Unit 3

Unit 3 Acoustic Wave
UNIT 3
A concert hall has to be specially designed to
ensure that sound energy is uniformly
distributed through the entire hall. This area
ACOUSTIC WAVE
of study is called acoustics of buildings.
(Source of picture: wikimedia.org)
Structure
3.1 Introduction
3.4 Musical Notes and Scale
Expected Learning Outcomes
Musical Scales
3.2 Production of Sound Waves
3.5 Acoustics of Buildings
Graphical and Mathematical
3.6 Summary
Representation of Sound Waves
Sound Waves in Different Media 3.7 Terminal Questions
Forced Vibrations and Resonance 3.8 Solutions and Answers
Musical Instruments
3.3 Intensity of Sound
Intensity Level: Decibel
STUDY GUIDE
You will learn about acoustic waves in this unit. The word ‘acoustics’ means “the science of sound”
and acoustic waves refers to sound waves. Since sound is a wave phenomenon we shall use the
concepts related to wave motion (Unit 1) in this unit. You should, therefore, revise Unit 1. The focus of
our discussion in this unit is on production, propagation, and detection of sound waves. The
phenomena of forced oscillation and resonance play a crucial role in production of sound. You will be
able to understand it better if you revise the basics of oscillatory motion from Units 16 and 18 of the
first semester course entitled Mechanics (BPHCT-131).
Yet another phenomenon which plays a crucial role in production of sound is the formation of standing
waves in strings and air columns. The basic physics involved in formation of standing waves in air
columns such as organ pipes is the same as for the formation of standing waves in strings discussed
in Unit 2. You should, therefore, read that unit once again before studying this unit. Also, you should
keep comparing the salient features of transverse waves on a string discussed in Units 1 and 2 with
the salient features of the sound waves discussed in this unit. This will help you appreciate the
differences and similarities between the two types of waves.
“If I were not a physicist, I would probably be a musician.

I often think in music. I live my daydreams in music. I see my Albert Einstein
life in terms of music…”
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Block 1 Waves – An Introduction
3.1 INTRODUCTION
In the previous two units, you have learnt the general characteristics of wave
motion and the superposition of waves by considering transverse waves on a
string. You now know that waves are characterised by parameters like
amplitude, wavelength, frequency and phase. You also know that the study of
waves is important because these transport energy from one place to another.
In the present unit, you will study about acoustic waves, which is another
name for sound waves.
Acoustics means the science related to production, propagation and detection
of sound. In fact, the term acoustics is not limited to audio; it includes the
design of buildings, musical instruments and much more. As you know, sound
is an important part of our every day experience. Just as light is responsible
for our visual perception, sound is responsible for our perception of hearing.
Sound is a mechanical wave produced by vibrating objects and it
requires a material medium for propagation. For example, when we speak,
our vocal cords vibrates and produce sound waves which propagate through
air. Human beings, however, cannot ‘hear’ mechanical waves of all
frequencies. The human ear is capable of detecting/hearing mechanical
waves having frequency in the range of 20 Hz to 20,000 Hz. Therefore,
mechanical waves in this frequency range are called sound waves.
Moreover, waves of higher frequencies, called ultrasound waves are used in
medical diagnostics and industry. Also, some creatures like bats and dolphins
use these high frequency waves for navigating their path in the dark. Our
understanding about sound and related phenomena is based on the physics
of waves, which you studied in the previous two units. You will learn how to
apply the concepts related to waves for the study of sound.
We begin this unit with a discussion, in Sec. 3.2, on the basic process
involved in the production and propagation of sound waves. You will discover
that sound is a longitudinal wave comprising compressions and rarefactions of
the particles of the medium. We have also discussed the graphical and
mathematical description of sound waves taking analogy with the transverse
waves on a string discussed in Unit 1. For being audible at a given point, the
intensity of sound waves must have a value above the threshold value
(~ 10 12 Wm 2 ) at that point. Normally, the intensity of sound waves needs
to be enhanced. In many musical instrument as well as sound producing
organs of living beings, this enhancement is obtained by forced oscillations
and resonance. You will learn about forced oscillations and resonance and its
role in sound in this section. You will also learn the role of formation of
standing waves on strings and organ pipes in production of sound and
enhancement of its intensity.
The range of intensity of sound which human beings can hear is very large.
Thus, a logarithmic scale, called decibel, is used for the intensity of sound
about which you will study in Sec. 3.3. In Sec. 3.4, we have discussed why
human beings find some sounds pleasing and what are the physical principles
underlying musical notes and musical scales. You will also learn about the
factors such as echo, reverberation, etc. which impact the hearing experience
in a closed room or hall. In Sec. 3.5, we have discussed these factors under
acoustics of buildings which play important role in design of buildings,
particularly, auditoriums and concert halls.
66
In the next unit, we have discussed electromagnetic waves. As you know, light
is an electromagnetic wave. So, the study of electromagnetic waves will help
you understand the phenomena such as polarisation, interference and
diffraction of light.
Expected Learning Outcomes

After studying this unit, you should be able to:
describe how sound waves are produced by vibrating objects;

understand the graphical and mathematical representation of sound
waves;
obtain expressions for speed of sound in different media;
explain the role of forced vibrations and resonance in production of
sound;
explain the role of standing waves in production of sound by musical
instruments;
explain the decibel scale for intensity of sound and obtain an expression
for intensity level of sound on this scale;
discuss diatonic and tempered musical scales; and
list and explain the factors which affect the acoustics of building.
3.2 PRODUCTION OF SOUND WAVES

Sound is an important sensory experience in our daily life. As light is the
stimulus for our visual experiences, sound is the stimulus for hearing. Have
you ever thought: How is sound produced by human beings or birds and
animals or musical instruments like sitar and drum? Sound is produced by
vibrating objects. For example, when we speak, our vocal cords vibrate and
produce sound. In case of string musical instruments like sitar or guitar, sound
is generated by vibrating strings. Likewise, you will always find a vibrating
object as source of sound in any other situation. However, for producing the
sensation of hearing, the sound produced by a vibrating object needs a
material medium such as air to travel from the vibrating object to our ear. Most
of the sound may also travel in liquid and solids. The presence of material
media is a necessary requirement for propagation of sound.
Sound is a wave phenomenon. It comprises waves generated by a vibrating
object and propagates through a medium. Generally, the sound we hear in our
day to day life travels through air in the form of longitudinal waves.
To understand how sound waves are produced and how they propagate, let
us consider a long tube containing air with a piston fitted at its one end and
the other end open as shown in Fig. 3.1. When the piston is at rest, the air
inside the tube has uniform density and pressure. Suppose the piston is made
to move back and forth in a periodic manner. Now, think: What is the impact
of this periodic motion of the piston on the air in the tube? As the piston
moves to the right, it will push the air particles in its vicinity to the right. This
will create a layer of air in which particles are compressed. This compressed
layer of the air will, in turn, push the adjacent layer on its right. As a result, a
moving region of compression is formed in the tube. The compression will 67
keep moving towards right even when the piston begins moving back to the
left. In the compression region, the density and pressure of air is higher than
the equilibrium density and pressure (when the piston was at rest).
Fig. 3.1: a) A long tube containing air with a piston fitted at one end;
b) Periodic motion of piston generates longitudinal sound waves
comprising regions of compressions (C) and rarefactions (R).
When the piston moves backwards or to the left, a layer of low density is
created. This low density (and low pressure) layer of air is called rarefaction.
From Unit 1, you know
The rarefaction layer of air will pull the adjacent layer on its right. Thus, the
that mechanical waves
are of two types: region of rarefaction also keeps moving to the right in the tube. Again, when
transverse waves and the piston moves to the right, a layer of compression is created, which
longitudinal waves. You propagates along the tube. Thus, the periodic motion of the piston creates
also know that in successive regions of compressions and rarefactions. These successive
transverse waves, such regions of compressions (C) and rarefactions (R) moves along the tube
as the waves on a
as longitudinal waves. This is a longitudinal wave because the
string, particles of the
displacements of the particles of the medium is in the same direction along
medium oscillate
perpendicular to the which the wave propagates.
direction of wave The regions of compressions and rarefactions in a sound wave are the
motion. In longitudinal
regions of high pressure and low pressure, respectively. The ear drum of our
waves, particles of the
ear detects these pressure changes and causes the sensation of hearing.
medium oscillate along
the direction of wave You may ask: As the sound waves propagate in tube, is there a
motion. translational motion of the particles of the medium? No; the particles of
the medium do not move along the wave. The particles of the medium execute
oscillatory motion about their equilibrium position.
In Unit 1, you have learnt that waves are characterised by parameters like
amplitude, wavelength, frequency and speed. The amplitude of the sound
wave is the maximum displacement of the particles of the medium from their
respective mean positions. The distance between two consecutive
compressions (or rarefactions) is wavelength of the sound wave (Fig. 3.1b).
The time taken by a particle of the medium to complete one complete
oscillation is called the time period, T of the wave and the frequency, f of the
wave is equal to 1/T. The frequency of the sound wave is same as the
frequency of the vibrating object producing the sound. The speed v of the
sound wave is the speed with which each compression or rarefaction moves
through the medium. You have learnt in Unit 1 that the relation between
wavelength O, frequency f and speed v of wave is given as
v Of (3.1)
After having understood how longitudinal waves are generated and how they
68
propagate in a medium (air), you may now ask: Are all longitudinal waves
sound waves? In other words, do we perceive all longitudinal waves as
sound? No, it is not so. For being perceived/heard as sound by human beings,
longitudinal wave must satisfy the following two conditions:
i) Its frequency must be in the range 20 Hz and 20 KHz, and

ii) the value of its intensity, at the position of the listener, must be above You will learn about
(more) than “the threshold of hearing”. ‘threshold of hearing’
later in this unit.
When a longitudinal wave satisfy these conditions, it is heard as sound by
human beings. We shall discuss these aspects of sound in detail later in the
unit.
3.2.1 Graphical and Mathematical Representation of

