling Raised
osmolarity ① to facilitate reabsorption of
hypothalamus centre in the osmolarity
in blood ③
hypothalamus
Adrenal in Loop of Henle
glands
High osmolarity (concentrated blood)
Secret
Osmolarity Osmolarity
High ⑤
sensitive controlling Lowered
osmolarity ④ to facilitate reabsorption of
neurones in centre in the osmolarity
in blood ⑥
hypothalamus hypothalamus
in Loop of Henle
Activity 06-1-05: Name the organ ①④. Name chemical ②③⑤⑥.
06-1-06 Blood glucose level regulation.

Low glucose level
Secret ②
① to facilitate conversion into
Low Glucose level Glucose level in pancreas ③ from
Raised
glucose sensitive controlling ④
glucose level
level in neurones in centre in the Secret ⑥
in blood
blood hypothalamus hypothalamus to facilitate conversion into
⑤
③ from
④
High glucose level
High Glucose level Glucose level Secret ⑦
Lowered
glucose sensitive controlling ① to facilitate synthesis
glucose level
level in neurones in centre in the in pancreas ⑧ from
in blood
blood hypothalamus hypothalamus ⑨
Activity 06-1-06: Name the organ ①⑤. Name chemical ②-④,⑥-⑨.

<06-1-01> ①Receives ②Controls ③Temperature ④Glucose level ⑤Oxygen ⑥Carbon dioxide ⑦Water ⑧Salts
<06-1-02> ①Stimulus ②Sensor ③Integrator ④Effector ⑤Response ⑥Negative feedback
<06-1-03> ①hypothalamus ②Heart ③Liver ④Blood capillaries ⑤Hair erector muscles ⑥Sweat glands
<06-1-04> ①Epidermis ②Dermis ③Sub-cutaneous layer ④Cornif ied layer ⑤Granular layer ⑥Malpigian layer
52
⑦Blood capillary ⑧Sweat gland ⑨Sebaceous gland ⑩Erector muscle
<06-1-05> ①Adrenal glands ②adrenocorticosteroid ③sodium ion ④Pituitary ⑤ADH, or vasopressin ⑥water
<06-1-06> ①Islet of Langerhans ②glucagon ③glucose ④glycogen ⑤Adrenal glands ⑥adrenaline ⑦insulin ⑧glycogen
⑨glucose
<Sample question>
1. Which substances in the dialysis fluid should be at a lower concentration tha n the blood?
A. Amino acids and glucose. B. Glucose and salts. C. Glucose and urea. D. Salts and urea.
2. From which of the following is urea produced?

A. Fats. B. Glycerol. C. Proteins. D. Starch.
3. Which of the following is NOT normally present in urine?

A. Glucose. B. Water. C. Urea. D. Nephron.
4. Where are hormones destroyed?

A. Adrenal glands. B. Kidneys. C. Liver. D. Pancreas.
5. What is the result of a rise in body temperature?

A. A decrease in the production of sweat. B. An increase in blood flow to the skin.
C. Narrowing of blood vessels in the skin. D. Raising of hairs on the skin.
6. How does spraying of oil and insecticide on stagnant water help to reduce the spre ad of malaria?
A. It suffocates the larvae and pupae. B. It kills the mosquito.
C. It destroys the eggs. D. It suffocates the plasmodium.
7. Oil is sometimes sprayed on ponds in areas where malarial is present.

How can this reduce the transmission of malaria?
A. Insect larvae cannot get enough oxygen from the air.
B. It encourages insect-eating f ish to bread in the ponds.
C. People are less likely to drink the infected water.
D. The oil kills the malaria pathogen.
8. Which food contains the highest concentrations of protein and iron?

A. Bread. B. Citrus fruit. C. Fresh vegetables. D. Meat.
9. Which component of a balanced diet is used to make new enzyme molecules?

A. Carbohydrates. B. Fats. C. Prot eins. D. Water.
10. The cells of green plants make starch from simple inorganic materials. What is the function of chlorophyll in this proc ess?
A. To absorb carbon dioxide. B. To release oxygen.
C. To store starch. D. To trap light energy.
11. Which secretion does not contain digestive enzyme?

A. Bile. B. Gastric juice.
C. Intestinal juice. D. Pancreatic juice.
<Answers> 1. D. 2. C. 3. A. 4. C. 5. B. 6. A. 7. A. 8. D 9. C 10. D 11. A
53
UNIT 07 Growth and Development
Objectives
□ 07-1 Identify the regions of cell division in stems and roots.
□ 07-2 Describe the life history of a mosquito.
□ 07-2 Explain the role of mosquitoes in the spread of malaria.
07-1 Growth in plants
 Most living organisms start their lives as a single cell (eg zygote), too small to be seen with the naked eye.
 This cell divides many times (by mitosis) to produce an organism made up of thousands or millons of cells.
 Also, all living things grow either by increasing the size of their individual cells or by multiplying and increasing in size at the
same time.
 The increase in the size of the cells is the result of converting nutrients i nto living materials.
 As organisms grow, they develop special structures that enable them to cope with the demands of life. This process is called
differentiation or specialization, resulting in the formation of tissues, organs and systems.
07-1-01 Meristematic region in root and stem.

 In plants, growth is mainly conf ined to the tips of roots and stems.
 It is at these tips where the specialized cells that actively divide are situated.
 These cells form meristematic tissues.
 The stem apical meristem is protected by overlapping scales.
 The root apical meristem is covered and protected by the root cap.
Activity 07-1-01: Identify the part of stem and root ①-⑧. Name the process ⑨-⑪.
07-2 Growth in insects
07-2-01 Life cycle of mosquito.

 The female mosquito lays its eggs in stagnant water after mating.
 The eggs hatch into larvae after a few days.
 The larvae of the mosquito are very active. They swim in the water and feed on tiny acquatic plants and animals.
 The mosquito pupa has a different shape from that of the larva.
 The larvae tissues dissolve and new tissues develop within the pupa.
 After some days, the young adalt mosquito breaks out of the skin , and then flies out of the water.
Activity 07-2-01: Name the stage of life cycle ①-④.
54
07-2-02 Metamorphosis
 In many insects, when the insect develops from larva to adult, it undergoes distinct structural changes.
 Because of this, the larva, pupa and adult look very different from each other.
 These changes in form as the i nsect develops are called metamorphosis.
 Insects such as mosquitoes and houseflies show complete metamorphosis. In this case, the structural and
morphological appearance between the larve, pupa and adult are quite different.
 Insects such as cockroach and grasshopper show incomplete metamorphosis. In this case, the signif icant differences
between the young developing insect and the adult are that the young insect is smaller than the adult.
 Insects that show imcomplete metamorphosis do not have the pu pa stage in their life cycle. The larva in this case is called
nymph.
 During metamorphosis, the larva or nymph has to shed off its skin , or exoskeleton, in order to allow for increase in size. This
is so because the skeleton of insects covers the body. Since it is a rigid structure, it restricts expansion of the body.
07-2-03 Malaria.
 Houseflies and mosquitoes are important to human beings because they transmit diseases. They are called vectors of
disease. One of these diseases is malaria.
 The malarial parasite is a protozoan called ① .
 ① is found in the salivary glands of the female Anopheles mosquito (insect vector).
 ① is spread from person to person by mosquitoes of the genus Anopheles .
 When an Anopheles mosquito bites a human to obtain blood, it injects saliva mixed with a substance that prevents the blood
from clotting.
 If the mosquito is infected with ①, it will also inject about 1000 elongated cells of this protist into the bloodstream of its
victim.
 There are three stages in the ① life cycle.
 The stage of ① while it lives in mosquitoes and is injected into humans is called the sporozoite.
 Sporozoites make their way through the bloodstream to the human ② in about three minutes.
 In the ②, they rapidly divide and produce millions of cells of the second stage of life cycle, called the merozoite.
 Merozoites reenter the host‟s bloodstream, invade ③ and divide rapidly.
 In about 48 hours, ③ rupture, releasing merozoites and toxic substances throughout the host body, initiating a cycle of
fever and chills that characterizes malaria (see next f igure).
 The cycle repeats itself regularly every 48 hours as new waves of blood cells are infected.
 Some of the merozoites in the human bloodstream undergo a sexual phase and develop into third stage of ① life cycle,
called the gametocyte.
 In the human bloodstream, gametocytes are incapable of undergoing meiosis to form haploid gametes. However, if they are
extracted from an infected person by a mosquito, they form sperm and egg cells within the gut of the mosquito.
 Gametes fuse to form a zygote, which develops in the wall of the mosquito ‟s gut and produces large numbers of sporozoites.
 Sporozoites migrate to the salivary glands of the mosquito, where they may be infected by the mosquito into the bl oodstream
of a human, completing the life cycle.
55
Activity 07-2-03: Name the organism ① in text. Name the organ and cell ②③ in text. Name the stage ①-③ in f igure.
* Treatments: Chloroquinine. Quinine. Anti-malarial drugs.
* Symptoms: Headaches. Muscle aches. Anaemia (damage to red blood cells).
Alternates with cold shivering spells and hot sweating with shaking .
07-2-04 Prevention of malaria.

Prevention Mode of action
Population control Fogging to kill adult mosquitoes
Spraying ①
The use of ②
Preventing bites Mosquito creams and fumes
Screening windows and doors, using ③ over beds
Wear suitable garments, long sleeved shirts and long pants
Removing breeding sites Draining places with stagnant water
Introducing fish etc. into ponds
Spraying oil onto standing containers
Emptying receptacles that collect water
Drugs Anti-malarial drugs
Biological control Releasing sterile male Anopheles
Releasing predators and parasites of mosquitoes
Activity 07-2-04: Name the method ①-③.
07-3 Growth in vertebrates
07-3-01 Life cycle in a toad.

 Toads spend most of their developing stage in water and the adult life on land.
 The stages in the life cycles of a toad consist of egg, larva and adult, so that they show complete metamorphosis.
Stage Features Functions
Egg Yolk Source of nutrients
Albumen Holding eggs together for protection
Larva External and internal gills For breathing in water
(tadpole) Tail For swimming
Mouth For feeding
Adult Lungs For breathing on land
Hind legs For jumping
Webbed feet For swimming
Forelegs Landing and balance
Poison glands Protection
07-3-02 Life cycle in human beings.

 Growth in human beings can be divided into stages. These are the prenatal, infant, early childhood, juvenile, adolescent
and postadolescent stages.
 As the human being grows from one stage to another, there are very distinct proportional differences in the various structure s
of the body. That is, the head grows relatively little compared with the limbs.

<07-1-01> ①Over-lapping scales ②Developing leaf ③Apical meristem ④Developing axillary bud ⑤Phloem ⑥Xylem
⑦Apical meristem ⑧Root cap ⑨Cell differentiation ⑩Cell elongation ⑪Cell division
<07-2-01> ①Eggs ②Larva ③Pupa ④Adult (Imago)
<07-2-03> (text) ①Plasmodium ②liver ③red blood cells (f igure) ①Hot stage ②Cold stage ③Sweating stage
<07-2-04> ①insecticides ②mosquito coils ③mosquito nets
56
UNIT 08 Responses
Objectives
□ 08-1 Demonstrate responses exhibited by plants.
□ 08-1 State functions of auxins.
□ 08-2 Name the hormones and the glands which produced the hormones.
□ 08-2 Explain the function of adrenaline.
□ 08-3 Describe the nervous system in human.
□ 08-3 Outline the pathway through a spinal reflex arc.
□ 08-3 Describe the effects of abuse of drugs.
□ 08-4 Describe the structure and function of the eye.
□ 08-4 Describe accommodation of the eye.
08-1 Response in plants
08-1-01 Tropic response in plant (Tropism).

 Tropisms are growth movements related to directional stimuli.
1. Geotropism (positively - root, negatively - shoot; see f igure):
The plant response to ①
2. Phototropism (positively - shoot, negatively - root):
The plant response to ②
3. Hydrotropism (positively - root, pollen tube):
The plant response to ③
4. Chemotropism (positively - root, pollen tube):
The plant response to ④
5. Thigmotropism (positively - tendril):
The plant response to ⑤
Activity 08-1-01: List the stimulus ①-⑤.
08-1-02 Auxin.
 Plants grow towards light when exposed to unidirectional light because of chemical substances , auxins in the plants.
 In the activity (A), the coleoptile tips were cut off and the coleoptiles allowed to grow. The coleoptiles stopped growing
after a few days. From this, it was concluded that the coleoptiles stopped growin g due to desiccation.
 When the coleoptile tips were covered with foil caps (B) or transparent caps (C) and then illuminated from one side, the
shoots with transparent caps moved toward light. This showed that the tips were the one sensitive to one-sided light. It
was also concluded that light reduces the auxins in the tip.
 In another activity, the tips were cut off and pieces of mica (D) or gelatin (E) placed between the tips and the rest of the
shoots. It was observed that only coleoptiles with gelatin bent. They concluded that the mica prevented chemicals from
reaching the shoot. And the chemical passed through the gelatin to the shoots causing them to grow.
 In the activity (F), the exercised cut tip was placed on agar blocks and left for several hours. The agar blocks were then
placed on the tips in such a way that only a part of the tip was covered. The tips grew towards the direction without the agar
57
block. This proved that the chemical in the tip diffused into the block. The part with the block received more of the
growth-promoting chemical and thus causing it to grow towards the other part without extra growth-promoting chemical.
 On the other hand, in the case of roots, it has been suggested that the higher concentration of auxins reduces growth. This
causes the roots to grow downwards towards the force of gravity. The above activities were used to explain tropisms.
08-1-03 Plant hormones.

 Nowadays, some plant hormones are identif ied and the functions of them are examined.
dropping of maturing of
growth budding aging differentiation
leaves fruit
promotion auxins gibberellins abscisic acid abscisic acid auxins auxins (root)
gibberellins ethelene ethelene gibberellins cytokinins (shoot)
cytokinins ethelene
inhibition abscisic acid abscisic acid auxins auxins
ethelene cytokinins
08-2 Endocrine system
 The endocrine system consists of ductless glands which produce hormones.

 Hormones are chemicals secreted by the endocrine glands which are ductless.
 Hormones are related into the bloodstream and transported to different parts of the body where they affect the target organ.
That is hormones act as 'messengers'.
 Hormones are usually produced in minute concentrations.
 Some hormones are target-specific while others are more generalised in their action.
08-2-01 Endocrine glands in human.