Sound Waves
You have learnt in Unit 1 that mechanical waves such as transverse waves on
a string can be represented graphically as well as mathematically. Can we do
the same for sound wave which is a longitudinal wave? Yes, we can do that
taking analogy of transverse waves on a string discussed in Unit 1. Let us
learn it now.
Graphical Representation
In Unit 1, you have learnt that transverse wave on a string can be represented
graphically by two types of graphs namely vibration graph and waveform
graph. Similarly, longitudinal waves can also be represented graphically by
these two types of graphs. Recall from Unit 1 that in the vibration graph, we
consider a particle of the medium at a fixed position x and plot its
displacement with respect to its mean position as time passes. On the other
hand, in the waveform graph, we keep the time fixed and plot the
displacement of the particles located at different positions, x. That is, the
waveform graph is the snapshot of the displacement of the particles of the
medium with respect to their mean position at a given instant of time. The
vibration graph and the waveform graph for a sound wave are shown in
Fig. 3.2a and b. The amplitude, time period and wavelength of the sound
wave are also indicated in these graphs.
Fig. 3.2: a) The vibration graph of a sound wave showing displacement \( x, t )

of the particles of the medium at a given position as a function of time;
b) The waveform graph of a sound wave showing displacement of the
particles of the medium as a function of position at a given time.
69
You may note that the graphical representation of sound waves is identical to
that of transverse wave on a string except for an important difference: While
the displacement, y(x,t) in Fig. 1.3 of Unit 1 denotes transverse
displacement of the particles of the medium (string) on which transverse
waves propagate, the displacement, \( x, t ) in Fig. 3.2 represents the
longitudinal displacement of the particles of the medium (air) in which
longitudinal waves propagate.
Sound as Pressure Waves
The sound waves are also described as pressure waves. As you have
learnt above, the regions of compressions and rarefactions in the sound
wave in air are the regions of high pressure (or density) and low pressure
(or density), respectively. To understand what we mean by pressure wave,
refer again to Fig. 3.1a. Assume that, when the piston is stationary, the air
in the tube is at equilibrium pressure, say pe . As the piston begins to
oscillate periodically, it generates longitudinal sound waves comprising
compressions and rarefactions. The pressure in the compression regions is
higher than equilibrium pressure, pe and that in rarefaction regions is lower
than pe . So, the longitudinal wave is a successive regions of high and low
pressures compared to the equilibrium pressure. Thus, the variation of
pressure in a sound wave at a given time can be represented graphically
as shown in Fig. 3.3. Note that points like A, B, ... represent compressions
having positive value of pressure compared to the equilibrium value and
points like C, D,… represent rarefactions having negative values of
pressure compared to the equilibrium value. On this pressure graph, the
Fig. 3.3: Representation wavelength is the distance between two consecutive value of maximum (or
of sound wave as
minimum) pressure. From this graph, we can also determine the amplitude
pressure wave.
of the pressure wave which is the maximum positive or negative value of
the excess pressure. The human ear drums can detects these pressure
changes in a sound wave and cause the sensation of hearing.
It was shown by Fourier

that complex periodic Further, note that sound waves, produced due to continuous and periodic
waveforms such as forced oscillations in an open medium (medium without boundaries) are
those generated by travelling periodic waves. Travelling waves propagate through the medium
violin and piano can be
which supports them. For example, the periodic motion of the piston
considered as a sum of
harmonic waves. The (Fig. 3.1a) forces the particles of the surrounding medium (air) to oscillate and
process of determining a longitudinal wave is generated. If the oscillations of the piston are simple
the component harmonic harmonic, the travelling waves generated by it are called harmonic waves.
waves constituting a Refer to Fig. 3.4 which depicts three waveforms for the sound waves: a
complex periodic wave
is called Fourier
harmonic (sinusoidal) wave, wave generated due to vibrations of the strings in
analysis. You will learn a violin and a piano.
about it if you pursue
higher studies in Note from Fig. 3.4 that the waveforms of the sound produced by violin and
physics. piano are periodic but not harmonic (sinusoidal). Such waves are called
anharmonic waves.
70
Fig. 3.4: Waveforms for a) harmonic (sinusoidal) wave; b) sound produced by a

violin; c) sound produced by a piano.
In general, harmonic waves are good approximation for sound waves and we
shall consider only harmonic waves for our discussion on sound.
Before proceeding further, you should answer a simple SAQ to check your
understanding of what you have learnt so far in this unit.
SAQ 1 – Production and propagation of sound waves
Mark the following statements as True or False:

a) Sound waves are produced by vibrating objects.
b) The frequency of sound waves is not the same as the frequency of the
vibrating object which produce them.
c) As the sound waves propagate in a medium, there is a translational In Unit 1, you have
motion of the particles of the medium. learnt that both
d) The regions of compressions and rarefactions in a sound wave are the y ( x, t ) a sin (kx Zt )
regions of high pressure and low pressure, respectively. and
y ( x, t ) a sin (Zt kx )
Mathematical Representation
are valid mathematical
Since sound waves are travelling harmonic waves, we can represent it representation of one-
mathematically taking analogy with the mathematical representation of a one- dimensional harmonic
dimensional (1-D) travelling transverse waves on a string discussed in Unit 1. wave travelling in the
positive x-direction
Thus, we can write the expression for 1-D longitudinal wave travelling in
because both of them
positive x-direction as satisfy the 1-D wave
\ ( x, t ) a sin (kx Zt ) (3.2) equation.
where \( x, t ) is the instantaneous displacement of the particle of the medium

at x with respect to its mean position at time t along the direction of 71
propagation of the longitudiual wave, the amplitude a represents the
2S ·
maximum magnitude of displacement, k §¨ ¸ is the wave number, O is the
© O ¹
wavelength and Z( 2Sf ) is the angular frequency.
The wave parameters such as a, O and f characterising the longitudinal wave

have the same definition as given for transverse waves in Unit 1. Also recall
from Unit 1 that the velocity of wave in terms of angular frequency Z and wave
Z
number k is given as: v Of (2S / k ) (Z / 2S) .
k
If you compare Eq. (3.1) with Eq. (1.15a), you will note that we have replaced
y(x,t) by \(x,t). While y(x,t) represents displacement of the particles of the
medium (string) perpendicular to the direction of propagation of the
transverse wave, \(x,t) represents the displacement of the particles of the
medium along the direction of propagation of longitudinal wave.
Now, before proceeding further, you should go through an example to get an

idea about the numerical values of the wave parameters associated with
sound wave.
XAMPLE 3.1: PARAMETERS OF SOUND WAVES
In a fluid medium, the speed of sound waves is 275 ms 1 and its

frequency is 500 Hz. a) Calculate the distance between two points in the
medium which have phase difference of (S / 3). b) Calculate the phase
difference between two displacements of a particle of the medium at a
point at time 10 3 s apart.
SOLUTION a) We know that the speed of sound wave of wavelength O
and frequency f is given by v Of . Thus, the wavelength is
v 275 ms 1
O 0.55 m
f 500 s 1
We also know that two points separated by a distance equal to one
wavelength, O have phase difference equal to 2S . Thus, we can write
the distance, x between two points having phase difference (S / 3) as
O S
x u 0.10 m
2S 3
b) The time period of the wave is given as
T (1/ f ) (1/ 500 s 1) 2 u 10 3 s .
We know that the phase difference between two displacements of the
particle at a point at time T apart is 2S. Therefore, the phase difference
I between two displacements separated in time by 10 3 s is
2S
I u 10 3 s S
2 u 10 3 s
In Unit 1, you have learnt that the behaviour of a wave in space and time is
described by the wave equation. So, you would like to know: What is the
72
wave equation for sound wave? Again, we take analogy of wave equation
for 1-D transverse wave on a string and write the wave equation for the 1-D
sound waves in a gaseous medium as:
w 2\ w 2\
v2 (3.3)
wt 2 wx 2
where v is the speed of the sound wave. The speed of sound waves in a
gaseous medium is given in terms of the properties of the medium as
v B/U (3.4)
where B is the bulk modulus of the medium and U is the density of the Recall from Unit 1 that
medium. So, in terms of the properties of the medium, Eq. (3.3) can be the speed of transverse
written as wave on a string is
given in terms of
w 2\ B w 2\
(3.5) properties of medium
wt 2 U wx 2 namely the tension in
the string T and linear
Eq. (3.3) is the standard from of the 1-D wave equation for sound waves in
mass density U of the
a gaseous medium with v given by Eq. (3.4). Note that Eq. (3.3) is similar to
string as
Eq. (1.12) – the 1-D wave equation for transverse waves on a stretched string.
You must, however, recognise that the physical properties of the medium Q T /U
which determine the wave velocity in the two cases are different. For
transverse waves on a stretched string, wave velocity is determined by the
tension in the string and its linear mass density, whereas for longitudinal
waves in a gaseous medium, it is determined by the bulk modulus and mass
density of the medium.
Before proceeding further, let us revise the main points discussed so far.
x Sound waves are longitudinal waves produced by vibrating objects.