 The main glands that makeup the endocrine system are the pituitary, thyroid, parathyroid, islets of Langerhans in the
pancreas, adrenal, testes and ovaries.
Activity 08-2-01: Name the organ ①-⑥.
08-2-02 Examples of hormones.

 Hormones are important because they are particularly concerned with metabolic processes in the body cells.
 Hormones can coordinate long-term changes such as growth and maturation of the organisms.
Endocrine gland Hormone Target organ Function
Pituitary ① Body cells Growth
② Thyroid gland Stimulate to secrete thyroxine
③ Testes, ovaries Stimulate to secrete sex steroid hormones
④ Kidney Promote reabsorption of water
Control metabolic rate
Thyroid ⑤ Tissue cells
Regulate growth and development
Liver, heart, skin,
Adrenals ⑥ lungs, alimentary Prepare body for fight or flight response
canal
Pancreas ⑦ Tissue cells and liver Regulate conversion of glucose to glycogen
58
⑧ Tissue cells and liver Regulate conversion of glycogen to glucose
Development of primary and secondary
Testes ⑨ Body cells and testes
characteristics in males
Ovaries ⑩ Uterus, ovary Control growth of uterus walls
⑪ Body cells Secondary characteristics in females
 The formation of throxine requires the element iodine.
 The islets of Langerhans are made up of two types of cells, called alpha cells which secrete glucagons and beta cells
which secrete insulin.
 If anything goes wrong with the producing or function of insulin, the person will show the symptoms of diabetes.
 The adrenal cortex produces cortisol, which is responsible for the conversion of fats and proteins to glucose, and
aldosterone, which promotes the reabsorption of sodium ions into the blood from the glomerular f iltrate.
 The adrenal medulla produces adrenalin and noradrenalin.
Activity 08-2-02: Name the hormone ①-⑪.
08-2-03 Function of adrenaline (nicknamed ① hormone)

* Three main effects
 Make ② more quickly.
 Increase ③ , ie. the rate at which the cells release energy.
 Constrict arteries to the less important organs and dilates those to the more important ones (eg . muscles) so that blood is
diverted to where it is most needed.
Target organ Effect Advantage
④ Increase heart beat and blood pressure Send more glucose and oxygen to the muscles
⑤ Convert glycogen to glucose For energy production
⑥ Increase rate of gaseous exchange Increase oxygen concentration in blood
⑦ Increase sweating Help to cool active muscle
Less blood going to the skin means more is
⑧ Arterioles contract
available to the muscle
Peristalsis slow down means more energy
⑨ Smooth muscles relax
available for action
Fatty deposit Convert fats to fatty acids Source of energy
Muscles Takes up more glucose and oxygen Ready for immediate action
Activity 08-2-03: Fill in the blank ①-③. Name the organ ④-⑨.
08-3 Nervous system
08-3-01 Description of nervous system.

 The nervous system transmits messages throughout the body via nerves.
 The nervous system can be separated into the central nervous system (CNS) and the peripheral nervous system.
 The peripheral nervous system consist two pathways: sensory pathways in which sensory neurones transmit messages to
CNS, and motor pathways in which motor neurones transmit messages to effector such as muscles.
59
08-3-02 Structure of the brain in human.

 The brain can divide into several parts based on their structures and functions.
Activity 08-3-02: Identify the part of the brain ⑥-⑩.
08-3-03 Function of the central nervous system.

Structure Function
Regulate ① , ② , sense interpretation, reasoning, and
Cerebrum
other voluntary activities
All ③ , including conditioned behaviour (habit)
Cerebellum Responsible for ④
Responsible for helping the body to remain in ⑤ relative to its surroundings
Medulla oblongata Regulate the ⑥ , ⑦ processes of the body (involuntary)
eg. regulation of ⑧ , ⑨ , ⑩
Control ⑪ , ⑫ , ⑬ ,
Hypothalamus
⑭
Spinal cord Connect the brain to the peripheral nerves
Coordinate the ⑮
Activity 08-3-03: Fill in the blank ①-⑮.
08-3-04 Cells in nervous system.

 The nervous system is made up of nerve cells, called neurones.
 Messages are transmitted in form of electrical impulses.
 Multipolar neurons (or relay neurones or intermediate neurones) are neither sensory nor motor but make connections to
other neurones inside the CNS.
 Nervous impulses travel in one direction only. It starts at the dendrites and travels towards the axon.
 The regions where impulses are able to cross from one neuron e to the next are called synapses.
60
Activity 08-3-04: Name the cell ①-③. Identify the part of neurones ④-⑧. Write the direction of impulse in ⑨⑩.
08-3-05 Synapse.
 When an impulse arrives at the synapse, it releases a tiny amount of a chemical substance (a neurotransmitter) which sets
off an impulse in the next neurone.
 The nerve f ibres do not carry sensations like pain or cold. These sensations are felt only when a nerve impulse reaches the
brain. The impulse itself is a series of electrical pulses which travel down the f ibre. All nerve impulses are similar; the re is
no difference between nerve impulses from the eyes, ears or hands.
Activity 08-3-05: Name the structure ①-③. Fill in the blank ④.
08-3-06 Difference between endocrine and nervous system.

Nervous system Endocrine system
Control Voluntary and involuntary Involuntary
Message ① (nerve impulse) ② (hormone)
Conductor ③ ④
Effector Muscles, glands All over the body except for effector-specific hormones
Speed ⑤ ⑥
Duration ⑦ ⑧
Extent ⑨ ⑩
 Coordination is the way all the organs and systems of the body are made to work eff iciently together.
 It achieves by the nervous system and the endocrine system.
Activity 08-3-06: Contrast two systems ①-⑩.
08-3-07 Two examples of spinal reflex.

 A reflex action is an automatic response to a stimulus.
 The nervous pathway for such reflexes is called a reflex arc.
 One of the simplest situations where impulses cross synapses to produce action is in the spinal reflex arc.
 The brain, theoretically, is not needed for a spinal reflex to happen.
 Sensory f ibres enter the dorsal (means the back) root, while motor f ibres exit through the ventral (means the front) root.
61
Knee jerk (patellar reflex); Flexor reflex;

When you tap tendon in the knee. When you touch a hot object.
Activity 08-3-07: (left f igure) Name the structure of the pathway ①-⑤. Write the direction of impulse at (a) (b).
Activity 08-3-07: (right f igure) Name the structure of the pathway ①-⑥. Write the direction of impulse at (a) to (d) .
08-3-08 Abuse of drugs.

 Drugs are externally administered substances. They modify or affect chemical reactions in the body.
 Drugs can be taken into the body in various ways; eg. orally, by injection, applied as a cream or inhaled.
 Drugs are supposed to be medicinal, but taken incorrectly leads to abuse.
 Abuse of drugs may impair judgment and make you clumsy and inaccurate, eg . Alcohol.
 You may become addicted to the drugs . If you stop taking such a drug, you may suffer from withdrawal symptoms, eg .
nicotine, alcohol, heroin.
Type of drugs Mode of action Examples
Stimulants Speed up transmission of nerve impulses ①
Increase heart rate, breathing and blood pressure ②
③
Depressants Slow down transmission of nerve impulses ④
Slow down body's processes Tranquiliser
Painkillers Block transmission of pain signals to the brain Aspirin
Narcotics Strong painkillers that cause sleepness ⑤
Very addictive ⑥
⑦
Hallucinogens Mind-altering drug ⑧
Abusers lose sense of time and space
Antibiotics Treatment of bacterial infections Penicillin
Activity 08-3-08: Name the drug ①-⑧.
08-3-09 Alcohol.
 Ethanol helps to reduce tension and inhibitions in a person.
 It dilates small blood vessels near the skin. This causes the person to flush and feel warm as well.
 Drinking alcohol during driving leads to road accidents because alcohol consumption slows reflex time and blurs the vision of
the driver. This would lead to an overall poor judgement in the driver.
Timing Symptoms/reactions
Short-term Depressant: slow down nerve actions in the brain and spinal cord
Motor centre Poor ① , poor ②

Reflexes are sluggish
Cerebrum Change in behaviour, loss of ③
Slurring of speech
62
Medulla oblongata Large amounts of alcohol can lead to coma or death (acute alcoholism)
Long-term
Body Malnutrition, damage to heart muscles
Stomach disorders like ulcers and gastritis
Cirrhosis of liver Not able to detoxify blood or process nutrients
Other drugs Most medicines cannot be taken with alcohol as it interacts negatively
Life Lead to ④
During pregnancy Lead to ⑤ (reduced physical/mental development)
Retardation, birth defects, miscarriage
08-3-10 Heroin.
 Heroin is made from morphine. It gives the abuser a sense of euphoria.
 The physical addiction to heroin develops very quickly.
 When the abuser increases his heroin dosage to avoid withdrawal symptoms, a psychological dependence develops as well.
Effect Withdrawal symptoms
Hallucination, reduced alertness Nervousness, chills
Nausea, vomiting Sweating, hot/cold flushes
Impotence Stomach cramps, diarrhoea
Unconsciousness, death
Problem Results in
Crime Turn to crime to feed their habit
Not capable of holding down a job for long
Willing to steal and lie for money to buy more drugs
Infection Addicts that share needles that are used to inject drugs into their system
Without sterile needles and syringes, they are prone to diseases transmitted by blood, like AIDS
Social Family life suffers
Main purpose everyday is to obtain and use drugs
Do not contribute to the family or the country
May be more prone to violent tendencies
Cure The only cure is their own determination to stop the abuse
There are rehabilitation centers and help groups available
08-4 Sense organs
 Living organisms detect changes in their environment using special organs called sense organs.
08-4-01 Sense organ and receptor.

 A stimulus (pl. stimuli) is a change in light, temperature, pressure, etc., which produces a reaction in a living organism.
 Structures which detect stimuli are called receptors. Receptors are consisted of sensory cells.
 The special property of sensory cells and sense organs is that they are able to convert one form of energy to another.
 For example, the eye can convert light energy into the electrical energy of a nerve impulse.
* Types of stimuli and their received organ
1.① : the eye
2.② : the ear
3.③ : touch receptor in the skin
4.④ : temperature receptor in the skin
5.⑤ : taste buds in the tongue, nose
Activity 08-4-01: List the stimulus ①-⑤.
63
08-4-02 Structure of the eye. (external and internal)
 Horizontal section through the right eye

Activity 08-4-02: identify the part of the eye ①-⑥ (external), ①-⑮ (internal).
08-4-03 Function of the parts of the eye.

Structure Notes
① Transparent, bends (refracts) light rays
② Aperture ('hole') through which light rays pass into eye
③ Surrounds pupil, can constrict or dilate thereby regulating amount of light entering eye
④ Transparent, bends (refracts) light rays and brings them to a focus on retina
⑤ Ring or circular muscle surrounding lens, attached to lens by suspensory ligament
⑥ Runny fluid, nourishes cornea and maintains correct pressure in front part of eye
⑦ Jelly-like fluid, maintains spherical shape of eyeball
⑧ Layer of light-sensitive cells (rods and cones) lining back and sides of eyeball
Layer of pigmented cells and blood vessels behind retina, absorbs light (preventing it being
⑨
reflected within eye) and nourishes retina
⑩ Thick wall of eyeball (the 'white' of the eye), protective
⑪ Most central part of retina, responsible for 'precision vision'
⑫ Carry nerve impulses from retina to brain
⑬ Part of the retina where optic nerve is attached to eye, no light sensitive cells are present here
 Light sensitive cells are two types: rods, which detect light intensity, and cones, which detect wavelength of light for colour
vision.
Activity 08-4-03: Name the structure of eye ①-⑬.
08-4-03A Let‟s try EXP: To investigate what happens when light falls on the blind spot .
* Methods:
1. Make a plus sign (+) and a dot (●) about 10 cm apart on a piece of paper.
2. Hold the piece of paper about 50 cm away in front of your eyes .
3. Close the left eye and concentrate on both the cross and dot using the right eye .
4. Bring the paper slowly towards your eye.
* Questions:
1. What happens to the images as the paper is brought closer to the eye?
2. What could be the cause for this?
64
＋ ●
* Forming an image
 A clear image can be seen when an object is focused on the retina.
 Light from the object is refracted by the eye to form an inverted image on the retina.
 The image is interpreted by the brain and is the n cognized the right way up.
08-4-04 Accommodation of the eye.

 Images are focused onto the retina by the adjustments made in the eye.
 Accomodation makes the lens thicker or thiner by the action of the ciliary muscles.
 The action of the ciliary muscl es affects the tension of the suspensory ligaments, and follows the change in the thickness
of the lens.
Activity 08-4-04: Fill in the blank ①②. Name the structure ③⑥⑨.
State the movement of each structure ④⑤⑦⑧⑩⑪.
08-4-05 Light response of the eye.

 The amount of light entering the eye is controlled by altering the size of the pupil.
 Two types of muscles are involved in the light response: circular muscles and radial muscles.
 The change in size of the pupil is caused by an automatic reflex action.
65
Activity 08-4-05: Name the muscle (a) (b). Write the direction of light ①②. Fill in the blank ③④.
State the movement of muscle ⑤-⑧.
08-4-06 Defect of the eye.

 Like all other sense organs, sometimes the eyes may not function properly.
 In addition to the defects, there are many curable and incurable diseases that affect the eye.
1.① : the person can focus near objects but not far objects (see right f igure).
2.② : the person can focus far objects but not near objects (see left f igure).
3.③ : inability to distinguish colour, particularly red and green (genetic disease).
4.④ : lens becomes opaque and will not let light through (innate, aging, diabetic, or injury) .
 ① and ② are corrected by wearing glasses.
Activity 08-4-06: Name the eye defect ①-④ in text. Name the condition of eye defect ①③. Name the lens ②④.
08-4-07 Skin as a sense organ.

 The skin contains sensory cells which can be stimulated by changes in temperature and pressure. Some are sensitive to
touch and pain.
 When stimulated the sensory cells send nerve impulses to the brain. The bra in will then give a response either in the form
of a reflex action or record an impression by which the animal is aware of the nature of the stimulus.
Activity 08-4-07: Name the layer ①-③. Name the stimulus ④-⑦.
08-4-08 Structure of the ear.