x Sound waves require a material medium to propagate from one point to
other.
x Longitudinal waves having frequency in the range 20 Hz to 20kHz are
perceived by human beings as sound.
x The intensity of longitudinal wave at the place of listener must have a
value more than the threshold value called “threshold of hearing” for
being heard as sound.
x The 1-D sound wave travelling in the positive x-direction is represented
as
\( x, t ) a sin(kx Zt ); \( x, t ) a cos(kx Zt )
x The wave equation for one-dimensional sound wave is
w 2\ w 2\
v2
wt 2 wx 2
Note that Eq. (3.3) gives the wave equation for 1-D longitudinal wave where
displacement \ is a function of x and t. But, sound waves in air are three-
dimensional (3-D) longitudinal wave. Thus, the displacement \ of the particles
of the medium will be a function of x, y, z and t. So, the wave equation for
three dimensional longitudinal sound wave is
w 2\ § w 2\ w 2\ w 2\ ·
v 2 ¨¨ ¸¸ (3.6)
wt 2 © wx 2 wy 2 wz 2 ¹
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Now, solve an SAQ before proceeding further.
SAQ 2 – Equation of sound wave
Write down the equation for 1-D sound waves travelling along negative
x-direction and having wave parameters given as: amplitude = 0.5 cm,
wavelength = 32 cm and time period = 0.4 s.
The wave equation [Eq. (3.5)] gives the speed of sound waves in terms of the
From your school
physical properties of the medium. This enables us to compare the theoretical
physics, you may recall
that in an isothermal value of the speed of sound in different media with the experimentally
change, the temperature determined values. In the following section, we discuss the speed of sound
of the system remains waves in different media.
constant, whereas in an
adiabatic change, the 3.2.2 Sound Waves in Different Media
temperature of the
Sound waves can propagate in solid, liquid and gaseous medium. The speed
system changes.
of sound varies significantly in these media due to their physical properties.
Let us learn about it now.
Sound Waves in Air
The speed of sound in air can be calculated by using the value of the bulk
modulus (B) and density (U) of the medium in Eq. (3.4). But, for a gaseous
Note that in the previous
units, we have used the
medium such as air, the bulk modulus depends on the thermodynamic
symbol U for linear mass changes in the medium. When sound waves propagate in the medium, it
density. We shall use causes thermodynamic changes in it. The regions of compression have higher
this symbol for bulk temperature and the regions of rarefaction have lower temperature. These
(volume) mass density changes can be isothermal or adiabatic.
as well as linear mass
density of a material. Newton calculated the speed of sound in air, assuming that changes in
Thus, you should be the medium were isothermal. That is, the compression and rarefaction of the
mindful of the context of medium are not accompanied by a change in temperature. For an isothermal
its use. change, the bulk modulus of elasticity is equal to the atmospheric pressure p
(see margin remark):
B = BT = p
For an isothermal where BT is the isothermal bulk modulus. Thus, we can write Eq. (3.4) as
process, Boyle’s law
tells us that v= p U (3.7)
pV = constant Eq. (3.7) is known as Newton’s formula for speed of sound. For air at STP,
For infinitesimal
U 1.29 kg m 3 and p 1.01u 10 5 Nm 2 . Hence, the speed of sound in air,
changes in p and V, we
can write using Newton’s formula, is
p dV + V dp = 0
1.01u 10 5 Nm 2
Hence v= 280 ms 1
1.29 kgm 3
§ wp · p
¨ ¸ But, experiments show that speed of sound in air at STP is 332 ms1, which is
© wV ¹T V
about 15% higher than the value predicted by Newton’s formula. You may
? V ¨
§ wp · { B now like to know: How was this discrepancy resolved? The discrepancy
p ¸ T
© wV ¹T was resolved by Laplace who argued that it was wrong to assume that the
That is, pressure equals thermodynamic changes in the medium caused due to propagation of sound
isothermal bulk are isothermal. It means that we cannot use Boyle’s law to study wave
modulus.
propagation in air because it holds only for isothermal conditions. Laplace
further suggested that sound waves produce adiabatic changes: the
74 regions of compression were hotter while the regions of rarefaction were
cooler. That is, local changes in temperature occur when sound propagates in For an adiabatic
air. This gives rise to a larger value for the speed of sound. change, the equation of
state of a gas (air) is
For an adiabatic change, the bulk modulus, Bs is J times the pressure (see
pV J constant.
§ Cp ·
margin remark); J ¨¨ ¸¸ is the ratio of molar heat capacities of a gas at Therefore, infinitesimal
© Cv ¹ changes in p and V are
constant pressure (Cp ) and at constant volume (Cv ) . Thus, we have Bs J p. connected through the
relation
Then Eq. (3.4) modifies to:
V J dp p J V J 1dV 0
Jp
v (3.8) or
U
§ wp ·
For air, J = 1.4 and the value of the speed of sound in air at STP, calculated V¨ ¸ { Bs Jp
© wV ¹S
using Eq. (3.8) comes out to 331 ms1. This value of the speed of sound is in
excellent agreement with the experimentally determined value. This shows
that Laplace’s argument was indeed correct.
Let us now understand how temperature affects the speed of sound in air. To
do so, we express vsound as a function of temperature. From your school
physics and the third semester course BPHCT-135, you may recall that the
equation of state of an ideal gas is
NkBT
pV n RT N kBT p
V
where p is pressure, V, the volume, n, the number of moles of gas, T, the
temperature, kB , Boltzmann constant and N, the number of gas particles.
NkBT
Substituting p in Eq. (3.8), we get:
V
J kBT
v sound
U (V/N )
JkBT
or v sound (3.9)
m
where m is the mass of an air molecule. Eq. (3.9) tells us that the speed of
sound in air (or any other gaseous medium) is a function of T .
We note from Eq. (3.8) that the speed of sound in a gaseous medium, such as
air, is inversely proportional to the square root of gas density. Is it true even
for the speed of sound in liquids and solids? If so, will sound travel slower in
media denser than air? Let us find out.
Sound Waves in Liquids
The mechanism of propagation of sound waves in a liquid medium is the
same as that of longitudinal waves in a gaseous medium. Thus, the wave
equation given by Eq. (3.3) is also valid for sound waves in liquids. We can,
therefore, write the speed of sound in liquids as [Eq. (3.4)]:
B
v
U
where B is bulk modulus of elasticity for the liquid. Unlike gases, liquids are, in
general, almost incompressible. This means that for producing the same
change in a given volume of a liquid as that of a gas, we need to apply more
pressure in the case of former. As a result, the value of the bulk modulus for
liquids is very high compared to gases. Thus, the above expression indicates
that the speed of sound in liquids will be significantly higher than that in gases.
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3
For water, U 10 kg m
3
and B 2.22 u 10 9 Nm 2 .This gives the speed of
The ability to measure
the speed of sound has sound to be about 1500 ms1. Compare it with the speed of sound in air at
been put to many uses STP (331 ms 1). Note that though water is about 103 times denser than
in military operations.
air, yet sound propagates about five times faster in water. This means
During World War I, a
technique called sound that we can send audio messages from one ship to another faster via water
navigation and ranging than via air. This has led to the development of sonar (Sound Navigation and
(SONAR) was Ranging). High frequency sound waves are used in a SONAR to measure the
developed to locate the depth of sea bed, detect submarines, enemy torpedoes, and for off-shore oil
position of enemy guns exploration.
by using the sound of
cannons in action. The Sound Waves in Solids
technique is also being In a solid medium, both transverse and longitudinal waves can propagate. The
used for exploration of mechanism of propagation of longitudinal waves in a solid is same as in case
under sea minerals and of the propagation of longitudinal waves in a gaseous medium. Thus, the
oil. The
wave equation for the propagation of sound waves in a solid given by
off-shore explorations
are now a routine Eq. (3.3).
You may now like to ask: Which properties of the medium determine the
speed of longitudinal waves in a solid? When sound waves propagate in a
solid rod, changes take place in its length; the volume remains almost
The values of the Young’s constant. Thus for solids, bulk modulus (which relates the volume changes
modulus (Y) and bulk modulus with pressure changes) of elasticity is replaced by Young’s modulus of
(B) of some materials are: elasticity (Y) defined as
Material Y B Stress 'p
(Nm2) (Nm2) Y
Steel 200u109 160 u109 Longitudin al strain § 'l ·
¨ ¸
Aluminium 70u109 70u109 © l ¹
Copper 110u109 140u109
Glass 55u109 31u109 So, by replacing B by Y in Eq. (3.4), we can write the speed of sound in a solid
Diamond 1120u109 540u109 as
Water 0 2.2 u109
Mercury 0 27u109 v Y /U (3.10)
Most 0 1.1 u105
gases at You should now go through the following example to get a feel for the
STP numerical values of the speed of sound in different media.
XAMPLE 3.2: SPEED OF SOUND IN DIFFERENT MEDIA
Calculate the speed of sound in a) air at STP; b) sea water; and c) steel.
Take for air at STP, J = 1.39 and U 1.29 kg m 3 , for sea water,
U 1023 kg m 3 ; B 2.34 u 10 9 Nm 2 ; for steel, Y 20 u 1010 Nm 2 ,
U 7800 kg m 3 .
SOLUTION a) From Eq. (3.7), we know that the velocity of sound in air
is given as
vair Jp / U (i)
For air at STP, we have p 0.76 u 13.6 u 103 u 9.8 Nm 2 ; J 1.39

and U 1.29 kg m3 .
On substituting these values in Eq. (i), we get
(1.39) u (0.76 u 13.6 u 103 u 9.8 Nm 2 )

v air 330.4 ms 1
3
1.29 kg m
76
b) The expression for velocity of sound in liquid is given by Eq. (3.3):
v sea- water B/U
As per the problem, B 0.23 u 1010 Nm 2 and U 1023 kg m 3
0.23 u 1010 Nm 2
So, v sea- water 1.4 u 10 3 ms 1
1023 kg m 3
(c) The expression for velocity of sound in solids is given by Eq. (3.10):
v steel Y /U
As per the problem, Y 20 u 1010 Nm 2 and U 7800 kg m3
20 u 1010 Nm 2
So, v steel 5.1u 10 3 ms 1
3
7800 kg m
So, we find that the velocity of sound increases as the density of the
medium increases. That is,
v steel ! vwater ! v air
Now before proceeding further, you may like to solve an SAQ.
SAQ 3 – Speed of sound wave in solids

Seismic waves travel with speed 5 u 10 3 ms 1. Assuming the average Earth
density to be 1500 kg m3, calculate Young’s modulus of the material of the
Earth.
You now know that sound waves are produced and propagate in a medium
when a vibrating object forces the particles of the medium to execute
vibratory / oscillatory motion. The forced vibration and a related phenomenon
called resonance plays another important role with respect to sound: they
enhance the intensity of sound so as to make it audible at a distance. You will
now learn about it.
3.2.3 Forced Vibrations and Resonance

Forced vibrations refers to the phenomenon in which an external periodic
force induces vibrations in another system. To understand this process
qualitatively, consider two identical tuning forks A and B of equal frequency,
say 384 Hz. Let tuning fork A be set into vibration and brought close to tuning
fork B. It is observed that B also begins to vibrate. The tuning fork B starts
to vibrate despite the fact that it was not struck and it did not come in
contact with A. The vibration of B is called forced vibration and it is caused
by the compressions and rarefactions produced in air by the vibrating tuning
fork A. That is, tuning fork B is forced by tuning fork A to vibrate through
sound waves.
Another manifestation of the forced vibration is observed when we place a
vibrating tuning fork in contact with a table or some other hard surface of
larger area. The vibrating tuning fork forces the table top to vibrate. The
77
vibrating table top generates compressions and rarefactions in a larger
In the context of forced
vibrations, the external volume of air because its surface area is larger, than that of the vibrating
periodic force is called tuning fork. As a result, sound produced by the tuning fork is enhanced due to
driving force or driver the forced vibrations.
and the system on which
this force is applied is
In most musical instruments, forced vibrations and resonance are responsible
called driven system. for enhancing the intensity of sound. When an external periodic force (called
driving force) is applied on a system (called driven system) capable of
vibratory motion, it influences the motion of the system by altering its
frequency and amplitude. To understand how this happens, let us consider a
spring-mass system in which a block of mass m is attached to a spring
(Fig. 3.5).
Fig. 3.5: A schematic diagram of a spring-mass system executing forced

vibrations.
Let an external periodic force, given by F (t ) F0 cos Zt, where F0 is
amplitude of the periodic force and Z is its frequency, be applied to the
oscillator. Due to the periodic driving force, the spring-mass system is pushed
back and forth periodically and it ultimately oscillates with the frequency Z of
the driving force.
At any instant, the mass of the oscillator is subjected to three forces:
i) restoring force, kx, due to the spring,
dx
ii) damping force, J and
dt
iii) driving force, F0 cos Zt.
So, the net force acting on the system is

dx
F kx J F0 cos Zt
dt
According to Newton’s second law of motion, this force must be equal to
d 2x
m . Thus, we have
dt 2
d 2x dx
m kx J F0 cos Zt (3.11)
dt 2 dt
On dividing both sides of Eq. (3.11) by m and rearranging terms, we can write
the above differential equation governing the motion of a damped forced
oscillator as:
d 2x dx
2b Z02 x f0 cos Zt (3.12)
dt 2 dt
where 2b J / m, Z02 k / m and f0 F0 / m , and Z0 is the natural frequency
of the oscillator.
78
You may now ask: Does Eq. (3.11) apply only to the damped spring-mass
system? No, it applies to any oscillatory or vibratory system whose natural
frequency is Z0 and which is subjected to an external periodic driving
force. The motion of a
damped forced
Note that Eq. (3.12) is second order, linear inhomogeneous differential oscillator is governed
equation with constant coefficients. Its solution gives the expression for the by superposition of two
instantaneous displacement of the forced oscillator. Here, we shall write the oscillations: one of
solution without solving Eq. (3.12) and discuss the physical significance of the damped oscillations
expression in the context of sound waves. and the other of
harmonic driving force.
The steady-state solution of Eq. (3.12) is given as When the effect of
damping is overcome
x(t ) a(Z) cos (Zt T) (3.13) by the energy supplied
where, amplitude a(Z) is given as to the oscillator by the
external periodic force,
f0 the system begins to
a (Z)
[(Z02 Z2 )2 4b 2Z2 ] 1/ 2 oscillate with the
frequency of the driving
F0
(3.14) force. The oscillatory
m [(Z02 Z2 ) 2 4b 2 Z2 ] 1 / 2 system is then said to
be in steady-state.
Eq. (3.13) represents the instantaneous steady-state displacement of a
weakly damped oscillator, driven by a periodic force. From Eqs. (3.13) and
(3.14), we note that:
1. The frequency of oscillation of a forced oscillator is equal to the
frequency, Z of the driving force, which is different from its natural
frequency, Z0. This finding tells us that the sound waves generated due
to forced vibrations has the same frequency as the frequency of the sound
producing vibrating object.
2. The amplitude, a(Z) of the forced oscillator depends on the amplitude, F0
and frequency, Z of the driving force. The frequency dependence of the
amplitude of the forced oscillator gives rise to the phenomena of
resonance. Let us learn about it now.
Resonance
From Eq. (3.14), we note that the amplitude of vibration of the system
increases manifold when the frequencies Z and Z0 of the driving force and
the driven system, respectively, are equal. This phenomenon is called
resonance. To understand the phenomenon of resonance, let us re-examine
Eq. (3.14) a little more closely. Note that for low (Z Z0 ) as well as for high
(Z !! Z0 ) driving frequencies, the amplitude will be small because the term
(Z02 Z2 ) 2 in the denominator will be large. As the driving frequency, Z
approaches Z0 , the amplitude will increase gradually. The amplitude of
oscillation acquires maximum value when Z is very close to Z0 . This value of
frequency, say Zr , is called the resonance frequency and the condition
when amplitude attains a very high value is known as resonance.
Now, to obtain an expression for the resonance frequency Zr , we use a
concept from differential calculus. In the language of differential calculus, the
value of amplitude a(Z) will correspond to a maxima
79
x if the first derivative of a(Z) with respect to Z is equal to zero, and
x its second derivative is less than zero (negative) quantity,
The corresponding frequency is said to be the resonance frequency.
Let us first calculate the first derivative of a(Z) with respect to Z and equate it
to zero. From Eq. (3.14) we can write
da(Z) d ª f0 º
« 2 »
dZ dZ ¬« [(Z0 Z2 ) 2 4b 2 Z2 ] 1 / 2 ¼»
f0 [ 4Z (Z02 Z2 ) 8b 2 Z]

2 [(Z02 Z2 ) 2 4b 2 Z2 ] 3 / 2
The roots of the At resonance frequency (Z Zr ), we must have da (Z) / dZ 0 . Therefore,
quadratic equation
2
we get:
ax bx c 0
are given by 4Zr (Z02 Z2r ) 8b 2 Zr 0
2
b r b 4ac or 4Zr [Z2r Z02 2b 2 ] 0
x
2a
This equation is satisfied in two situations. The first is when Zr 0. It is
Here b = 0, a = 1 and
c = 2b Z0 . So we
2 2 ignored because it is trivial. The second situation is:
have
Z2r Z02 2b 2 0
1
4 ( 2b Z )
2 2
x r
2 0 This equation is quadratic in Zr and the acceptable root is (see margin
remark):
( Z 2b )
2 2
Zr (Z02 2b2 )1/ 2

0
(3.15)
Note that the root corresponding to the negative sign has been ignored as it is
physically meaningless.
Further, you can verify that, for the value of Zr given by Eq. (3.15),
(d 2a / dZ2 )Z Zr is negative. Physically, it means that the amplitude of
oscillation is maximum at resonance frequency. When such a situation is
obtained, we say that amplitude resonance has occurred. The frequency,
Zr is referred to as the resonance frequency.
Eq. (3.15) shows that resonance frequency depends on damping in the
system. However, if damping in the system is zero, we have b 0 and we get
from Eq. (3.15):
Zr Z0 (3.16)
That is, the resonance frequency is equal to the natural frequency of the
driven system.
At this stage, pause for a moment and think what is happening when there is
resonance between the driver (the external periodic force) and the driven
system (the spring-mass system in the instant case) due to forced vibrations.
Firstly, the amplitude of the driven system increases manifold. From Unit 16 of
BPHCT-131, you know that the energy of an oscillator is proportional to its
amplitude squared. Thus, we can say that the transfer of energy from the
driver to the driven system is maximum at resonance.
80
Secondly, from Eq. (3.16) we note that the resonance takes place when the
frequency Z( Zr ) of the driver is equal to the natural frequency, Z0 of the
driven system. This implies that the transfer of energy from driver to a driven
system due to forced vibrations is most effective or maximum when the
frequencies of the driver and the driven system are equal.
This is an important result in the context of production of sound by musical

instruments like guitar and flute. You will learn about the role played by
resonance in production of sound by these musical instruments later in this
unit. Before proceeding further, let us recapitulate the important points of this
section discussed so far.
x In forced vibration, the driven system vibrates with the frequency of the
driving force. In the context of sound waves, it means that the
frequency of the sound wave is the same as the frequency of the
vibrating object generating the sound waves.
x If the driven system does not suffer any damping, the resonance
frequency is equal to the natural frequency of the driven system.
x At resonance, the amplitude of oscillations / vibrations is enhanced
manifold.
On the basis of the above discussion, you now know that forced vibrations
can cause resonance under suitable conditions. Also, the amplitude of a
driven system increases at resonance. These features of forced vibrations and
resonance enable us to understand the production of rich variety of sound of
sufficient intensity by string and air column (organ pipe) based musical
instrument. Let us now briefly learn about them.
3.2.4 Musical Instruments