 The mammalian ear is the sense organ that detects sound so that hearing is made possible.
 The mammalian ear consists of three main parts. These are the outer ear, middle ear and inner ear.
66
 The outer ear consists of a tube which runs from the side of the h ead, to the eardrum. This tube is called the external
auditory meatus. The outer ear contains wax and hairs that traps dirty and pathogens. The eardrum, or tympanum, is a
thin membrane stretched tightly across the inner end of the ear tube in the skull.
 The middle ear is found juct after the eardrum. It comprises an air f illed cavity and three small bones. The cavity is link ed
to the back of the mouth cavity through a narrow tube called the eustachian tube. The function of the eustachian tube is
to equalise pressure between the outer and middle ear.
 In the middle ear are also found three small bones called ear ossicles. These are the malleus, incus and stapes. They
are resposible for transmitting sound vi brations from the eardrum to the oval window of the inner ear.
 The inner ear is housed in several passage ways formed by the bones of the skull. It comprises a labrynth of tubular
structures one of which the cochlea is directly involved in the hearing process. The cochlea is a coiled tube whic h gives the
appearance of the snail.
 The other tubular structures of the inner ear are the utriculus, sacculus and the three semicircular canals. The
functions of these are balancing the body during motion.
Activity 08-4-08: Identify the part ①-⑪.
<Creativity> Brain vs Computer
What are similarities and differences between a computer and a human brain?
<Creativity> Heat sensitive neurone
Heat is a kind of physical signal. Impulse of neurone is an electrical signal.

How do the heat sensitive neurones transduce (change) these signals? Consider the possible mechanism of transdusing.
Not only heat sensitive neurones, but also other sensory neurones transduce physical signal to electrical signal.
How do they achieve their function?

<08-1-01> ①gravity ②light ③water ④gradient of chemical concentration ⑤touch
<08-2-01> ①Pituitary ②Thyroid ③Adrenal ④Pancreas ⑤Ovary ⑥Testis
<08-2-02> ①Growth hormone ②Thyroid stimulating hormone ③Gonadotropic hormone ④Anti-diuretic hormone
⑤Thyroxine ⑥Adrenaline ⑦Insulin ⑧Glucagon ⑨Testosterone ⑩Oestrogen ⑪Progesterone
<08-2-03> ①f ight or flight ②heart beat ③metabolic rate ④Heart ⑤Liver ⑥Lungs ⑦Sweat glands ⑧Skin
⑨Digestive system
<08-3-01> ①Central ②Peripheral ③Spinal cord ④Sensory ⑤Motor
<08-3-02> ⑥Hypothalamus ⑦Pituitary ⑧Cerebrum ⑨Cerebellum ⑩Medulla oblongata
<08-3-03> ①conscious thought ②memory ③learned behaviour ④coordinating muscular activities ⑤physical balance
⑥automatic ⑦rhythmic ⑧heartbeat ⑨breathing rate ⑩peristaltic activity ⑪blood pressure ⑫body temperature
⑬appetite ⑭sleeping ⑮reflex response
<08-3-04> ①Multi-polar neurone ②Motor neurone ③Sensory neurone ④Cell body ⑤Nucleus ⑥Axon ⑦Dendrites
⑧Sheath ⑨→ ⑩→
<08-3-05> ①Synaptic vesicle ②Mitochondrion ③Synaptic cleft ④Neurotransmitter
<08-3-06> ①Electrical ②Chemical ③Neurones ④Blood stream ⑤Rapid ⑥Slow ⑦short-term ⑧long-lasting ⑨Localised
67
⑩Generalised
<08-3-07> (left) ①Stimulus ②Muscle spindle ③Sensory neurone ④Motor neurone ⑤Muscle (a)↑ (b)↓ (right)
①Stimulus ②Thermoreceptor ③Sensory neurone ④Interneurone ⑤Motor neurone ⑥Muscle (a)→ (b)↑ (c)↓ (d)↓
<08-3-08> ①Caffeine ②Nicotine ③Cocaine ④alcohol ⑤Heroin ⑥Morphine ⑦Marijuana
⑧LSD (d-lysergic acid diethylamide)
<08-3-09> ①coordination ②balance ③memory ④social and personal problems ⑤foetal abnormalities
<08-4-01> ①Light ②Sound ③Touch ④Temperature ⑤Chemicals
<08-4-02> (external) ①Eyelashes ②Upper eyelid ③Lower eyelid ④Sclera ⑤Pupil ⑥Iris (internal) ①Cornea
②Conjunctiva ③Pupil ④Lens ⑤Iris ⑥Ciliary body ⑦Aqueous humour ⑧Suspensory ligament ⑨Vitreus humour ⑩Sclera
⑪Choroid ⑫Retina ⑬Yellow spot (Fovea) ⑭Blind spot ⑮Optic nerve
<08-4-03> ①Cornea ②Pupil ③Iris ④Lens ⑤Ciliary body ⑥Aqueous humour ⑦Vitreous humour ⑧Retina ⑨Choroid
⑩Sclera (sclerotic) ⑪Yellow spot (fovea) ⑫Optic nerve ⑬Blind spot
<08-4-04> ①Distant ②Near ③Ciliary muscles ④Relaxed ⑤Contract ⑥Suspensory ligament ⑦Taut ⑧Slackens ⑨Lens
⑩Pulled thin ⑪Allowed to shrink and thicken
<08-4-05> (a)Circular muscles (b)Radial muscles ①Dark ②Bright ③Pupil ④Antagonistic muscles ⑤Relaxed ⑥Contracted
⑦Contracted ⑧Relaxed
<08-4-06> (text) ①Short-sight ②Long-sight ③Colour-blindness ④Cataract (f igure) ①Long sight ②Convex lens
③Short sight ④Concave lens
<08-4-07> ①Epidermis ②Dermis ③Subcutaneous layer ④Touch ⑤Heat or cold ⑥Touch or pain ⑦Pressure
<08-4-08> ①Eardrum ②Mallcus ③Incus ④Stapes ⑤Oval window ⑥Eustachian tube ⑦Semicircular canals ⑧Utriculus
⑨Sacculus ⑩Auditory nerve ⑪Cochlea
<Sample question>
1. Which of the following statements describes what happens when a person with damaged motor nerves of the arm
accidentally touches a very hot object?
A. Able to move the arm and not able to feel pain. B. Fail to move the arm but able to feel the pain.
C. Able to move the arm and also feel pain. D. Fail to move the arm and not able to feel the pai n.
2. Which of the following is a function of a relay neurone?

A. Transmit impulses to the sensory neurone. B. Conducts impulses from the spinal cord to brain.
C. Conducts impulses from sensory neurone to motor neurone. D. Receives impulses from the motor neurone.
3. One of the effects of excessive consumption of alcohol is that it causes a person to stagger.
Which of the following is most likely to be affected to bring about the staggering?
A. Muscle. B. Eye. C. Medulla. D. Cerebellum.
4. Which of the following structures hold the humerus to the radius?

A. Tendon. B. Ligament. C. Synovial membrane. D. Cartilage.
5. During the flexing of the fore-limb in man, which of the following takes place?
A. Biceps contract and triceps relax. B. Biceps contract and triceps contract.
C. Biceps relax and triceps contract. D. Biceps relax and triceps relax.
6. Which of the following best identif ies a target organ of the hormone, proges terone?
A. Corpus Luteum. B. Testes. C. Ovaries. D. Uterus lining.
7. Which change occurs when the ciliary muscles in the eye of a mammal are contracted?
A. Images of distant objects are focused on the retina. B. The diameter of the pupil is reduced.
C. The lens becomes flattened. D. Tension of the suspensory ligament is reduced.
<Answer> 1. B. 2. C. 3. D. 4. B. 5. A. 6. D. 7. D.
68
UNIT 09 Skeleton and movement

Objectives
□ 09-1 Identify the bones of the axial and appendicular skeletons.
□ 09-3 Compare the ball and socket joint and the hinge joint.
□ 09-4 Explain the action of antagonistic muscles.
09-1 The skeleton
 Animals such as mammals and other vertebrates possess antigravity supports in the form of the skeletal system.
 The skeleton supports the vertebrate body and is used in locomotion.
09-1-01 Functions of the skeleton.

1. ① : The skeleton provides support for the soft tissues of the body.
2. ② : Viral and delicate organs such as the brain, lungs and heart are protected by the skeleton.
3. Movement : The skeleton provides suitable points of attachment for the end of muscles.
4. ③ : Blood cells are produced by the bone marrow found in the various bones of the skeleton.
5. ④ : The bone is a living tissue consisting of living cells, strong f ibres mad e from a protein called
collagen, and crystals of calcium phosphate (and other minerals) which give bone its hardiness.
6. Transmission of sound : The vibrations of three ear bones cause sound to be amplif ied and thus enhance hearing.
7. ⑤ : The change of position of the whole body.
Activity 09-1-01: List the function ①-⑤.
09-1-02 Vertebrate skeleton.

 Exoskeleton is the type that the skeletons occur outside the body, eg. insects.
 Endoskeleton is the type that has internal skeletons, eg. vertebrates, mammals
 The bone of the mammalian skeleton can be grouped into the axial skeleton and the appendicular skeleton.
 The axial skeleton forms the axis of the body.
 The appendicular skeleton forms the appendages that are attached to th e body axis.
 The skull is made up of many bone plates joined together. The base of the skull makes a joint with the top vertebra of the
vertebral column. This joint allows the head to make nodding and rotational movement.
 The upper arm bone is the humerus. It is attached by a hinge joint to the lower arm bones, the radius and ulna.
 The thighbone or femur is attached at the hip to the pelvic giedle by a ball and socket joint and at the knee it makes a hinge
joint with the tibia. The f ibula runs parallel to the tibia but does not form of the knee joint.
Activity 09-1-02: Name the group of skeletons ①⑤. Name the group of bones ②-④,⑥-⑨.
09-1-03 Types of connective tissue.

 ① : Very hard because it contains minerals, particularly calcium .
 ② : soft, serves as a shock-absorber between bones.
 ③ : Connect bones to bones. They are elastic and can be stretched. They hold the skeleton
together while allowing muscles to move the individual bones . They consist of tough collagen f ibres.
 ④ : Connect muscles to bone. They have little elasticity and so are virtually unstretchable. They
also consist of tough collagen f ibres.
Activity 09-1-03: Fill in the blank ①-④.
69
09-2 Bones
09-2-01 Structure of the vertebral column.

 The backbone is known as the vertebral column. It is made up of 33 bones and each bone is known as a vertebra. Each
vertebra is separated from the one above and the one below by a compressible pad of cartilage, intervertebral disc.
* Basic Structure of vertebra;
 A vertebra has a neural canal through which the spinal cord passes. The neural canal is surrounded by the neural arch.
The neural arch extends into a neural spine which projects upwards. The neural spine is used for muscle attachment.
 The lower end of the vertebra is a solid bone known as centrum.
 On either side of the vertebra are transverse process which are also used for muscle attachment.
 Other bone projections called facets or zygapophysis are present at the back and front of each vertebra. These facets are
used for articulation.
Activity 09-2-01: Identify the part ①-⑩.
09-2-02 Types of the vertebral column.

 The bones in the vertebral column can be grouped into f ive different types. These are the cervical (neck region), thoracic
(chest region), lumbar (bdominal region), sacral (pelvic region) and caudal (tail region) vertebrae.
 All vertebrae in the vertebral column have the same basic structure, but they show variations due to the different regions of
the vertebral column where they are found and the different functions they perform.
number neural neural transverse
centrum features
of bones canal spine process
Present a pair of canals known as
The cervical large in small in absent in
One absent in atlas vertebrarterial canals (passage for the
vertebrae atlas atlas atlas
blood vessels).
large projection
large in large in absent in The first cervical vertebra is called atlas
One (odontoid process)
axis axis axis and the second is called axis.
in axis
large in small in small in They allow free rotation movement of
Five large in others
others others others the head.
The thoracic The neural spine projects upwards and
Twelve large large long short
vertebrae backwards.
The lumber The neural spine projects upwards and
Five present large and thick long long
vertebrae forward.
70
The largest and strongest bones of the

vertebral column.
The sacral
Five narrow large reduced present They are fused form known as sacrum.
vertebrae
The caudal
Four absent present absent absent They are fused form known as coccyx.
vertebrae
09-2-03 Internal structure of bones.

 Bone tissues can be classif ied as compact or spongy.
 Compact bones are made up of tightly packed concentric rings of bone known as Haversian system, which gives bones a
porous appearance in the shaft area. Within the porous spaces of the Haversian system are the bone cells and blood vessels.
 Spongy bone is less tightly packed and it is made of thin plates of bone. There is no Haversian system but in between the
plates there is red marrow. The red marrow found at the ends is richly supplied with blood vessels. Red blood cells are
manufactured in the red marrow. The marrow cavity also contains yellow marrow for fat storage.
Activity 09-2-03: Identify the part ①-⑥.
09-2-04 Structure of the Haversian system;
Activity 09-2-04: Identify the part ①②. Name the cell ③④.
71
09-3 Joints
 Where two bones meet, they form a joint.

 It may be a fixed joint as in the junction of the hip girdle (f ibrous joints) and the vertebrate column (cartilaginous joints) or
a movable joint (in other words a synovial joint) as in the knee.
09-3-01 Two types of joint.

 Two important types of the movable joint are the hinge joint and the ball and socket joint.
1. Hinge joint: allows movement in only one plane, eg. knee, elbow
2. Ball and socket joint: allows movement in any plane, eg. hip, shoulder
* Important properties of joints

 Joints allow the bones to move easily without friction, which is achieved by synovial fluid. Movable joint are sometimes
called the synovial joint.
 Joints prevent the bones coming apart, which is achieved by the capsule surrounding the joint, and by ligaments which
connect the bones together on either side of the joint.
Activity 09-3-01: Name the tissue ①③,⑤-⑧,⑩,⑫-⑭. Name the bone ②④⑨⑪⑮.
09-4 Muscles
 There are three main types of muscles: skeletal muscles (or voluntary muscle), smooth muscles (or involuntary muscle)
and cardiac muscles.
 Skeletal muscle is made up of long f ibres. Each f ibre i s found from many cells, but the cells have fused together.
 Skeletal muscles are composed of the proteins, actin and myosin. These are responsible for the contractions of the muscles.
 Smooth (or visceral or striated) muscle cells are found in organs w hich are not controlled by the voluntary part of the brain.
 They line the walls of the alimentary canal, the uterus and the blood vessels.
 Each smooth muscle f ibre is made of a single cell with a single nucleus and numerus f ibrils.
 Cardiac muscles are special muscle found only in the heart.
 Cardiac muscles possess rhythmic contractions and relaxations originate in the cardiac muscles themselves without being
fatigued.
 The f ibres of skeletal muscle and the cells of smooth muscle have the special pr operty of being able to contract, i.e. shorten,
when stimulated by nerve impulses.
 However, the f ibres and cells cannot elongate; they can only contract and relax.
72
09-4-01 Muscle attachment and movement of an arm in human.
 The point of muscle attachment on a non-movable part is called the origin and that on the movable part is called the
insertion.
Activity 09-4-01: Name the point of muscle attachment ①⑥. Name the muscle ②④⑩⑫.
Write the action of the muscle ③⑤⑪⑬. Name the bone ⑦⑧⑭⑮. Fill in the blank ⑨.
09-4-02 Muscle attachment and movement of a leg in human.
Activity 09-4-02: Name the muscle ①③⑨⑪. Write the action of the muscle ②④⑩⑫. Name the bone ⑤-⑦,⑬-⑮.
Fill in the blank ⑧.