Musical instruments are broadly classified into two categories: string musical
instruments and air column (organ pipe) based musical instruments. In the
string musical instruments such as sitar, guitar and violin, transverse
vibrations of the string is the source of sound. The strings in these musical
instruments are in a stretched state and fixed at both ends. When the string is
plucked (that is, disturbed from its equilibrium state), standing waves are
formed. You have learnt in Unit 2 about the formation of standing waves on a
string fixed at both ends. Recall that
a) the frequency of the standing waves on a string fixed at both ends is given
by [Eq. (2.14)]:
n n T
fn v n 1, 2, 3, ... (3.17)
2L 2L U
where T is the tension in the string, U, its linear mass density and L, the
length of the string. Eq. (3.17) shows that the string can vibrate with
different frequencies for different values of n. These frequencies are called
the normal frequencies or normal mode frequencies of the string. The
frequency, f1 corresponding to n 1 is called the fundamental frequency
of the string and frequencies corresponding to higher values of n are
called harmonics or overtones. Using Eq. (3.17), you can show that the
81
permitted frequencies of the standing waves on the string constitute a
harmonic series:
f1 : f2 : f3 : .. 1 : 2 : 3 : ... (3.18)
For this reason, the normal mode frequencies of the standing waves on a
string are called harmonics: fundamental frequency is called first
harmonic, the next higher frequency is called second harmonic and so on.
These harmonics are also called overtones. However, there is a
difference: the numbering of overtones does not take into account the
fundamental frequency as such. That is, the second harmonic is called
first overtone, third harmonic is called second overtone and so on. At this
stage, you should refer to Fig. 2.12 which depicts the configuration of
standing waves on a string fixed at both ends for the first few harmonics.
b) From Eq. (3.17), we note that the wavelength of the standing wave on a
string fixed at both ends is given as
2L
On
n
So, in the fundamental mode (n = 1), the length L of the string
accommodates half wavelength.
c) The displacement of the string at the fixed ends is zero; such points on the
standing wave are called nodes. And, between two nodes, there is an
antinode which is the position of maximum displacement of the string.
From Eq. (3.17), it is obvious that sounds of different frequencies can be
produced by string musical instruments. Also note from Eq. (3.17) that the
frequency of the standing waves on a string is a function of tension in the
string, linear mass density of the string and length of the string. Musicians,
therefore, are able to change the frequency of the sound by adjusting one or
the other of these physical parameters of the strings in the instrument.
The sound produced by an isolated string is usually difficult to hear
from a distance of a few metres. It is so because the area of the string is
small and it does not move much air in its surroundings. That is, the power
delivered by the vibrating string to the longitudinal waves generated by it in
the surrounding air is very low and hence it is not heard as sound from a
distance. This is true even for the sound waves generated by the strings of a
musical instrument.
To enhance the power (or intensity) of the sound waves generated by strings,
string musical instruments invariably comprise a hollow box called sounding
box. Sounding box is a hollow wooden box of suitable size. The enhancement
in the power of the sound waves by sounding box is caused due to formation
of standing waves in the air column in the sounding box. To understand this
phenomenon, you need to learn the formation of standing waves in air
columns called organ pipes. Let us now briefly discuss it.
Organ Pipes
An organ pipe is any tube, which has been bent into different shapes or has
holes cut into it. The rich variety of sound produced by organ pipe (or air
column) based musical instruments such as flute and saxophone is due to
82 formation of standing waves. In the context of sound waves, formation of
standing waves in air columns such as organ pipes plays two important
roles:
Firstly, a group of musical instruments called wind instruments, such as flute
and saxophone produce sound due to vibrations of air columns in organ
pipes. The vibrations are caused by the mouth piece of the instrument. The
energy supplied by these vibrations maintains the vibrations in the air column
of the organ pipe.
Secondly, air columns called sounding box are attached with string musical
instruments to enhance the intensity of the sound produced by the vibrating
strings of the instrument.
Both the above functions of organ pipes are based on the formation of
standing waves in the air columns in them. The organ pipe or tubes which are
normally used in the musical instruments are classified into three categories:
closed-closed organ pipe, closed-open organ pipe and open-closed organ
pipe.
We will not go into the detailed mathematical analysis of the formation of
standing waves in these organ pipes as it is beyond the scope of this course.
It is sufficient to know that the formation of standing waves in organ pipes is
analogous to the formation of standing waves on a string; that is, the standing
waves are formed due to the superposition of two waves travelling in opposite
directions. In case of string, the waves travelling in opposite directions are
transverse waves and in case of organ pipes, the two waves are longitudinal
waves. Also, the position of nodes and antinodes in the standing waves
depends on its construction; that is, whether it is a closed-closed, or closed-
open, or open-open pipe.
Before proceeding further, solve an SAQ.
SAQ 4 – Calculating frequency of harmonics of a musical

instrument
The wavelength of the standing wave on a guitar string vibrating in its
fundamental mode is 2 m. If the speed of wave on the string is 400 ms1, what
is the frequency of its second overtone?
With these brief description of organ pipes and the standing waves formed in
its air column, we can understand the role of sounding box in sound produced
by string musical instruments. As we mentioned above, the sound waves
generated by the vibrating string of the instrument is barely audible at a
distance of a few meters or so. But, if a sounding box is attached near the
vibrating string, the air column inside the sounding box is set to forced
vibrations. And, if the frequency of the waves generated on the string matches
with one of the normal modes frequencies of the air column, resonance takes
place and a loud sound is produced.
So far, we have discussed how sound is produced, its speed in different
media and the role of forced vibrations and resonance in production of sound.
When a sound wave reaches human ear, the ear converts the pressure
changes into nerve impulses which is interpreted by brain as something
83
heard. However, the sound wave must have sufficient intensity to
produce appreciable pressure changes at the ear drum. Let us now learn
about intensity of sound at a point away from the source and how it is
measured.
3.3 INTENSITY OF SOUND

In Unit 1, you have learnt that the intensity of a wave is defined as the rate
of energy transfer by the wave per unit area normal to the direction of
r wave propagation. Mathematically, we can write the intensity (I ) of a wave
as
S P
I (3.19)
A
where P is the power of the wave and A is area of the surface intercepting the
wave perpendicular to the direction in which the wave travels (Fig. 3.6).
Fig. 3.6: Sound waves
You must have experienced that loudness of sound decreases as we move
emitted by a point
source S spread in the away from its source. You may therefore like to know: How does the
surrounding space. intensity of sound vary with distance from the source? You have learnt
about this in Sec. 1.4 of Unit 1. Recall that for an arbitrary point located at
distance r from the source, the intensity of sound is given as:
P
I
4Sr 2
1
That is Iv (3.20)
r2
Eq. (3.20) is known as the inverse square law. You have also learnt in this
section (Sec. 1.4, Unit 1) that the amplitude a of the wave is inversely
proportion to the distance r :
1
av (3.21)
r
Eq. (3.21) shows that amplitude of a wave decreases with increasing
distance of the listener from the source of sound.
3.3.1 Intensity Level: Decibel
At this stage, you may ask: How is our hearing related to the intensity of
sound waves? A normal person can hear sounds over a very wide range of
intensities. When we speak in normal tone, we emit energy at the rate of
about 10 5 W. Suppose that a person opens his/her mouth by about 10 cm2
The logarithmic scale
used to express intensity
while speaking. Then, the intensity of sound is (10 5 W)/10 3 m2 . Its value is
of sound is Bel, named 10 2 Wm 2 . Let us denote this by I0 . A normal person can hear a sound
after Alexander wave of intensity as low as 10 10 I 0 or 10 12 Wm 2 . The sound of this
Graham Bell. For finer
gradation, it is intensity is called the threshold of hearing (ToH) for human beings. On the
customary to express other hand, we can hear sound of as high an intensity as 10 Wm 2 without
intensity of sound by any damage to our ears.
tenths of a bel or a
decibel (dB). So, we find that the range of intensities which a human ear can detect is very
(1 bel = 10 decibel). large (~ 1013 Wm 2 ). Physicists, therefore, use a logarithmic scale called the
decibel (dB) scale to measure the intensity of sound. Decibel scale is a
relative scale which expresses the intensity of a given sound wave with
84 respect to the threshold of hearing.
The decibel scale differs from most measurement scales in two ways. Firstly, To understand how a
most of the measurement scales such as that for length, mass and logarithmic scale
temperature are absolute and linear. The decibel scale is, however, relative works, let us consider
rather than absolute and logarithmic rather than linear. A linear scale the relation
such as temperature is characterised by the fact that the difference in a = log b
temperature between 20qC and 21qC is same as the difference in temperature where a and b are
between 90qC and 91qC: the difference in temperature is 1qC in both the variables. If we multiply
cases. So, in a linear scale, jumping from one value to another means adding b by 10, we get
a constant value. But, in non-linear scale like logarithmic scale, jumping from ac = log (10 b)
one scale value to another requires multiplying by a constant.
= log 10 + log b
The decibel scale is a relative scale in the sense that it expresses intensity not
=1+a
in absolute terms but in relation to some fixed value called threshold of
hearing (~ 1u 10 2 W m 2 ). That is, when we
multiply b by 10, a
The unit for measuring intensity level of sound, bel is defined as increases by 1.
§ I · Similarly, if we multiply
bellog10 ¨ ¸ 6
b by 10 , we get
© I0 ¹
6
where I is the measured intensity and I 0 is the threshold of hearing. To have ac = log (10 b)
a wider range of values for intensity of sound, intensity is measured in decibel = 6 log 10 + log b
which is 10 times the bel. Thus, the intensity level (E) of sound in decibel =6+a
scale corresponding to intensity I is given by That is, when b is
§ I · 6
multiplied by 10 , a
E (10 dB) log10 ¨ ¸ (3.22)
© I0 ¹ increases by 6, the
value in the exponent.
where, I0 is the intensity corresponding to the threshold of hearing
(1u 10 12 Wm 2 ).
Since the decibel scale is logarithmic, you can see that it is based on multiples
of 10. The threshold of hearing is assigned a decibel level of zero dB. This
corresponds to the intensity of 10 12 Wm 2. A sound of intensity
10 11 Wm 2, which is 10 times more than the threshold of hearing is assigned
a decibel level of 10 dB. A 1000 times more intense (109 Wm 2 ) sound is
assigned a level of 30 dB. You can verify these numbers using Eq. (3.22).
In Table 3.1, we have listed the intensity of waves generated by different
sources of sound and also provided the corresponding intensity level in dB at
a distance of 1 m from the source.
Table 3.1: Intensities of sound at a distance of 1m from typical sources
Source of Sound 2 Intensity Level (dB)
Intensity (Wm )
(with respect to ToH)
12
Threshold of hearing (ToH) 10 0
11
Rustling of leaves 10 10
Whisper 10 20
10
Normal conversation 6 60
10
Street traffic 5 70
10
Bursting of crackers (at 1m) 5 78
8 u 10
Heavy road traffic 2 100
10
Threshold of pain 130
10
Jet take off 2 140
10
85
Note that the zero point on the decibel scale (dB) does not imply ‘no sound’.
Instead, it signifies the threshold of hearing i.e., the lowest sound that can be
heard. Also, the sound (~ 140 dB) of jet taking off can cause pain in our ears.
To save workers in airports, buildings are made sound proof. However, people
living in the vicinity of airports are likely to suffer noise pollution.
To check your understanding of decibel scale for intensity levels of sound you
may like to answer an SAQ.
SAQ 5 – Intensity level of sound
In a factory, it is required that the sound intensity level should remain below
80 dB to protect workers from noise pollution. Calculate the maximum sound
intensity permitted in the factory.
Sound, in general, is classified into two types: musical sound and noise.
Although this classification is based on our perception, we can always try to
understand the difference in terms of concepts of physics. You will now learn
the physical characteristics of musical sound and also about musical scale
used for producing musical sound.
3.4 MUSICAL NOTES AND SCALE

In the context of musical As far as perception or hearing is concerned, we can define musical sound as
sound, ‘note’ and ‘tone’ sound which produces a pleasant sensation to the ear. A musical sound
both refer to its ‘pitch’. contains regularly sustained notes produced by a vibrating object. On the
Since, ‘pitch’ of a sound
other hand, noise is an abrupt sound which is not sustained for long. Due to
is related to its
this abruptness, noise produces unpleasant sensation to ear.
frequency, we
essentially refer to the
From the point of view of perception, a sound is characterised by three
frequency of sound
parameters, namely, pitch, loudness and quality. These three attributes of
when we mention ‘note’
or ‘tone’ of a sound. sound are broadly related to physical characteristics of the sound wave. The
pitch of sound is related to the wave frequency, loudness to wave intensity (or
amplitude) and quality to the waveform. Let us briefly discuss these relations.
Pitch and Frequency
As a matter of fact, the subjective perception of sound by human ear is a

physiological process. But, this physiological process is influenced by the
physical characteristics of sound waves. It is found that the frequency of
sound influences the perceived pitch of sound: higher the frequency, higher is
the perceived pitch. You know that pitch of sound enables us to distinguish a
grave sound (or note) from a sharp one. It is found that two frequencies
that differ by a factor of 2 are perceived as pleasant sound when they are
sounded together. Two such frequencies are said to differ by an octave
and this plays an important role in developing musical scales as you will
learn later in this section. The subjective perception of equal steps in pitch
level roughly corresponds to multiples in the frequency of harmonic sound
waves. Thus, two successive notes (pitch level) in music are not equally
spaced in frequency.
86
Loudness and Intensity
The loudness of perceived sound is correlated to its intensity (that is, energy
carried by sound waves per unit area at the position of listener). As you have
learnt in the previous section, the intensity of sound at the position of a
listener must have a value more than the threshold of hearing. Further, the
correlation between loudness and intensity is similar to the correlation
between pitch and frequency; that is, equal steps in loudness correspond to
equal multiples in intensity.
Quality
Even if two sounds waves have the same pitch and loudness, they may be
perceived as two distinct sounds. This difference is caused due to the
waveforms of the two sounds if they are not harmonic waves. To understand
what is meant by the ‘waveform’ of sound, refer to Fig. 3.4 where we have
depicted the waveforms of the sound produced by violin and piano. You may
note that these two waveforms are different from each other which influences
the perceived quality of respective sounds. You may like to know: How such
periodic but anharmonic waveforms are generated?
It was shown by Fourier that a complex periodic waveform (that is, a

waveform which is periodic but not harmonic) can be regarded as a sum of
harmonic waves. So, when a musical instrument generates sounds of different
harmonics or overtones, they combine to produce a complex waveform.
Further, the possible harmonics or overtones which can be generated depend
up on the nature of the musical instrument. Therefore, the waveforms,
corresponding to a given pitch and loudness, produced by a musical
instrument is its unique characteristic. That is why we are able to distinguish
between the same notes produced by flute and sitar.
A complex periodic waveform can be analysed using Fourier analysis and the
relative amount of fundamental frequency and the higher harmonics
constituting the waveform can be ascertained. Similarly, we can add various
amounts of higher harmonics to the fundamental frequency of a musical
instrument and produce a desired waveform.
With the above background, you are now ready to learn about musical scales.
3.4.1 Musical Scale

Musical scale used by musicians to produce musical sound is based on the
concept of octave. In a musical scale, an octave is defined as a set of two
frequencies wherein the value of the higher frequency is two times the
value of the lower frequency. For example, if 220 Hz is the frequency of the
lower note of the octave, the value of the higher note will have the frequency
440 Hz. The importance of octave in music is due to the fact that two
frequencies that differ by a factor of 2 are particularly pleasing when sounded
together and they are said to form an octave.
The human ear can distinguish a number of notes of definite frequencies
between a note and its octave. The musical scale used in Indian (Hindustani
as well as Carnatic) music as well as Western music is based on this series of
87
distinguishable notes in an octave. The lowest frequency note in this series is
called key note or tonic. The pitch corresponding to frequency of 256 Hz is
taken as key note for scientific analysis of musical sound. However, musicians
use pitch corresponding to frequency of 264 Hz as key note or tonic for
creating / producing music.
A musical scale is characterised by the relation among the notes in an octave.

Let us now learn about a few musical scales.
1. Diatonic Scale
This is the most common musical scale. It consists of a series of eight

notes with the interval between the last and the first note in the ratio 2:1.
Thus, the range of notes is called an octave. This musical scale is
common to Indian traditional music and Western music. In Indian
traditional music, it is also called saptak comprising seven basic notes; the
eighth (or the last) note of the octave is not counted because it is double
the frequency of the first note. The pitch of a note is given a name such as
sa, re, ga, ... etc. in Indian music tradition and do, re, mi, ... etc. in Western
music tradition. A note is a sound wave of given frequency. The seven
pure notes of the octave in the diatonic scale are assigned names and the
frequency of each note is related to the frequency of the preceding note by
a fixed ratio. The names of these pure note in the Indian and Western
music traditions and the ratio specifying the relation between two
consecutive notes of the diatonic scale is given in Table 3.2 below.
Table 3.2: Frequency relation between notes of the diatonic scale
Name of pure notes
1
(Keynote 2 3 4 5 6 7 8
or tonic)
Indian Traditional
sa re ga ma pa dha ni sa
Music
Western Music
do re mi fa sol la si do
(C-Major Scale)
1 9/8 5/4 4/3 3/2 5/3 15/8 2

Frequency Ratio
1 1.125 1.250 1.333 1.500 1.667 1.875 2
Note from Table 3.2 that the frequencies of the notes in the octave are
arranged in ascending order. Also, note that the frequency intervals of the
musical scale are not uniform. However, the sensation of pitch produced by
these notes is of equal interval. It we take 1 as the key note of an octave
comprising saptak – the basic seven notes – then the frequencies of these
seven basic notes are derived according to the ratio given in Table 3.2.
To understand this scale in terms of frequencies of the basic notes, study the
88 following example.
XAMPLE 3.33: FREQUENCY OF BASIC NOTES OF AN

OCTAVE
Suppose the frequency of the key note (or tonic) of an octave is 256 Hz.
Calculate the frequencies of the seven basic notes of the corresponding
octave of the diatonic scale.
SOLUTION Since the frequency of the key note (lower frequency) of
the given octave of the diatonic scale is 256 Hz, the higher frequency of
the octane is 512 Hz. And, the frequencies of other six basic notes are as
given in the table below:
Note sa re ga ma
Frequency 256 256u 1.125 256u 1.250 256u 1.333
(in Hz) 288 320 341.3
pa dha ni sa
256u 1.500 256u 1.667 256u 1.875 256u 2

284 426.7 480 512
You should note that the relation among the frequencies of diatonic scale as
given in Table 3.2 is with respect to the key note, that is, the lower frequency
of the octave. You may ask: How are the frequencies of the basic notes of
the scale related to each other? The ratio between frequencies of two
successive notes of a musical scale is called musical interval. The musical
intervals of diatonic scale is given in the Table 3.3.
Table 3.3: Musical intervals of diatonic scale
sa re ga ma pa dha ni sa
Notes (f1 ) (f 2 ) (f 3 ) (f 4 ) (f 5 ) (f 6 ) (f 7 ) (f 8 )
Musical (f2 / f1 ) (f3 / f2 ) (f 4 / f3 ) (f5 / f6 ) (f6 / f5 ) (f7 / f6 ) (f8 / f7 )