<09-1-01> ①Support ②Protection ③Blood cells production ④Calcium storage ⑤Locomotion
<09-1-02> ①Axial skeleton ②Skull ③Vertebral column ④Ribs and sternum ⑤Appendicular skeleton ⑥Pectoral girdle
⑦Arms ⑧Pelvic girdle ⑨Legs
<09-1-03> ①Bone ②Cartilage (gristle) ③Ligaments ④Tendons
<09-2-01> ①Neural spine ②Facets ③Spinal cord ④Intervertebral disc ⑤Neural spine ⑥Neural canal ⑦Transverse process
⑧Neural arch ⑨Zygapophysis ⑩Centrum
<09-2-03> ①Compact bone ②Spongy bone ③Yellow marrow ④Periosteum ⑤Blood vessels ⑥Red marrow
<09-2-04> ①Haversian canals ②Bone layers ③Osteoblasts ④Osteocytes
<09-3-01> ①Tendon ②Patella ③Muscle ④Femur ⑤Ligament ⑥Synovial membrane ⑦Synovial fluid ⑧Cartilage ⑨Tibia
⑩Ligament ⑪Scapula (Shoulder blade) ⑫Cartilage ⑬Synovial membrane ⑭Synovial fluid ⑮Humerus
<09-4-01> ①Origin ②Biceps ③Relax ④Triceps ⑤Contract ⑥Insertion ⑦Radius ⑧Ulna ⑨Antagonistic muscle ⑩Biceps
⑪Contract ⑫Triceps ⑬Relax ⑭Radius ⑮Ulna
<09-4-02> ①Rectus femoris ②Contract ③Biceps femoris ④Relax ⑤Patella ⑥Fibula ⑦Tibia ⑧Antagonistic muscle
⑨Rectus femoris ⑩Relax ⑪Biceps femoris ⑫Contract ⑬Patella ⑭Fibula ⑮Tibia
73
UNIT 10 Reproduction
Objectives
□ 10-1 Describe the structure of a typical flower.
□ 10-1 Distinguish between wind and insect pollination.
□ 10-1 Outline the process during and after fertilisation.
□ 10-1 Describe the structure of a dicotyledon and monocotyledon seed.
□ 10-1 Demonstrate the experiments of conditions necessary for germination.
□ 10-2 Describe the structure of reproductive systems in human.
□ 10-2 Outline the process of fertilisatioin in human.
□ 10-2 Describe the function of placenta.
□ 10-3 Compare and contrast sexual and asexual reproduction.
10-1 Sexual reproduction in plants
 In flowering plants, the reproductive organs are the flowers.

 Some plants bear both male and female flowers on the same plant. eg. maize.
 In the papaya, male and female flowers are borne on different plants.
10-1-01 Structure of a typical flower.

 Although flowers are of indifferent shapes, forms and sizes, they have the same basic parts.
 Petals are usually coloured because of some pigments. This helps to direct insects towards the nectary.
 The part next to the petals is the stamens which form the male parts of the flower.
 The carpels constitute the female reproductive parts of the flower.
 A carpel consists of an elongated structure called style.
 At the top end of the style, there is the knob -like structure called stigma which collects pollen grains.
 At the bottom end of the style, there is a swollen portion called ovary in which the female gametes are enclosed.
74
Activity 10-1-01: Identify the part of flower ①-⑨ (top). Identify the part of stamen ①-⑦ (lower-left).
Identify the part of carpel ①-⑩ (lower-right).
10-1-02 Self and cross pollination.

 Pollination is the transfer of pollen grains from the anthers to the stigma.
 Flowers have various adaptations to facilitate pollination.
 Plants rely on wind or animals to transfer pollen to the stigma, to enable fertilisation.
 If the transfer of pollen is from a plant to another of a different genetic makeup, the process is called cross -pollination.
 If the transfer occurs within the same plant, it is called self-pollination.
 The design of the flower is suited for its specific type of pollination. (Cross- or Self-) (Wind- or Insect-)
* Features;
Cross-pollinated flower Self-pollinated flower
Stamens are ① Stamens are ②
Some produce chemicals (③ ) which
Do not produce such chemicals
hinder self-pollination
Anthers and stigma usually mature at ④ times Anthers and stigma may mature at ⑤ time
Most flowers face ⑥ Most flowers face ⑦
Pollen grains are inhibited from growing through the stigma Pollen grains are not inhibited from growing through the
and style stigma and style
* Disadvantage;
Cross-pollinated flower Self-pollinated flower
Has difficulty to maintain a ⑧ May transmit ⑨ characteristics
Few chance of pollen falling on the stigma if separated by
May sometimes produce ⑪ seeds
⑩
Loss of ⑫ to pathogenic and
deficiency diseases
Activity 10-1-02: Contrast cross-pollination and self-pollination ①-⑫.
10-1-03 Wind and insect pollination.

Wind-pollinated flower Insect-pollinated flower
① coloured petals ② coloured petals
③ petals ④ petals
No scent Fragrant flowers
No nectar Nectar produced in nectary
Stigmas are feathery and borne on long styles Stigmas lie within the petals
Filaments are ⑤ Filaments are ⑥
Anthers supported outside the flower Anthers lie inside with flower
Light, minute pollen; may have ⑦ Large pollen grains; may have ⑧
eg little wings to aid wind transport or a sticky surface to aid adhering to insects
⑨ number of pollen formed ⑩ number of pollen formed
Flowers may be in bunches or inflorescent Flowers are solitary or as inflorescence
Plants tend to be ⑪ with an
Plants carry ⑫ flowers
excessive number of male flowers
Activity 10-1-03: Contrast wind-pollination and insect-pollination ①-⑫.
10-1-04 Process during fertilasatioin. (See f igure on the next page)

1. A pollen tube grows out of the pollen grain.
2. The pollen tube grows into the stigma and down the style to the ovary.
3. The pollen tube grows into the ovule (usually through the micropyle) and releas es two male nucleus into the embryosac, and
tube nucleus degenerates.
4. ⑨ occurs:
[1 male nucleus + egg cell = zygote] and
[1 male nucleus + 2 definitive nuclei = endospermic nucleus]
75
Activity 10-1-04: Identify the part in the carpel during fertilization ①-⑧
(f igure at the right). Name the process ⑨ (text).
10-1-05 Process after fertilisation (formation of fruits and seeds) .

 The ① develops into an ② .
 The ② becomes surrounded by ③
which nourishes it.
 The ovule develops into the ④ , the wall of the ovule
becomes the ⑤ .
 The ovary develops into the ⑥ .
 The seed dries out, becoming doemant.
 The sepals, petals and stamens wither away and/or drop off.
10-1-06 Dispersal.
 Seeds are dispersed as far away from the parent plant as possible .
 This helps to prevent competition for ① , ② and ③ .
 Seeds are carried to new habitats where conditions may be more favourable for growth .
* Five ways of dispersal * Importance of dispersal
1. ④ dispersal 1. can change the living environment.
2. ⑤ dispersal 2. can exchange the genetic factors.
3. ⑥ dispersal 3. can reduce competition for nutrients.
4. ⑦ dispersal
5. ⑧ dispersal
Activity 10-1-06: Fill in the blank ①-③. List the method of dispersal ④-⑧.
10-1-07 Adaptation of dispersal in seeds and fruits.

Dispersal method Feature Mode of action
Animal ① fruits Caught on fur of passing animal
Succulent, brightly coloured, scented Eaten by animals
Undigested seeds are passed out
Wind ② -like projections Small size
Carried in the wind
Out-Growths that look like ③ For flight
Water Has water resistant layer Floats on water
Spongy layer inside fruit
Self Pericarp dries in sun Fruit splits horizontally into two halves, seeds ejected
(or explosive) Shrinks
Activity 10-1-07: Fill in the blank ①-③.
10-1-08 Germination.
 Many flowering plants grow from seeds.
 The process by which a seed starts to grow into a young plant is called germination.
 In dicotyledonous embryo, two cotyledons are formed. However, there is only one in the monocotyledonous plants.
 Viable seeds are able to remain alive for long periods without germinating.
10-1-09 Structure of two types of seed.

 The embryo has an embryonic root call ed radicle.
 There is also a plumule or embryonic shoot which grows into the shoot system.
76
 The testa protects the inner parts of the seed from damage and dessication.
 The endosperm stores the food nutrients needed by the embryo during germination.
 The plumule is covered by a sheath called coleoptile which protects it from damage by soil particles during germination.
 The radicle is protected by a sheath called coleorrhiza.
 When a bean seed is split open, it separates into two halves. These ar e cotyledons.
 The cotyledons store nutrients which the embryo uses during germination.
 The part between the cotyledons is the embryo. The embryo has a radicle and a plumule.
Activity 10-1-09: Name the group of plant ①⑫. Identify the part of seeds ②-⑪,⑬-⑳.
10-1-10 Process of two types of germination.

* Germination of maize;
 Germination begins when the embryo in the seeds starts to develop into a seedling.
77
 As the seed absorbs water, the testa becomes soft and bursts.
 The radicle emerges and grows downwards. The radicle develops root hairs which absorb water and mineral nutrients.
 As the radicle grows down, the plumule breaks through the testa and grows upwards.
 The coleoptile breaks open and the plumule releases the f irst seed leaf or c otyledon.
* Germination of bean;
 As the radicle grows down, the hypocotyl elongates pushing with it the cotyledons upwards through the soil.
 The plumule remains protected between the two cotyledons.
Activity 10-1-10: Identify the part of plants ①-⑰.
10-1-11 Conditions needed for germination.

 Conditions for germination vary; some are internal factors while others are external factors.
 Internal conditions are enzymes, seed viability and supply of energy.
 External conditions are shown below:
1. ① : swelling and bursting of the seed, movement of food reserves, activation of enzymes, and for
growth of the shoot and root.
2. ② : respiration (energy release) by the growing seedling.
3. ③ : eff icient functioning of enzymes in the embryo.
4. ④ : not normally needed for germination, but it is needed for the formation of chlorophyll and
for photosynthesis by the seedling.
Activity 10-1-11: List the condition ①-④.
10-1-12A Let‟s try EXP: To show that water is necessary for germination.
* Suggested materials: soaked maize seeds / dry maize seeds / cotton wool / three Petri dishes
* Methods:
1. Label Petri dishes A, B, C.
2. Put cotton wool in each of the dishes, to cover bottom of the dishes.
3. Put six soaked seeds in A and another six in B.
4. Put six unsoaked seeds in C.
5. Cover the seeds in A completely with water.
6. Sprinkle some water on the cotton wool to make it moist.
7. Keep the cotton wool in B moist all the time.
8. Leave the seeds for at least seven days.
* Questions:
1. In which dish did the seeds germinate?
2. In which dish did the seeds not germinate?
3. Why did some of the seeds not germinate?
4. What can be concluded from this experiment?
* Hints: The seeds in water are diff icult to process aerobic respiration.
78
10-1-12B Let‟s try EXP: To show that oxygen is necessary for germination .
* Suggested materials: soaked maize seeds / cotton wool / two flasks /
alkaline pyrogallol / stoppers
* Methods:
1. Mark the flasks A and B.
2. Put some 10 cm 3 water in flask A and 10 cm 3 of alkaline pyrogallol in flask B.
3. Wrap two sets of f ive maize seeds in moist cotton wool .
4. Hang one set in flask A and the other set in flask B as shown in f igure .
5. Leave the seeds for at least seven days.
* Questions:
1. In which flask did the seeds germinate?
2. In which flask did the seeds fail to germinate?
3. What is the purpose of using alkaline pyrogallic acid in this experiment?
10-1-13C Let‟s try EXP: To show that suitable temperature is necessary for germination.
* Suggested materials: soaked seeds / cotton wool / Pyrex beakers
* Methods:
1. Label the beakers A, B, C.
2. Wrap f ive seeds in moist cotton wool in three sets.
3. Place one set in beaker A, one in B and the other in beaker C.
4. Put beaker A in a refrigerator at a temperature 0℃, beaker B at room temperature 25℃, and beaker C in a place at a
temperature of 50℃.
5. Leave the set up for at least seven days while ensuring that the cotto n wool remains moist.
* Questions:
1. Which seeds germinated?
2. Which seeds did not germinated?
3. Give reasons why some seeds germinated while others did not.
4. What can be concluded from this experiment?
* Hints: Temperature affects the activity of enzymes.
10-2 Reproduction in human
 Fertilization and development of embryo of human beings take place inside the body of the female like other mammals.
 In order to be able to reproduce, the human sho uld reach sexual maturity. Secondary sexual characteristics of male and
female human begin at puberty.
 At puberty, the pituitary secretes gonad-stimulating hormone which stimulates testes to produce testosterone. The same
hormone in women stimulates the ovaries to produce oestrogen. These lead to the development of sexual characteristics in
human. The age when this happens may vary from person to person.
10-2-01 Structure of human reproductive organs in female.
79
Structure Function
Ovary Paired, attached to dorsal wall of abdomen
Consists of ova (ovum)
Produces ① and ②
Oviduct Transfers ova from ovary into uterus
Site of ③
Uterus Receives, nourishes and protects foetus during pregnancy
Cervix Produces watery mucus which s erves as lubricant for penis
Vagina Receives penis during intercource
Birth canal
Activity 10-2-01: Idenf ity the part ①-⑩ (f igure). Name the hormone ①② (table). Name the process ③ (table).
10-2-02 Structure of human reproductive organs in male .
Structure Function
Testes Paired, hundreds of minute seminiferous tubules
Produce sperm
Produce ①
Epididymis Coiled tube, temporary storage of sperm
Sperm duct (vas deferens) Transports sperm from epididymis to penis
Prostate gland, Cowper's gland, seminal vesicle Secrets seminal fluid
Contains enzymes and nutrients to nourish sperm
Combines with sperm to form semen
Erectile tissue Spongy tissue filled with blood vessels
Brings about erection
Activity 10-2-02: Identify the part ①-⑫ (f igure). Name the hormone ① (table).
10-2-03 Gametes of human.