256
Intervals 9/8 10 / 9 16 / 15 9/8 10 / 9 9/8 16 / 15
From Table 3.3, we note that the musical interval between key note and the
next higher note in the diatonic scale is 9 / 8 . Also, from Table 3.3 we note
that the three main musical intervals in the diatonic scale are 9 / 8, 10 / 9 and
16 / 15 which are, respectively, known as a major tone, minor-tone and semi-
tone. Thus, the sequence of intervals in the diatonic scale are major-tone,
minor-tone and semi-tone. Since major-tone occurs more frequently, this scale
is also called major diatonic scale. It we neglect the difference between
major and minor tones, then diatonic scale will be tone, tone, semi-tone, tone,
tone, tone, semi-tone. In view of having mainly two basic ratios as musical
intervals, this scale is called diatonic scale.
As evident from Table 3.3, the musical interval between two successive notes
(frequencies) are not equal in the diatonic scale. This puts severe limitation on
a large number musical instruments. To overcome this shortcoming of the
89
diatonic scale, another musical scale, called tempered scale was developed.
Let us learn about it now.
Tempered Scale
In the tempered scale, the octave is divided into 12 equal intervals. Thus, if x
is the musical interval between two consecutive notes on tempered scale,
then
( x )12 2 x (2)1/ 12 1.05946
Thus, the equal musical interval between two consecutive notes, (that is, the
ratio between the frequencies of two consecutive frequencies) on a tempered
scale is 1.059456 .
In this scale, all the other notes in the octave are defined in relation to tonic
(sa). For notation purposes, each of the 12 notes in an octave has a unique
identity/name/notation as given below:
Table 3.4: Notations of Indian and Western music for tempered scale
(Key
note 2 3 4 5 6 7 8 9 10 11 12 13
or tonic)
Note Notation
Indian
Music
S r R g G M m P d D n N Sc
Note
(Symbol)
Western
# # # # #
Music Note C C D D E F F G G A A B Cc
(Symbol)
Because of equal musical interval between two consecutive notes on a

tempered scale, it is also called Equal Tempered Scale (ETS).
In the Indian music tradition, the 12-notes scale comprises seven pure notes
and five impure notes. In the Table 3.4, pure notes are shown by upper case
letters and the impure notes are shown by lower case letters. So, as per
Indian music system, pure notes are S, R, G, M, P, D, and N. Also note that
the seven pure notes correspond to C-Major scale of the Western music
tradition. In Indian traditional music, an octave was divided into 22 intervals.
But, the 12 tone based tempered scale is more prevalent.
Like light, sound waves are also reflected, refracted and diffracted. Due to
these phenomena, hearing experience is affected, particularly in rooms, halls
and auditoriums. The study of impact of these phenomena and the remedial
measures to minimise their undesirable impact on hearing experience is called
acoustics of buildings. You will now learn about it.
3.5 ACOUSTICS OF BUILDINGS

Sound produced in a room, auditorium or any closed space can lead to
various undesirable effects such as generation of noise and lack of clarity. The
90
purpose of studying the acoustics of building is to minimise these undesirable
effects.
The procedure to design a building which do not have any undesirable
acoustic effects, is to first anticipate the possibilities of noise and make
provisions to reduce the disturbances. For clear and comfortable listening
experience, the following factors are taken into consideration at the stage of
planning, design and construction of a building:
a) Reverberation
b) Echo
c) Focussing
d) Echelon Effect
e) Loudness
f) Resonance
g) Noise
Let us now briefly discuss how the above factors affect sound in buildings and
what are the remedial measures adopted to minimise their adverse impact on
the quality of the sound heard by us.
a) Reverberation
The sound waves produced in a big room or auditorium are reflected from
its walls, ceilings and all other objects. A listener will receive direct sound
waves from the source and the sound waves reflected from all the
surfaces of the room. So, even when the production of sound wave has
stopped and the listener does not receive any direct sound, the same
sound waves are present in the hall in the form of reflected waves. The
listener, therefore, will continue to hear the same sound. The persistence
of sound even when the source has stopped producing it is called
reverberation.
Reverberation, as such, is not a completely undesirable effect.
Reverberation for some time is desirable because it enhances the
richness/quality of sound. But, if it is for a longer time, it produces
undesirable effect because it interferes with the next sound. So, the
question is: For how long reverberation is desirable? The reverberation
time is the time for which a sound persists in a hall. It is measured as the
time between when the source stopped producing sound and when
the sound becomes inaudible.
Thus, you may ask: What is the optimum reverberation time? For a room
or hall, reverberation time is quantitatively defined as the time in which the
intensity of sound reduces by 60 dB. For example, suppose the intensity of
a sound of 140 dB reduces to 80 dB in 5 seconds. Then, the reverberation
time will be 5 seconds and it is written as T60 time. Typically, the
reverberation time less than 3 seconds is considered good.
Since the reflection of sound waves is the main cause of reverberation, the
walls, ceilings and other reflecting surfaces in the hall are covered with
sound absorbing materials such as cardboard sheets, perforated sheets,
felt, heavy curtains, etc.
91
b) Echo
Echo is another undesirable phenomenon caused due to reflection of
sound waves from various surfaces in a hall. When the time difference
between the arrival of direct sound and the reflected sound to a listener is
less than 60 ms, the two sounds are heard as one composite sound.
However, if this time difference is more than 60 ms, we hear two distinct
sounds; the first is the direct sound and the second is the reflected sound.
The second sound is called echo. Echo is generally caused due to direct
reflection of sound of short duration from a surface of large area.
The remedial measures for echo are to design the construction of internal
structure of the auditorium in such a way as to avoid large surface areas
and to cover the surfaces with porous materials which have high
absorbing capacity for sound waves.
c) Focussing
If the interior walls and ceiling of an auditorium are such that reflected
sound waves converge or focus at a point, there is an abnormally high
intensity of sound at that point. This effect is called focussing. The
undesirable effect of large intensity due to focussing can be remedied by
proper design of the interior walls and ceiling of the hall and covering the
reflecting surfaces with porous absorbing materials.
d) Echelon effect
This effect refers to the production of musical notes when in-phase
reflected sound waves combine with each other. Such in-phase reflected
waves are most likely to be generated if the hall has steps of roughly equal
widths. The sound produced due to echelon effect interferes with the
original sound and makes it confusing.
The echelon effect can be avoided by designing the steps of unequal
widths and cover them with sound absorbing materials.
e) Loudness
For pleasant and satisfactory hearing experience, the loudness of the
sound must be sufficient and uniform all across the hall. Loudness of the
sound is adversely affected by the use of absorbing materials to minimise
the effects of echo, reverberation, etc. Thus, absorbing materials to cover
the interior walls and ceiling of the hall should be used judiciously. Also,
the loudness of the sound is enhanced by designing hard and smooth
reflecting surfaces near the source of sound.
f) Resonance
Sound waves in a building can induce vibratory motion in its window
panes, walls, air enclosed between walls, etc., which in turn, produce
sound waves when they vibrate. If the frequency of the sound waves
produced by them matches with the frequency of the original sound
produced in the hall, resonance may take place. Due to such resonances,
intensity of some of the original musical notes (sound) get enhanced. This
results in a distortion in the hearing experience.
The resonance effect can be remedied by proper maintenance of the
92 objects in the hall so that their vibrations are suitably damped.
g) Noise
It refers to any unwanted sound in the hall which distorts the hearing
experience. The noise can be due to sound coming from outside the hall
such as the sound of traffic, market place, nearby railway station or airport.
The effect of such external sources of noise can be minimised by proper
noise insulation of the hall as well as by having green cover in the form of
trees around the hall. Noise can also be due to internal sources such as
air conditioners, movement of people, etc. The impact of such internal
sources of noise can be minimised by proper maintenance and having
carpeted floors in the hall.
Finally, we end this unit with a brief qualitative discussion on Doppler effect for
sound.
Doppler Effect for Sound

Doppler effect refers to the apparent change in frequency of a wave due to
relative motion between source and detector (an instrument or a human
being). We use the word apparent because the difference in perceived and
emitted frequencies lasts only as long as there is relative motion between
the source and the listener.
This effect is valid for mechanical waves as well as electromagnetic waves.
Since sound (mechanical waves) and light (electromagnetic waves) can be
‘detected’ (perceived) by human beings, it is common to use the term
listener in place of detector in case of sound and observer in case of light.
According to Doppler effect, when the source approaches the
observer/listener or the observer/ listener approaches the source, or both
approach each other, the apparent frequency is higher than the actual
frequency of the wave emitted by the source. On the other hand, when the
source moves away from the observer/ listener, or when the observer/
listener moves away from the source, or when both move away from each
other, the apparent frequency is lower than the actual frequency of the
wave emitted by the source. The difference between the actual frequency
and the apparent frequency is called Doppler shift. In the following, we
confine our discussion to the Doppler effect for sound.
To analyse the Doppler effect for sound and obtain an expression for the
apparent frequency, let us assume that: (a) the motion of the source and/or
the listener is along a line joining the two; and (b) the speed of source is
significantly less than the speed of sound. Under these simplifying
assumptions, we consider the following cases:
i) The source is stationary and the listener is in motion.
ii) The source is in motion and the listener is stationary.
Source Stationary and Listener in Motion

Let us suppose that a stationary source S is producing sound of frequency f
§ v·
and wavelength O ¨ ¸; where v is the speed of sound. The sound waves
© f ¹
93
emitted by the source spread out from S as spherical wavefronts. Since the
frequency of the emitted sound is f, the number of complete wavelengths
(or f wavefronts) produced per second by the source will be f. The
frequency of the sound heard by the listener equals the rate at which she
receives the wavefronts. If the listener is stationary, the rate at which she
receives wavefronts is equal to f, the rate at which wavefronts are produced
by the source. So, if the source and the listener both are stationary, we
should expect no change in the frequency of sound.
Now suppose that the listener moves with speed v L towards the source.
Since the listener is moving towards the source, she will receive more
wavefronts per unit time compared to the case when she was
stationary. Therefore, the frequency, say f c , of sound heard by the listener
will be greater than the frequency of the sound emitted by the source. The
expression for the apparent frequency f c is given as
§ v vL ·
fc f ¨ ¸ (3.23)
© v ¹
where f is the frequency of sound wave emitted by the source, v is the
velocity of sound and VL is the velocity of the listener moving towards the
source.
Now, you may ask: Will the apparent frequency f c be greater than or
equal to the actual frequency f when the listener moves away from the
source? In this case, the apparent frequency is given as
§ v vL ·
fc f¨ ¸ (3.24)
© v ¹
Eq. (3.24) shows that, when the listener moves away from a stationary
source, the value of apparent frequency is less than the actual frequency f.
So, the combined expression for the apparent frequency for stationary
source and listener in motion is obtained by combining Eqs. (3.23) and
(3.24):
v r vL ·
f c f §¨ ¸ (3.25)
© v ¹
Source in Motion and Listener Stationary
Fig. 3.7: Spherical wavefronts of the sound waves emitted by a moving