 The two sexes, male and female, each produces special types of reproductive cells called gametes.
 The male gametes are the sperms and the female gametes are the ova (singular= ovum) or egg cells.
80
Characteristics Ovum Sperm

Chromosome number ⑥ ⑦
Size Larger (0.1mm) Smaller (3m)
Shape Spherical Head with nucleus
Inner plasma membrane Mitochondria in the middle
Outer protein coat Tail at the end
Nucleus Large Small
Cytoplasm Abundant Little
Movement None By tail
Activity 10-2-03: Identify the part ①-⑤ (f igure). Write the number ⑥⑦ (table).
10-2-04 Oogenesis. - Production of an egg cell.

 The egg cells (ova) are present in the ovary from the ti me of birth.
 No more are formed during the lifetime
 Between the ages of 10 and 14, some of the egg cells start to mature and are released one at a time about every 4 weeks
from alternate ovaries.
Activity 10-2-04: Name the process ①-⑥. Identify the cell ⑦-⑫. Name the tissue ⑬.
10-2-05 Spermatogenesis. - Production of sperms

 The lining of the sperm producing tubules in the testis consists of rapidly dividing cells.
 After a series of cell division, the cells grow long tails and become sperms which pass into the epididymis.
81
Activity 10-2-05: Name the process ①-⑤. Identify the cell ⑥-⑪.
10-2-06 Process of fertilisation in human.

 In humans, fertilization takes place inside the body of the female just like in other mammals.
1. The sperms swim by lashing their tails from side to side.

2. They bump into the egg in oviduct.
3. A sperm penetrates the egg membrane which thickens to prevent other sperms entering .
4. The head of sperm is drawn towards the egg nucleus.
5. The tail is discarded. All other sperm dies.
6. The sperm nucleus combines with the egg nucleus to form ⑧ .
7. The zygote moves to ⑨ in 4-7 days with mitotic division.
8. The zygote is implanted in the uterus wall.
Activity 10-2-06: Name the process ①⑤. Label the structure ②③④⑥⑦. Fill in the blank ⑧⑨.
10-2-07 Menstrual cycle in human.
82
 The ovaries release an ovum about every 4 weeks. This process is regulated by ① secreted by the
anterior lobe of the pituitary gland (gonadotropin or gonad-stimulating hormone) and ovaries (see above).
 ② occurs ③ days after onset of ④ .
 As each follicle develops by the effect of follicle-stimulating hormone (FSH) which is produced in the pituitary, the
amounts of oestrogen are produced by the ovary increases.
 The oestrogen acts on the uterus and cause its lining (or the uterus wall) to become thicker and develop more blood vessels
for helping an early embryo to implant. And the oestrogen also acts on the pituitary to produce luteinizing hormone (LH).
 The transient secretion of LH and FSH leads the ovulation.
 Once the ovum has been released, the follicle which produced it develops into a solid body called the corpus luteum.
 This produces a hormone, progesterone, which affects the uterus lining making it grow thicker and produce more blood
vessels.
 If the ovum is fertilized, the corpus luteum continues to release progesterone, keeping the uterus in a state suitable for
implantation.
 If the ovum is not fertilized, the corpus luteum stops producing progesterone. As a result, the thickened lining of the uterus
breaks down and loses blood which escapes through the cervix and vagina. This discharge lasts for about 3-5 days.
 This is known as a menstrual cycle. These cycles occur after puberty till menopause.
Activity 10-2-07: Name the hormone ①-④. Name the structure ⑤⑥⑧. Name the process ⑦⑨ (f igure).
Fill in the blank ①-④ (text).
10-2-08 Function of placenta.

* Structure of placenta;
* Why must the foetal and maternal bloodstreams not mix?

 The ① of the mother would burst the foetal blood vessels.
 If the two bloods belonged to different blood groups, ② would occur.
* What substances pass across the placenta?
 From mother to foetus: ③ , ④ , ⑤ ,
⑥ , ⑦
 From foetus to mother: ⑧ , ⑨
Activity 10-2-08: Name the blood vessel ①②⑤⑥. Name the part ③④⑦ (f igure).
Fill in the blank ①②. List the chemical ③-⑨ (text).
10-2-09 Birth control (Contraception).

 All human communities practice some form of birth control to space out births and limit the size of the family.
Types Examples Mode of action Function Reliability
Natural ① Intercourse restricted to 'safe time' Avoid fertilisation Poor
Chemical ② Applied in vagina before intercourse Kills sperm Better
Rubber sheath placed over penis Catch semen during Good if used
Mechanical ③
before intercourse ejaculation properly
Cap (diaphragm) Flexible rubber cup placed over Prevent sperms Good
83
cervix before intercourse entering uterus

IUD (Intra-uterine Plastic or metal device places in
Stop embryo implanting Good
device) uterus by doctor
Very good if
Hormonal ④ Pills taken daily Stop ovulation
taken properly
Very good but
Injectable contraceptive Injected into the blood by doctor Stop ovulation
side-effects
Stop sperms reaching Excellent but
Surgical ⑤ Oviducts clipped or tied
ovum irreversible
Stop sperms getting Excellent but
⑥ Sperm ducts cut or tied
into semen irreversible
Activity 10-2-09: List the method ①-⑥.
10-2-10 Sexually transmitted diseases (STDs).

 STDs are diseases that are spread from one person to another through a sexual act.
 There are over 20 different types of identif ied STDs, eg . syphilis, gonorrhoea, genital herpes, AIDS.
 Most can be controlled or cured. But all can be prevented.
 The best way to safeguard against these diseases is to use physical barrier during sex (condom) , refrain from sex with
an infected person and by keeping to only one sex partner.
* Examples of STDs;
Disease Causative agent Main symptoms Treatment
① Bacterium Painless sore (chancre) for 2 weeks Antibiotics

Rush and fever for 1-2 months
Insanity
Fatal in untreated
② Bacterium Discharge from genital opening Antibiotics
Painful joints
③ Virus Reduced resistance to disease No cure
Fatal in untreated Drugs help
Non-specific urethritis Virus Imflamed urethra Drugs
Genital herpes Virus Painful blisters Drugs
Activity 10-2-10: Lis the disease ①-③.
10-2-11 HIV / AIDS

 Fatal disease of the immune system, caused by HIV.
 Most of the time, the patient dies from complications of the virus, not by the virus itself.
 For example, 50% of AIDS patients die of ① .
 AIDS can be controlled, but so far, it cannot be cured.
** Transmission : Anybody can be at risk. - It's not who you are, it's what you do. -
 HIV infection happens because of particular behaviours.
 HIV transmitted: from person to pers on via exchange of ② - semen, blood, pre-ejaculate and vaginal
fluids - during anal, vaginal, and possibly oral sex, or when sharing needles during intravenous drug use .
 HIV also transmitted: from mother to child during pregnancy, the birth process, and through breastfeeding.
 HIV can not be transmitted through saliva, sweat, tears or urine .
** Prevention is YOU CAN DO IT.
 Practice ③ : use male or female condoms everytime you have sex . The risk of infection is higher
for vaginal and anal sex, but there is also a risk of infection through oral sex .
 Drugs and alcohol can affect your judgment ability. It is sometimes harder to make good decisions about safer sex
when you are under the influence, so it might be better not to have sex if you have been drinking alcohol or using drugs .
 Do not share needles or injecting equipment with others when injecting drugs .
** Caution : for young people - no age is too young for HIV -
 Information from friends, magazines, the internet, etc. is not always correct.
 Be yourself! It's sometimes hard to make decisions about sex with so many pressures, but remember, you don't have to do
something you don't feel comfortable with.
84
 It's nothing to be ashamed of getting condoms.

10-3 Asexual reproduction
 Asexual reproduction is a type of reproduction in which living organisms produce new individuals without using gametes or
sex cells.
 Examples of asexual reproduction include binary fission (eg amoeba, bacteria), spore formation (eg fungi, bacteria),
budding (eg hydra, yeast), fragmentation (eg flatworm, starf ish) and vegetative propagation (eg many flowering
plants).
10-3-01 Comparison of sexual and asexual reproduction.

Sexual Asexual
Two parents One parent
Male and female sex cells (haploid gametes) No sex cell
Fertilization forms a diploid zygote No zygote
Offspring genetically different from both parents Offspring genetically identical to parent
Reproduction takes a long time Reproduction occurs rapidly under favourable environments
Population increases slowly Population increases rapidly
Plants and more complex organisms Plants and simple organisms
 Asexual reproduction produces clones. It is common among the simplest organisms. It produces offsprings without the
need of gametes or searching for a mate.
10-3-02 Vegetative propagation.

 This involves the production of new plants from a part of the old parent plant.
 It involves storage organs such as bulbs, corms, tubers and rhizomes.
 They enable plants to grow year after year (perennating organs).
 They also serve as a food source for animals.
* Examples of underground storage organs;
Storage organ Examples / food
Tuber (underground stem) Potato / starch, vitamin C, water
Rhizome (underground stem) Ginger / starch
Bulb (underground shoot) Onion / glucose, water (in leaves)
Corm (underground shoot) Water chestnut / glucose, water (in stems)
* Advantages and disadvantages of vegetative propagation;
Advantages Disadvantages
 enables the plant population to grow faster and  identical daughter lack in genetic variation,
increase yield resulting in all susceptible to the same disease
 can be selected for desirable characteristics  all susceptible to the environmental change
 new plants can be produced even when seed  usually overcrowded and compete for space and
production fails nutrients
 not dependent on pollinators for reproduction  not widely dispersed as such they do not colonise
new areas

<10-1-01> (Top) ①Anther ②Filament ③Petal ④Sepal ⑤Stigma ⑥Style ⑦Ovary ⑧Receptable ⑨Stalk (Lower-Left)
①Pollen sac ②Anther ③Filament ④Exine ⑤Intine ⑥Generative nucleus ⑦Pollen tube nucleus (Lower-Right) ①Stigma
②Style ③Ovary ④Ovary wall ⑤Nucellus ⑥Embryo sac ⑦Antipodal cells ⑧Def initive nucleus ⑨Egg cell ⑩Synergids
<10-1-02> ①long ②short ③inhibitors ④different ⑤the same ⑥downwards ⑦upwards ⑧pure breed ⑨undesirable
⑩geographical barriers ⑪sterile ⑫resistance
<10-1-03> ①Dull ②Brightly ③Small ④Large ⑤long and slender ⑥strong ⑦extensions ⑧projections ⑨Large ⑩Small
85
⑪unisexual ⑫bisexual
<10-1-04> ①Pollen grain ②Pollen tube ③Ovule ④Integument ⑤Embryo sac ⑥Micropyle ⑦Tube nucleus
⑧two male gametes ⑨Double fertilisation
<10-1-05> ①zygote ②embryo ③endosperm tissue ④seed ⑤seed coat ⑥fruit
<10-1-06> ①space ②food ③sunlight ④Animal ⑤Wind ⑥Water ⑦Self ⑧Chance
<10-1-07> ①Hooked or hairy ②Parachute ③wings
<10-1-09> ①Monocotyledon ②Scutellum ③Plumule ④Radicle ⑤Testa ⑥Endosperm ⑦Cotyledon (Scutellum)
⑧Coleoptile (Plumule Sheath) ⑨Plumule ⑩Radicle ⑪Coleorrhiza (Radicle sheath) ⑫Dicotyledon ⑬Radicle ⑭Micropyle
⑮Plumule ⑯Plumule ⑰Radicle ⑱Micropyle ⑲Testa ⑳Cotyledon
<10-1-10> ①Radicle ②Coleoptile ③Adventitious root ④Coleorrhiza ⑤Root hairs ⑥First leaves ⑦Coleoptile ⑧Prop root
⑨Adventitious root ⑩Lateral root ⑪Radicle ⑫Hypocotyl ⑬Root hairs ⑭Plumule ⑮Cotyledons ⑯Lateral roots
⑰Hypocotyl
<10-1-11> ①Water ②Oxygen ③Suitable temperature ④Light
<10-2-01> (f igure) ①Ureter ②Oviduct (or Fallopian tube) ③Funnel of oviduct ④Ovary ⑤Uterus ⑥Cervix ⑦Bladder
⑧Urethra ⑨Vagina ⑩Vulva (table) ①oestrogen ②progesterone ③fertilisation
<10-2-02> (f igure) ①Ureter ②Bladder ③Spermatic cord ④Prostate gland ⑤Cowper's gland ⑥Sperm duct (or vas deferens)
⑦Testis ⑧Epididymis ⑨Urethra ⑩Penis ⑪Seminal vesicle ⑫Erectile tissue (table) ①testosterone
<10-2-03> (f igure) ①Nucleus ②Mitochondria ③Nucleus ④Cytoplasm ⑤Jelly coat (table) ⑥23 ⑦23
<10-2-04> ①Mitosis ②Growth ③First meiotic division ④Second meiotic division ⑤Ovulation ⑥Fertilisation
⑦Oogonium ⑧Oogonium ⑨Primary oocyte ⑩Secondary oocyte ⑪Polar body ⑫Mature ovum ⑬Corpus luteum
<10-2-05> ①Mitosis ②Growth ③First meiotic division ④Second meiotic division ⑤Differentiation ⑥Spermatogonium
⑦spermatogonium ⑧Primary spermatocyte ⑨Secondary spermatocyte ⑩Spermatids ⑪Sperm
<10-2-06> ①Implantation ②Embryo ③Sperm ④Zygote ⑤Fertilisation ⑥Ovum ⑦Ovarian follicle ⑧zygote ⑨uterus
<10-2-07> (f igure) ①Follicle-stimulating hormone ②Oestrogen ③Luteinizing hormone ④Progesterone ⑤Follicle
⑥Corpus luteum ⑦Ovulation ⑧Embryo ⑨Menstruation (text) ①hormones ②Ovulation ③14 ④menstruation
<10-2-08> (text) ①high blood pressure ②agglutination ③oxygen ④nutrients ⑤antibodies ⑥Drugs ⑦poisons
⑧carbon dioxide ⑨excretory waste (eg urea) (f igure) ①Uterine vein ②Uterine artery ③Maternal blood ④Placental barrier
⑤Umbilical artery ⑥Umbilical vein ⑦Placenta
<10-2-09> ①Rhythm method ②Spermicide ③Condom ④Oral contraceptive pills ⑤Tubal ligation ⑥Vasectomy
<10-2-10> ①Syphilis ②Gonorrhoea ③AIDS
<10-2-11> ①pneumonia ②body fluids ③safer sex
<Sample question>
1. Sexually reproduction is a process during which…
A. All types of organisms reproduce. B. Many cells of one type fuse with a single cell of another type.
C. Nuclei of two specialized cells fuse together. D. Parents produce genetically identical offspring.
2. Most wind-pollinated flowers have…

A. A strong smell. B. Brightly coloured petals. C. Large nectaries. D. Long projecting stigma.
3. In some females, the uterus can be removed due to illness.

Which of the following best explains why such females cannot become pregnant?
A. Ovulation stops. B. Menstrual cycles stop.
C. Zygote cannot get implanted. D. Ovum cannot mature.
4. Which of the following contraception methods best reduces the transmission of syphilis?
A. The cup. B. The loop (IUD)
C. The sheath (condom) D. the spermicide
5. When is the sex of a baby determined?

A. Before ovulation. B. Between ovulation and fertilisation.
C. At the moment of fertilisation. D. After the f irst division of the zygote.
<Answer> 1. C. 2. D. 3. C. 4. C. 5. C.
86
UNIT 11 Health
Objectives
□ 11-1 Define disease.
□ 11-1 Describe the transmission of diseases.
□ 11-1 Explain causative agents in some diseases.
□ 11-2 Describe the defence system.
11-1 Diseases
 The term disease means a condition which changes the normal functioning o f a living organism.
 Disease may also be a disorderly state of tissues, organs or systems where they are not function normally.
11-1-01 Introduction of diseases.

** Cause of diseases:
1. ① diseases: lack of certain nutrients in the diet, eg scurvy.
2. ② diseases: faults in our genes, eg cystic f ibrosis.
3. ③ diseases: stress
4. ④ diseases: harmful micro-organisms, mostly transmissible --- see below.
** Causative agents (called pathogens) of diseases:
 The organisms that cause various diseases belong to various groups of living things and as such they differ in many ways.
 In addition to size, these organisms differ in body form, reproduction and mode of transmission from one host to another.
 Most of these diseases may often be fatal if not treated on time.
 There are four types of causative agents.
1. ⑤ 2. ⑥ 3. ⑦ 4. ⑧
** Spread of diseases:
1. ⑨ from coughs and sneezes (common cold, influenza).
2. ⑩ (diphtheria, scarlet fever) . 3. ⑪ (impetigo, athlete's foot).
4. ⑫ (typhoid, cholera). 5. ⑬ such as flies and mosquitoes (plague, malaria).
6. ⑭ (viral hepatitis, AIDS). 7. ⑮ (syphilis, AIDS).
** Protection from infectious diseases:
1. ⑯ : heat treatment. 2. Destroying animal vector: kill flies and mosquitoes.
3. Isolating infectious individuals. 4. Keeping the skin clean (personal hygiene). 5. Active immunisation
(⑰ ). 6. Passive immunization. 7. Antibiotics: destroy bacteria (penicillin). 8. Drugs
Activity 11-1-01: List the cause of diseases ①-④. List the causative agent ⑤-⑧. List the way of spread ⑨-⑮.
List the way of protection ⑯⑰.
11-1-02 Bacterial diseases.

 Bacteria are very small organisms visible only under a high -power microscope.
 The rod-shaped bacteria are called bacillus, the spherical ones coccus, the comma-shaped ones vibro and the spiral forms
spirillum.
 Most bacteria reproduce by binary f ission.
 Bacterial poisons are called toxins. Toxins damage the cells in which the bacteria are growing.
Causative
Disease Transmittion Signs/Symptoms Prevention Treatment
agent
Cholera Vibro cholerae Comtaminated Severe diarrhea ① Replacement of
water and foods. Vomit Hand washing water lost
Typhoid High temperature for 5 days Inoculation Chloramphenicol
Salmonella Contaminated
Increasing headache,
typhi water and foods.
drowsiness and aching
Vomiting
② on the
upper abdomen
③ on the
87
back
Tuberculosis Mycobacterium ④ BCG vaccine Streptomycin
Inhaling of
(TB) tuberculosis ⑤ Radiography
contaminated air
Loose weight excessively diagnosis
Gonorrhoea Gonococcus Sexual Condoms Penicillin
Purulent yellow discharge
neisseria intercourse Safer sex Ampicillin
Oxytetracycline
Treponema Sexual 2-4 weeks primary chancre
Syphilis Condoms Penicillin
pallidum intercourse or '⑥ '
6-8 weeks headache, fever
Safer sex
and rash.
Small but persistent area of
Mycobacterium Droplets from
Leprosy impaired sensation or Dapsone
leprae sneezes
numbness
Muscular paralysis Thiacetazone
Dry skin
Gross tissue destruction
Activity 11-1-02: Write the method of prevention ①. Write the sign ②-⑥.
11-1-03 Viral diseases.

 Viruses are even smaller than bacteria and can only be seen under the electron microscope.
 Their size ranges between 10 and 300 nm in diameter.
 They do not have a nucleus, cytoplasm and cell membrane which are characteristic of the cells of living organisms.
 Viruses consist of nucleic acid (DNA or RNA) surrounded by a protein coat.
 Viruses can reproduce only inside other cells, and so all viruses are parasitic.
 Most viral diseases have no cure and the infected person entirely depends on the body immune system for recovery.
Disease Causative agent Transmittion Signs/Symptoms Prevention Treatment
Acquired Close sexual
① Fever No vaccine No
Immune intercourse
specific
Deficiency Using Avoiding
Loss of weight by diarrhea treatment
Syndrome unsterilised unsafe sex.
(AIDS) needles Swelling of lymph nodes
② Rubella virus Droplets Sneezing, Cough, Dark red rash Immunisation
Redness of the conjuctiva
Swelling of the eyelids
Watering of the eyes
Hoarseness of the voice
Koplik's spots on the mouth
Hepatitis Human faeces Jaundice Good hygiene Vitamin B
One or other of the Chills, headache, nausea, vomit
Light diet
hepatitis viruses and diarrhea
③ urine Immunisation
④ colour to sclera
Influenza Influenza virus Droplets Raised temperature, Headache, Wash hands No
Dry cough, Mild sore throat, specific
“Rotten” drug
Common cold Rhinovirus Droplets Dry throat, Sneezing, Wash hands No cure
Watering of the eyes
 Antibiotics are ineffective against viruses, but they may be prescribed if an acute or persistent secondary bacterial infecti on
appears.
Activity 11-1-03: Fill in the blank ①②. Write the sign ③④.
11-1-04 Protozoal diseases.

 Protozoa are very small single-celled organisms whish are likely to be found in fresh water and moist soil.
88
 Protozoa are visible under a high-power microscope.

 Most of them reproduce asexually.
② stage (40
Draining still
Malaria ① Biting and degree fever, Drugs
water
injecting salivary vomitting, headache)
of female ③ stage
⑤
anopheline (feels burning hot)
mosquito. ④ stage
Drugs
(profuse perspiration)
Entamoeba Grumbling pain in the
Amoebic dysentery Faeces Hand washing Metronidazole
histolytica abdomen
Diarrhea Boiling Tinidazole
Irregular bouts of
Pentamidine.
Sleeping sickness ⑥ Biting of a blood fever, Headache
(Trypanosomiasis) genus sucking Enlargement of lymph
⑦ nodes
Changed behaviour
Sleeplessness during
the day
Mental confusion
Activity 11-1-04: Fill in the blank ①⑥⑦. Write the sign ②③④. Write the method of prevention ⑤.
11-1-05 Fungal diseases.

 Fungi form spores which are dispersed to new hosts.
 Their structure ranges in size from microscopic forms to large ones which are easily seen with the unaided eye.
Athletes foot Spores Discomfort Washing
Chronic fungal infection of the
Regular changing
deep soft tissue and bones
of clean socks
11-2 Immune system
11-2-01 Defence against infection.

 There are several types of defence mechanisms in organisms.
1. Protection by the skin.
2. Disinfection by the saliva, tears and secretion of the alimentary canal.
3. Clearance of foreign matter by sneeze, cough and cilia in the trachea.
4. Clotting of blood.
5. Action of the white cells.
6. Action of the antibodies.
11-2-02 Blood clotting.

 When tissues are damaged and blood vessels cut, platelets clump together and block the smaller capillaries. The platelets
and damaged cells at the wound also produce a substance, thromboplastin which can act on the plasma protein called
prothrombin together with calcium ion, and enentually the prothrombin is changed into the enzyme thrombin. The
thrombin can react on another plasma protein, fibrinogen, to change into fibrin, which forms a network of f ibres across the
wound. Red cells become trapped in this network and so form a blood clot. The clot not only stops further loss of blood,
but also prevents the entry of harmful bacteria into the wound.
89
11-2-03 Cells involved in immune system.

cell feature
T cells Differentiate and mature in the ① .
② facilatate the antibody production of B cells and the function of ④.
③ inhibit the effect of ②.
④ attack the cells infected by viruses.
B cells Differentiate and mature in the ⑤ .
Produce ⑥ (see below).
Macrophage Trap antigens (denatured cells, infected cells, cancer cells, etc) by ⑦ .
Transmit information about antigens to T cells.
 The lymphocytes, or B cells, produce antibodies against foreign proteins called antigens. Each antibody is very specif ic.
This means that an antibody which attacks a typhoid bacterium will not affect a p neumonia bacterium. Some of the
lymphocytes which produced the specif ic antibodies remain in the lymph nodes for some time and divide rapidly and make
antibodies if the same antigen gets into the body again. This means that the body has become immune to the disease
caused by the antigen.
* Structure of an antibody (immunoglobulin);
Activity 11-2-03: Name the organ ①⑤. Name the cell ②-④. Write the chemical ⑥. Name the process ⑦.

<11-1-01> ①Def iciency ②Inherited ③Mental ④Pathogenic ⑤Bacteria ⑥Viruses ⑦Protozoa ⑧Fungi ⑨droplets ⑩dust
⑪touch ⑫faeces ⑬animals ⑭blood mixing ⑮sexual intercourse ⑯Sterilisation ⑰vaccination
<11-1-02> ①Boiling ②Rash ③Red spot ④Vigorous coughs ⑤Sputum ⑥pimple
<11-1-03> ①Human Immunodef iciency Virus (HIV) ②Measles ③Dark ④Yellow
<11-1-04> ①Plasmodium ②Cold ③Hot ④Sweating ⑤Insecticides ⑥Trypanosoma ⑦tsetse fly
<11-2-03> ①thymus ②Helper T cells ③Suppressor T cells ④Killer T cells ⑤bone marrow ⑥antibodies ⑦phagocytosis
<Sample question>
1. Which diseases can usually be cured by antibiotics?

A. AIDS and malaria. B. AIDS and syphilis. C. Gonorrhoea and malaria. D. Gonorrhoea and syphilis.
2. Which is the following exists only as parasites?

A. Bacteria. B. Fungi. C. Insects. D. Viruses.
3. Which organisms have cells containing nuclear material without a nuclear membrane?
A. Animals. B. Bacteria. C. Fungi. D. Plants.
<Answer> 1. D. 2. D. 3. B.
90
UNIT 12 Genetics
Objectives
□ 12-1 Describe the stage of mitosis.
□ 12-1 Describe the stage of meiosis.
□ 12-2 Describe a chromosome and a gene.
□ 12-2 Explain a monohybrid cross.
□ 12-2 Explain a determination of sex in human.
□ 12-2 Explain the mechanism of ABO inheritance.
□ 12-3 State causes of mutation.
12-1 Mitosis and meiosis
 Cells in organisms undergo cell division for growth and reproduction.

 There are two types of cell division; mitosis and meiosis.
12-1-01 Difference between mitosis and meiosis .

Mitosis Meiosis
Associated with: Asexual reproduction Sexual reproduction
Purpose ① and ② Production of ③
Parent cell Diploid (2n) Diploid (2n)
Daughter cells ④ ⑤
Genetic variation No (parent and daughters are '⑥ ') ⑦ of chromosomes
Location All other cells Sexual reproductive cells
Activity 12-1-01: Write the process ①②. Fill in the blank ③⑥⑦. Write the number of daughter cells ④⑤.
12-1-02 Process of mitosis.

 Mitosis occurs in the ordinary cells of the body (autosomal cells).
 Mitosis is important because it leads to the increase in size and number of cells without alteration in the genetic constitut ion
of the cells.
Activity 12-1-02: Name the structure ①-③. State the feature of each stage ④-⑩. Fill in the blank ⑪.
12-1-03 Process of meiosis.

 Meiosis is the cell division that takes place in reproductive organs to produce reproductive cells (gametes).
 It leads to the reduction in the number of chromosomes, thus it is called reduction division.
91
 Half the number of the chromosomes in sex cells helps to keep the chromosome number constant.
Activity 12-1-03: Fill in the blank ①②⑦⑧⑫. Name the process ③. State the feature of the stage ④-⑥,⑨-⑪.
12-2 Inheritance
 Genetics is the study of the inheritance of genetic material from generation to generation.
 Genes are the basic units of inheritance.
12-2-01 Terms about inheritance.

** The principles of heredity (discovered by Gregor Mendel 1822-1884)
1. Characteristics are passed (ie. transmitted) from parents to offspring via ① which are located in
② in the ③ of cells.
2. The ① controlling a particular characteristic can exist in two forms called ④ . One of the ④ may be
⑤ , the other ⑥ .
3. ④ occur in pairs which are located in the same relative position ( ⑦ ) on
⑧ chromosomes.
4. An individual may possess two identical ④ for a given characteristic. Such an individual is called ⑨ . If
both alleles are ⑤, the individual is ⑩ . If they are ⑥, the individual is ⑪ .
5. An individual may possess two non-identical ④, one ⑤ and the other ⑥, for a given characteristic. Such an individual is
⑫ .
6. The ④ which an individual possesses for a given characteristic (ie. its genetic constitution) is called the
⑬ . The ⑬ is shown by letters: a capital letter for the ⑭ , and the corresponding
small letter for the ⑮ .
7. The observable characteristics of an individual (ie. the way the alleles express themselves) is called the
⑯ .
8. When a dominant and recessive allele are present together (ie. in a heterozygous individual), only the dominant allele
produces an effect (ie. expresses itself ) in the phenotype.
92
9. A recessive allele will only express itself when it is in the homozygous state, ie . when the dominant allele is absent.
10. In a gamete only one of a pair of alleles is present. This is because gametes are formed by meiosis in which homologous
chromosomes become separated.
Activity 12-2-01: Fill in the blank ①-⑯.
12-2-02 Chromosome and gene.

 The chromosomes exist in pairs such that each member of the pair has a characteristic length and shape similar to its partner.
This pair is called homologous chromosomes.
 A gene is a pair of DNA molecule which specif ies the type of proteins to be produced and determines charac teristics.
 It is responsible for certain characteristics like eye colour, sex and texture of hair.
Activity 12-2-02: Fill in the blank ①-⑦.
12-2-03 Fine structure of chromosome.

 Chromosomes are thread-like structures found in the nucleus of a cell.
 Chromosomes consist of proteins called histones and the nucleic acid, deoxyribonucleic acid (DNA).
 The DNA molecule is a double helix formed by chains of sugar and phosphates attached to nitrogenous bases.
 The sugar which makes the chain is a pento se sugar called deoxyribose.
 The two helices in the DNA strands are linked together by nitrogenous bases.
 There are four bases and these are adenine (A), thymine (T), guanine (G) and cytosine (C).
 The DNA strands are comprementary that is adenine is always bonded to thymine (by two hydrogen bondings) and cytosine
to guanine (by three hydrogen bondings).
* Supplement: From genes to proteins

 How is the information in DNA used to determine an organism ‟s characteristics?
 An organism‟s traits are determined by proteins that are built according to the plans specif ied in its DNA.
 How does DNA determine the nature of a protein?
 If you want to know the answer, you should study by yourself. There is no royal road to learning.
12-2-04 Mendel's law.

** What did Mendel discover?
93
 Gregor Mendel experimented on ① to study one characteristic at a time.
 He usually started with ② for his parent generation by carring out self-pollination. These would then be
crossed to form hybrids.
 His study shows that the f irst generation or the first filial generation (F 1 generation) shows dominant traits.
 Crosses within the f irst generation, which means self-pollination, in order to form the second generation or the second filial
generation (F2 generation) show more variation.
 From the ratio of phenotypes shown in offsprings, it might be possible to deduce the possible genotypes of the parent .
 An offspring that is all tall could have either homozygous dominant parents (TT x TT) or one homozygous dominant and one
heterozygous parent (TT x Tt).
 Offspring that are all short have to be from parents that are both homozygous recessive (tt x tt) .
** Mendel’s law: The condition for completing ③ (Mendel-type heredity)
1. The principle of ④ : Alleles exist as pairs in genes, each on separate members on a pair of homologous
chromosomes. During ⑤ , the chromosomes separate; alleles separate into different gametes .
2. Law of ⑥ : The inheritance of one gene is not affected by another gene . The segregation of alleles
of a gene is not influenced by allele of another gene .
12-2-05 Two ways of illustration of monohybrid cross.

 A monohybrid cross is a cross that involves two contrasting alleles in determining a trait.
 A trait is a characteristic such as eye colour, texture of hair and colour of flowers.
 The alleles and the traits they bring about can be determined in the offspring as shown in below.
Activity 12-2-05: Describe the phenotype ①-④.
12-2-06 Cross test.

 Sometimes, there is need to know whether the offsprings are homozygous or heterozygous.
 This is done by carrying out a test cross.
 A test cross is done by crossing the unknown organism with a homozygous recessive organism.
Activity 12-2-06: Describe the phenotype ⑤-⑥.
94
12-2-07 Co-dominance: Not apply Mendel's law.

 If a characteristic is the result of two alleles which are equally dominant.
 These types of alleles are termed co-dominant.
 In human, the I A and IB alleles are co-dominant in the AB blood group.
* Example of colour of flower;
Activity 12-2-07: Describe the phenotype ①-②.
12-2-08 Multiple allele - ABO blood type in human

 The gene that controls the ABO blood group in humans has three different alleles .
 They are I A , IB , and IO .
 IA and IB are co-dominant, while I O is recessive to both I A and IB .
 For the blood group, there can only be 2 alleles in one genotype .
Blood groups (phenotypes) Alleles (genotypes)

A IA IA or IA IO
B IB IB or IB IO
AB IA IB
O IO IO
Activity 12-2-08: Describe the phenotype ①.
12-2-09 Sex determination in human.

 Sex chromosomes (the 23 rd pair) determine the sex of a person.
 In female, the sex chromosomes are made of a homologous pair of
X-chromosomes.
 In male, this pair is made of a long X chromosome and a short Y chromosome .
 The female gametes contain an X chromosome.
 The male sperm contains either an X or a Y chromosome.
 The X sperm or Y sperm determines if the child is female or male.
Activity 12-2-09: Describe the phenotype ①.
12-2-10 Human genetic disorder.

 Most of the characteristics we think of as important are controlled by more than one pair of alleles, and can be influenc ed by
our environment.
 The harmful effects produced by mutated genes are called genetic disorders.
 Some of human genetic disorders are controlled by single factor characteristics.
Recessive traits Phenotypes
① Lack of melanin pigmentation
Red-green ② Inability to distinguish red or green wavelengths of light
③ Inability to form blood clots
Defective haemoglobin that causes ⑤ cells to curve and stick
④
together
Dominant traits Phenotypes

Brachydactyly Short fingers
95
⑥ disease Degeneration of nervous system, starting in middle age

Camptodactyly Inability to straighten the little finger
Hypercholesterolemia Elevated levels of blood cholesterol and risk of heart attack
⑦ Extra fingers and toes
Activity 12-2-10: Name the disorder ①-④,⑥⑦. Name the cell ⑤.
12-3 Mutation
12-3-01 Mutation.
 Mutations involve spontaneous changes to a ① or a ② .
 This change causes the gene to be coded differently from what it was supposed to be .
 Any change in a gene or chromosome usually has a harmful effect on the cell in which it occurs.
 Mutations in bacteria often produce resistance to drugs by mutation.
 ③ (environmental or chemical) can increase the rate of mutation in cells .
* Two types of mutation;
1. Gene mutations
Occur when the ④ of the bases in the DNA molecule is changed.
There are different ways of gene mutations; ⑤ , ⑥ , ⑦ .
If the genetic code is changed, the type of ⑧ synthesised will also changed.
eg. sickle cell anaemia, haemophilia
2. Chromosome mutations
During meiosis, some chromosomes may break and fragm ents may undergo the following changes;
⑨ , ⑩ , ⑪ , ⑫ .
During meiosis, the homologous chromosomes may fail to separate, so that the number of chromosome in gametes may be
more or less than the normal number. It is known as polysomics.
eg. ⑬ (21st chromosomes are triple)
* Causes of mutation (called mutagen);
 Excessively high temperature.
 Exposure to chemicals such as formaldehyde, mustard gas, drugs .
 High energy radiation such as ⑭ , ⑮ , beta-ray, alpha-ray, neutrons.
Activity 12-3-01: Fill in the blank ①-④,⑧,⑬-⑮. Name the way of mutation ⑤-⑦,⑨-⑫.
12-3-02 Cancer.
 A serious disease in which cells and tissues are the following condition:
96
(1) Unlimited cell division,

(2) Invasion of adjoining tissues (inhibition of normal function)
(3) Metastasis (transference to the other tissues).

<12-1-01> ①Growth ②repair ③sex cells ④two diproid (2n) ⑤four haproid (n) ⑥clone ⑦Recombination
<12-1-02> ①Nucleus ②Centrosome ③Spindle f ibre ④become visible ⑤Shorten and thicken
⑥Nuclear membrane, Disintegrate ⑦Aligned at the equatorial region ⑧Moving to opposite poles
⑨Nuclear membrane, Form ⑩Cytoplasmic division ⑪Daughter cells
<12-1-03> ①reduce ②Homologous chromosomes ③Crossing over ④Homologous chromosomes ⑤Equatorial region
⑥Nuclear membrane ⑦Maternal ⑧Paternal ⑨visible ⑩divides ⑪moves ⑫Four daughter cells
<12-2-01> ①genes ②chromosomes ③nucleus ④alleles ⑤dominant ⑥recessive ⑦locus ⑧homologous ⑨homozygous
⑩homozygous dominant ⑪homozygous recessive ⑫heterozygous ⑬genotype ⑭dominant allele ⑮recessive allele
⑯phenotype
<12-2-02> ①Homologous chromosomes ②Alleles ③gene ④genes ⑤Homozygous dominant ⑥Heterozygous
⑦Homozygous recessive
<12-2-04> ①pea plants ②pure lines ③monohybrid cross ④segregation ⑤meiosis ⑥independent assortment
<12-2-05> ①All black ②3 black : 1 brown ③All black ④3 black : 1 brown
<12-2-06> ⑤All black ⑥1 black : 1 brown
<12-2-07> ①All Pink flower ②1 red : 2 pink : 1 white
<12-2-08> ①2 A : 1 B : 1 AB
<12-2-09> ①1 Female : 1 Male
<12-2-10> ①Albinism ②color blindness ③Hemophilia ④Sickle cell anaemia ⑤red blood cells ⑥Huntington ⑦Polydactyly
<12-3-01> ①a gene ②a chromosome ③Mutagens ④arrangement ⑤deletion ⑥transition ⑦insertion ⑧protein
⑨translocation ⑩deletion ⑪inversion ⑫duplication ⑬Down's syndrome ⑭x-ray ⑮ultra violet light
<Sample question>
1. A families A and B the f irst f ive children of each family were all boys. If a boy from f amily A marries a girl from family B,
what are the chances of their f irst born child being a boy?
A. 25% B. 50% C. 75% D. 100%
2. An adopted child of blood type O has located the biological father and discovered that he has blood type B. Whi ch blood
type could NOT be a possible blood type of the mother?
A. type A B. type B C. type AB D. type O
3. Which of the following is a result of gene mutation?

A. Down‟s syndrome B. Sickle cell anaemia
C. ABO blood groups D. Sex determination
4. A particular characteristic is controlled by a dominant allele, A and recessive allele, a. Which cross would give a 1:1 r atio
of the two phenotypes among the offsprings?
A. aa x aa B. Aa x AA C. Aa x Aa D. Aa x aa
5. In peas, the allele S, for smooth seeds, is dominant over s for wrinkled seeds. 200 heterozygous plants were
self-pollinated and 1500 smooth seeds were collected. How manay wrinkled seeds were collected?
A. 6000 B. 2000 C. 1500 D. 500
<Answer> 1. B 2. C 3. B 4. D 5. D
97
UNIT 13 Ecology
Objectives
□ 13-1 Explain the term: Food chain, Food web.
□ 13-1 Explain pyramids of energy and biomass.
□ 13-1 Describe how carbon and nitrogen are cycled within an ecosystem.
□ 13-2 Explain the importance of living organisms in soil.
□ 13-2 Describe the undesirable effects of water, air and land pollution.
13-1 Ecosystem
 Our environment is made up of many different living organisms.

 The survival of these organisms depends on how they interact with their environment and with each other.
13-1-01 Terms of ecosystem.

 The ecosystem is an ecological unit in which living organisms in a community interact with each other and with the
non-living.
* Example of ecosystem in the pond;
13-1-02 Food chain.

 Producers and consumers play different roles in the community.
 These roles are termed as ① .
 The different ① can be classif ied in various ways in the community.
 When a herbivore eats a plant, and is then eaten by a carnivore, a chain of events form:
based on ② habits.
 This forms the food chain.
* Example of food chain;
98
* Levels of food chain;

Food chain Named Consumer level Trophic level
Photo-plankton Producer Producer 1st trophic level
Mussels Herbivore 1 st order consumer 2nd trophic level
nd
Crab Small carnivore 2 order consumer 3rd trophic level
Man Larger carnivore 3 rd order consumer 4th trophic level
th
Bacteria Decomposer 4 order consumer 5th trophic level
Activity 13-1-02: Fill in the blank ①-② (text). Name the level of food chain ①-④ (f igure).
13-1-03 Food web.

 In reality, the feeding relationship of organisms is not so simple as described above that p redators feed on more than one
type of prey.
 When several different food chains can be s trung together, it forms a food web.
 A food web interconnects several food chains within an ecosystem .
Activity 13-1-03: Name the level of food web ①-⑤.
13-1-04 Ecological pyramid.

 With the progression of the food chain, the number of organisms of successive levels reduces.
 The food chain therefore attains the shape of pyramid.
Pyramid of ① Pyramid of ②
Represents the dry mass of all the organisms at that
The base has the larger number of organisms
trophic level
The number of organisms reduce as you reach the
The length of the bars estimates the relative biomass
higher tiers of the pyramid
May be upright or inverted May be upright or inverted
Activity 13-1-04: Name the pyramid ①② (table). Name the level of pyramid ①-④ (f igure).
13-1-05 Energy transfer along the food chain.

 All ecosystems require a constant input of energy.
 The main energy sources on the earth in the ① .
 Solar energy can be trapped by ② to make food.
 Energy flows in ③ direction along the food chain.
 Green plants capture only ④ % of solar energy.
 ⑤ % of energy at every trophic level is converted into biomass .
 At the next level, energy is lost (by heat energy because of respiration) . Therefore energy supplied from level to level
decreases.
99
 Finally, all energy will be released out of ecosystem .
Activity 13-1-05: Fill in the blank ①-⑤ (text). Name the level of food chain ①-④ (f igure).
Nutrient cycle
 In an ecosystem, materials are cycl ed so that they are used over and over again.
 Nutrients like carbon and nitrogen are not always in a readily available form to living organisms.
 They must be changed to forms that are usable to living organisms.
13-1-06 Carbon cycle.

 The cycling of carbon in the biosphere is called carbon cycle.
 Carbon dioxide is removed from the atmosphere through the process of photosynthesis.
 During respiration, carbohydrates are broken down to carbon dioxide and water, releasing back carbon to the atmosphere.
 During decay, bacteria give back carbon dioxide to the atmosphere.
 During human activities, fossil and fuel are used, releasing much carbon dioxide to the atmosphere.
Activity 13-1-06: Name the process ①-⑤.
13-1-07 Nitrogen cycle.

 Nitrogen is found in plants and animals in form of proteins, in soil as nitrates, and in the atmosphere as nitrogen gas.
 The cycling of nitrogen in biosphere is called the nitrogen cycle.
 Nitrogen fixation is the process which certain bacteria absorb nitrogen gas and combine it with other substances to make
nitrogenous compounds.
 Some nitrogen f ixing bacteria can be found in root nodules of leguminous plants like beans, peas and groundnuts.
 The nitrogen f ixing bacteria in root nodules and leguminous plants pro vide an example of symbiosis (or mutualism in this
case which implies that both organisms derive some benef it from the association).
100
 That is, the leguminous plant benef its from the extra nitrates that the bacteria provide, while the bacteria are protecte d in the
plant‟s cells and can also use the sugars made by the plant‟s photosynthesis.
Activity 13-1-07: Name the process ①②④⑤. Name the organism ③,⑥-⑨.
13-2 Human impact on ecosystem
 Human beings have caused much harm to their environment.

 The environment that takes a long time to be established has been destroyed within the last few decades because of rapid
increasing of the human population.
13-2-01 Human impact on ecosystem .

1. ① : process which leads to increase in a harmful agent in the environment.
2. ② : it alters the balance of nature.
3. ③ : particularly monoculture, can destroy wildlife.
4. ④ : alters the environment and destroys wildlife.
Activity 13-2-01: List the human impact ①-④.
13-2-02 Pest control.

 In agriculture, monocultures, with their dense populations of single species, are usually applied.
 Monoculture is very susceptible to attack by insects or the spread of fungas diseases.
 To combat these threats, we used two types of pest control methods together.
1. ① control -- pesticides
* Advantage: ② and ③ .
* Disadvantage: Get into food chain and harm humans ( ④ ).
Kill usefull predator. Become resistant to the pesticide.
Types of pesticide Kills Examples
Herbicide Plants (dandelions) Paraquat
Hormone weedkiller
Insecticide Insects (houseflies, mosquitoes) ⑤
Fungicide Fungi (potato blight, mildew) Copper sulphate
2. ⑥ control
* Advantage: ⑦ in human body.
* Disadvantage: May disturb ⑧ of nature (eg food web).
Pest Harm done by the pest How controlled
Greenfly Install ⑨ (Ladybird beetle) to eat
Sucks plant juices,
(aphid) greenflies
Transmits plant virus disease
Mosquito Transmits malaria Install ⑨ (certain species of fish) to eat mosquito larvae
Rabbit Eats crop plants Install ⑩ to cause myxomatosis
Water hyacinth Clogs up rivers and reservoirs in tropics Install ⑨ (tilapia) to eat water hyacinth
Activity 13-2-02: Fill in the blank ①-⑩.
13-2-03 Organisms in soil.

 Some organisms in soil play important roles especially in agriculture.
Organisms Importance
Helpful
Grass Roots help to hold soil particles together;
destruction of plants by eg over-grazing may result in erosion
① Turn over, drain, aerate, fertilise and refine the soil
Moles Drain the soil and eat pests (but also eat earthworm)
Bacteria and fungi ② bring about decay;
nitrifying and nitrogen-fixing bacteria raise ③
101
content of soil
Harmful
Wireworms (larvae of type of beetle) Eat plant roots
Leather jackets (larvae of daddy longlegs) Eat plant roots
Millipedes Some species eat plant roots
④ Some species attack plant roots and live inside them as parasites
Bacteria De-nitrifying bacteria lower ③ content of soil
Activity 13-2-03: Fill in the blank ①-④.
13-2-04 Mineral salts needed for plants.

 Macronutrients: chemical elements needed in rather amounts.
eg. nitrogen, phosphorous, sulphur, magnesium, potassium and calcium
 Micronutrients: trace elements needed in tiny amounts.
eg. manganese, boron, cobalt, zinc, copper and molybdenum
 With the exception of legumes, plants are generally dependent on nitrogen in the form of nitrate ions or ammonium ions.
Element Function Deficiency
Nitrogen Component of ① Poor growth
Yellow leaves
Phosphorous Component of ② Poor growth
Dull green leaves
Leaves with curly brown edges
Sulphur Component of ③ Yellow leaves
Magnesium Component of ④ Yellow leaves
⑤ Increase hardiness Yellow edge to leaves
Die early
Calcium ⑥ at root and shoot tips Poor buds
Stunted growth
Iron Need for chlorophyll formation Yellow leaves
Copper Help certain enzymes Shoots die back
Zinc Help certain enzymes Malformed leaves
Activity 13-2-04: Name the chemical ①-⑤. Name the process ⑥.
13-2-05 Effect of fertilizer.

 Compared manure to chemical fertilizer, the effect on the yield is almost equal.
 The animal manure replaces the nitrates and other minerals removed by the crop.
 The animal manure is biodegradable, so that it helps to maintain the ecosystem in the soil.
 When animal manure is not available in large enough quantities, artif icial fertilizers are used.
 These are mineral salts made on an industrial scale.
102
 Examples are ammonium sulphate (for nitrogen and suiphur), ammonium nitrate (for nitrogen) and compound NPK fertilizer
for nitrogen, phosphorus and potassium.
 Remains of these chemical eventually make the soil acidic. Some organisms may not tolerate acidic co nditions and as such
they die. This in turn will affect the process of decomposition and replenish soil with nutrients.
13-2-06 Pollution.
 Pollution involves the addition of harmful substances (chemicals) in the earth's environment.
 When released into the environment, they are harmful. They are called ① .
 Pollution is not conf ined to the air, land or water by itself. It affects the entire ecosystem.
Pollutant Main components Why it is harmful
Air pollutants
Causes ③ leading to
Smoke from ②
④
industrial plants
Reduces visibility
Sulphur dioxide Dirties buildings, harms plants
Carbon particles Causes ⑤
Oxides of nitrogen (NO X) ⑥ (Smoke plus fog)
⑦ Sulphuic acid, formed by sulphur dioxide gas Erodes buildings
reacting with atmospheric water and oxygen Harms plants
Motor vehicle ⑧ Causes faintness
exhaust Combines readily with ⑨
⑩ Harms brain
(Action of bright sunlight on exhaust makes Photochemical smog causes eye- irritation
photochemical smog) and headaches
Refrigerants
CFCs (chlorofluorocarbons) Destroy ozone layer, leading skin cancer
Hair spray
Green house effect
CO 2, methane, NO X, CFCs Global warming
gases
Water pollutants
⑪ Liquid which floats on water Ruins beaches
Kills fish and sea birds
High nitrogen content makes ⑭
⑫ and Nitrogenous substances
multiply quickly;
⑬
⑭ then die, causing decomposers to multiply
run-off
and use up oxygen so that fish suffocate
Damages animal tissues
⑮ Complex chemical substance containing
Gets into food chain, becoming more
(insecticide) chlorine
concentrated at each step
Marine life can be affected by even small
Inorganic wastes ⑯ , Zinc
quantities of these metals
Settles in the mudbed; anaerobic bacteria
converts it into neurotoxins
Causes numbness, convulsions and blindness
in people
Land pollutant
Mine tips Lead, Cadmium Harmful to animals and certain plants
Litter Natural materials (eg apple cores) Unsightly, may attract flies and rats
Natural materials can decay (biodegredable),
Human-made materials
human-made materials often cannot decay
(eg ⑰ )
(non-biodegredable).
Noise Loud sounds Discomfort
Pain
Damage to ears
103
Radioactivity from Damages genes (⑱ ) causing

Waves given out from radioactive substances
nuclear tests, etc deformities and/or cancer
Activity 13-2-06: Fill in the blank ①-⑱.

<13-1-01> ①Population ②Community ③Ecosystem
<13-1-02> (text) ①niches ②feeding (f igure) ①Producer ②1st order consumer ③2nd order consumer ④3rd order consumer
<13-1-03> ①4th consumer ②3rd consumer ③2nd consumer ④1st consumer ⑤Producer
<13-1-04> (text) ①numbers ②biomass (f igure) ①3rd consumer ②2nd consumer ③1 st consumer ④Producer
<13-1-05> (text) ①Sun ②plants ③one ④1 ⑤10 (f igure) ①Sun ②Producer ③Consumer ④Decomposer
<13-1-06> ①Photosynthesis ②Respiration ③Eaten ④Fossilisation ⑤Combustion
<13-1-07> ①Lightening ②Nitrogen f ixation ③Rhizobium ④Absorption ⑤Eaten ⑥Denitrifying bacteria
⑦Decomposition bacteria ⑧Nitrifying bacteria ⑨Nitrifying bacteria
<13-2-01> ①Pollution ②Pest control ③Modern farming ④Urban development
<13-2-02> ①Chemical ②quick ③eff icient ④Biological accumulation ⑤DDT (Dichlorodiphenyltrichloroethane)
⑥Biological ⑦Harmless ⑧balance ⑨predator ⑩certain type of virus
<13-2-03> ①Earthworms ②Decomposers ③nitrate ④Roundworms (nematodes)
<13-2-04> ①proteins ②ATP ③proteins ④chlorophyll ⑤Potassium ⑥Cell formation
<13-2-06> ①pollutants ②Carbon dioxide ③Greenhouse effect ④global warming ⑤bronchitis ⑥Photochemical smog
⑦Acid rain ⑧Carbon monoxide ⑨haemoglobin ⑩Lead ⑪Oil ⑫Sewage ⑬fertiliser ⑭algae ⑮DDT ⑯Mercury ⑰plastic
⑱mutation
<Sample question>
1. Which statements about virus and bacteria are not correct?
Virus Bacteria
A. Have a nucleus. Have a nucleus.
B. Not used in food production. Used in food production.
C. Caused disease. Caused disease.
D. Have DNA. Have DNA.
2. The following samples were taken from a human patient. Which sample will be examined to f ind out whether the patient
is infected with the malaria parasite?
A. Red blood cells. B. Urine. C. Saliva. D. White blood cells
3. Which of the following statements explains why some living organisms in water die if raw sewage is allowed into the water?
A. Sewage makes water dirty.
B. Sewage ensures that it uses up all the oxygen in water.
C. Sewage noulishes water microorganism which deplete the oxygen.
D. Sewage is poisonous to aquatic organisms.
4. Which of the following is a direct effect of introducing raw sewage into a river?
A. Oxygen levels would reduce. B. Number of f ish would increases.
C. Plant growth would reduce. D. Bacterial growth would increase.
5. A lake has been polluted by sewage. Compared with unpolluted water, the water in this lake will have …
A. Fewer bacteria B. More f ish C. More nitrogen compounds D. more oxygen
6. For each 1000kJ of energy that a goat takes in a food, it uses 70kJ for growth, loses 410kJ as a heat and 520kJ in faeces.
What percentage is used by the goat?
A. 7% B. 41% C. 48% D. 52%
<Answer> 1. A 2. A 3. C 4. D 5. C 6. C
104

BioTextbook3 Ver2c

Uploaded by

Copyright:

Available Formats

BioTextbook3 Ver2c

Uploaded by

Document Information

Original Title

Copyright

Available Formats

Share this document

Share or Embed Document

Sharing Options

Did you find this document useful?

Is this content inappropriate?

Copyright:

Available Formats

BioTextbook3 Ver2c

Uploaded by

Copyright:

Available Formats

Produced by JOCV Zambia teachers‟ committee

(for Zambian pupils G10-12)

To do or not to do, that is the problem.

INTRODUCTION UNIT 07 Growth and Development p.53

UNIT 02 Nutrition p.16 UNIT 09 Skeleton and movement p.68

UNIT 05 Excretion p.46 UNIT 12 Genetics p.90

1st Edition: June 2008

Thank you for your great decision to use t his booklet!

* Why did I decide to make this Biology booklet.

* What is this booklet including.

* What are the features of this booklet.

* Messages from the author.

How science is done

How do I study Biology

1. Whenever I study biology, I try to keep 5W1H questions in my mind:

2. One principle of biology:

A. R. Sebastian, GCE „O‟ LEVEL BiologyKEY.POINTS, 2004

Your success depends on...

“WHAT YOU DID” and “WHAT YOU WILL DO”

Not „Who you are‟ neither „Books you have‟

UNIT 01 Living Organism

 Properties of life are cellular organization, metabolism, homeostasis and reproduction.

01-1 Cell structure

01-1-01 Process in living organisms .

* Introduction of the cell (The Cell Theory)

01-1-02 Observation of a cell (hand lens and compound microscope).

* How to handle a microscope.

Activity 01-1-02: Name the part ①-⑨ of a compound microscope.

01-1-03 Magnif ication.

01-1-04 Basic structure of an animal and a plant cell.

Activity 01-1-04: Identify the organelle ①-⑰.

01-1-05 Similarity and difference between animal and plant cells .

01-1-06 Detail structure of a cell.

01-1-07 Example of specialized cells.

01-1-08 Cell ntercostals.

01-2 Classification of living organisms

01-2-01 Scientif ic name – binomial system.

01-2-02 Sequence of classif ication.

01-2-03 An example of classif ication using vertebrate key.

01-3 Movement of molecules cross the cell membrane

01-3-01 Description of diffusion.

01-3-02 Description of osmosis.

 Osmosis is def ined that the movement of ① across ② membrane

01-3-03 Water potential.

01-3-04 Osmosis in animal and plant cells.

01-3-05 Description of active transport.

01-4-01 Characteristics of enzymes.

1. Made of proteins that function as biological catalysts.

01-4-02 Biological and non-biological catalyst

01-4-03 Intra- and extra-cellular enzymes

01-4-04 Industrial applications of enzyme.

<Creativity> What is „LIFE‟?

[A living organism] – [the dead organism] = ??LIFE??

If the equation is true, what is „LIFE‟?

<Creativity> Clone animals

Unit 01 Answers for the activities

3. A mixture of food gives the following results on testing:

02-1 Classes of nutrients

02-1-01 Types of feeding.