source, S. The source is moving towards a stationary listener, L.
Note that the separation between wavefronts is less in between S
and L compared to the opposite side.
94
Let us now consider the situation when source S, producing sound of

frequency f and wavelength O is moving with speed v s ( v ) towards a
stationary listener L. Let S be at positions marked 1, 2, 3, 4, and so on while
it moves towards L (Fig. 3.7). The spherical wavefronts emitted by the
moving source at the instants when it is at these positions are shown by
correspondingly marked circles. (These circles are drawn by keeping
positions marked 1, 2, 3, 4 and so on as centres.) Note that the wavefronts
emitted by the moving source S are relatively more closely spaced in the
direction of motion of the source and are relatively more widely separated
on the opposite side. Since wavelength is equal to the distance between
two successive wavefronts, its value will be shorter than the normal for the
listener L towards whom S is moving. That is, the motion of the source
towards the stationary listener changes the wavelength of the sound
wave emitted by it. Since these wavefronts move with constant speed, the
change in wavelength causes a change in frequency. In the instant case,
wavelength between the source and the listener decreases. Therefore, the
frequency detected by L will be higher than the frequency of sound emitted
by S.
You may now ask: What happens if S is moving away from L? This
situation is obtained if L is located to the left of the source S in Fig. 3.7. For
L at any location to the left of the source which is moving towards right, the
separation between any two consecutive wavefronts is larger than when S
is stationary. This implies that the wavelength will be larger than the normal
situation and hence frequency detected by the listener will be lower than the
frequency of sound emitted by S.
The expression for the apparent frequency f c when the source is moving
and the listener is stationary is:
§ v ·
fc f ¨¨ ¸¸ (3.26)
© v # vS ¹
where the negative sign in denominator signifies the case where the source
moves towards the listener and the positive sign corresponds to the source
moving away from the listener.
Thus, we find that the apparent frequency of sound changes whenever

there is a relative motion between the source and the listener. However,
you must note that the reasons for the change in frequency in the two
cases discussed above are different. When the source is stationary and
listener is in motion, the change in frequency is caused due to the change
in the number of wavefronts (or the number of complete wavelengths)
received by the listener. On the other hand, when the listener is stationary
and the source is moving, change in frequency is caused due to the change
in the wavelength of the sound.
95
Doppler effect for sound waves finds many applications. Do you know that
Doppler shift in ultra-sound waves reflected from moving body tissues
allows measurement of blood flow? It is commonly used by obstetricians
to detect foetal heart-beat. Do you know how it arises? As the heart
muscle pulsates, the frequency of reflected ultra-sound waves is different
from the frequency of incident waves. Similarly, a sonar makes use of the
Doppler effect in determining the velocity of a submarine relative to a
ship.
The electromagnetic waves also exhibit Doppler effect. In aircraft

navigation, radar works by measuring the Doppler shift of high frequency
radio waves reflected from moving aeroplanes. The Doppler shift of star-
light allows us to study stellar motion. If the stars were stationary, the
spectrum of light from a star will have spectral lines corresponding to, say
hydrogen, at the same frequency (or wavelength) as in the hydrogen
spectrum obtained on the earth. However, if the star is moving away from
us (that is, the earth), the hydrogen spectral lines in the spectrum of star
will be shifted towards the red-end of the spectrum due to Doppler effect.
And, on the other hand, if the stars are approaching us, the spectral lines
will be shifted towards the blue-end of the spectrum.
When the spectrum produced by light from stars is examined, it is

observed that these lines are slightly shifted, as compared to the
corresponding lines from the same elements on the earth, this shift is
generally towards the red-end, which implies that wavelength of light
emitted by the star increases. This observation is interpreted as if the star
is receding, that is, the star is moving away from us. This find supports
the expanding universe theory of the evolution of the universe.
Before proceeding further, let us recapitulate what you have learnt in this
section.
3.6 SUMMARY
Concept Description
Production of Sound is a longitudinal wave produced by vibrating object. Sound waves

sound comprises successive regions of compressions and rarefactions. Like any
mechanical wave, sound needs a material medium for its propagation..
Perception of Longitudinal waves having frequency in the range 20 Hz to 20 kHz are perceived
sound as sound by human beings.
Threshold of It is the minimum value of the intensity of sound at the position of listener for
hearing being heard by human beings.
96
Mathematical The 1-D sound waves travelling in the positive x-direction is represented by
representation of anyone of the two following equivalent expressions:
sound wave \( x, t ) a sin(kx Zt )
\( x, t ) a sin(Zt kx)
The 1-D sound waves propagating in the negative x-direction is represented as
\( x, t ) a sin(kx Zt )
\( x, t ) a sin(Zt kx)
where \( x, t ) is the longitudinal displacement of the particles of the medium
along the direction of wave propagation.
Speed of sound In a gaseous medium, the speed of sound is given by
waves
Jp JkBT
v
U U
In liquid medium, the speed of sound is
B
v
U
In solids, the speed of sound is
Y
v
U
Forced vibration Sound propagates in a medium due to forced vibrations of the particles of the
and resonance surrounding medium by the vibrating object generating sound. In the steady-
state, the frequency of oscillations of a forced oscillator is equal to the frequency
of the driving force. The steady-state displacement of the forced oscillator is
given as
x(t ) a(Z) cos(Zt T)
where the amplitude a(Z) is given as
F0
a(Z)
>
m (Z02 Z2 ) 2 4b 2 Z2 @
1/ 2
When the frequency of the driving force is equal to the natural frequency of the
driven system, the amplitude of oscillations increases manifold and this
phenomenon is called resonance.
Intensity of sound Intensity I of sound is defined as the rate of energy transfer by the sound wave
per unit area normal to the direction of wave propagation:
P P
I
A 4Sr 2
1 1
and Iv and av
r2 r
where a is amplitude and r is the distance from the source of sound.
Intensity level The minimum intensity of the sound wave which a human being can hear is
called Threshold of Hearing (TOH). Its value is 10 12 Wm 2 .
Intensity of sound is measured/expressed using a logarithmic scale called
decibel (dB). It is a relative scale in which intensity of sound is expressed
relative to the threshold of hearing I0. The intensity level, E of sound of intensity I
is given as
§ I ·
E (10 dB) log10 ¨ ¸
© I0 ¹ 97
Musical notes From the perception point of view, a musical note is characterised by pitch,
loudness and quality which, respectively, depend on the frequency, intensity and
waveform of the sound wave.
Musical scale Musical scales are based on the concept of octave. An octave is defined as a
set of two frequencies wherein the value of higher frequency is two times the
value of the lower frequency.
The diatonic musical scale consists of a series of eight notes with the frequency
of the last and the first note in the ratio 2:1.
The frequency intervals between the notes of the musical scale are not uniform.
However, the sensation of pitch produced by these notes is of equal interval.
The ratio between two successive notes of a musical scale is called musical
interval.
In the tempered scale, the octave is divided into 12 equal musical intervals. The
musical interval between two consecutive notes of tempered scale is 1.05946.
Acoustics of In a closed space like room or auditorium, the sensation of hearing is affected by
building phenomena such as reverberation, echo, focussing, echelon effect, loudness,
resonance and noise. The process of minimising the effect of these factors is
studied under acoustics of buildings.
Reverberation refers to persistence of sound even after the production of sound
has stopped. A reasonable reverberation time is desirable for appreciating the
richness of musical sound.
3.7 TERMINAL QUESTIONS
1. An object vibrating with frequency of 20 Hz produces 1-D sound waves in
air propagating in positive x-direction. The maximum displacement of air
particles from their respective mean positions is 0.03 m and the distance
between two consecutive compressions is 0.08 m. Write the mathematical
expression representing this sound wave.
2. Determine the frequencies of the fundamental mode and the next two
harmonics that can be set up on a sitar string of length 1.2 m. Take the
speed of waves on the string to be 3.8 u 10 3 ms 1.
3. The intensity level of sound at a place is 40 dB. Calculate the intensity of
sound at that place.
4. Determine the sound intensity level if the intensity changes by a factor of
a) 4, b) 10, c) 10 4.
5. The frequency of the keynote (or the tonic) in a diatonic musical scale is
264 Hz. Calculate the frequencies of the various notes of the scale.
3.8 SOLUTIONS AND ANSWERS

Self-Assessment Questions
1. a) True, b) False, c) False, d) True
2. The equation for 1-D sound waves travelling in the negative x-direction is
As per the problem, a = 0.5 cm; T = 0.4 s and O = 32.0 cm.
2S 2S
So, k 0.2 cm1
O 32.0 cm
2S 2S
and Z 2Sf 15.7 s 1
98 T 0.4 s
Thus, the desired equation of the wave is
\( x, t ) 0.5 sin(0.2 x 15.7 t ) cm
3. The speed of sound in solid is given as
v Y /U
As per problem, v 5 u 10 3 ms 1 and U 1500 kg m 3 . So,
Y
5 u 10 3 ms 1
1500 kg m 3
or Y (5 u 10 3 ms 1 ) u (1500 kg m 3 ) 3.8 u 1010 Nm 2
4. The fundamental frequency of a string, such as string of a guitar, fixed at
both ends is given as
v
f1
2L
400 ms 1
We have, L = 2.0 m and v 400 ms 1. So, f1 100 Hz.
2 u (2.0 m)
Frequency of second overtone, f3 3 u f1 300 Hz
5. The intensity level, E in decibel is given as [Eq. (3.22)]:
E (10 dB) log10 I / I 0
Since, E = 80 dB, we have
log10 I / I 0 8.0
or I I 0 u (10) 8 (10 12 Wm 2 ) u (1.0 u 10 8 ) 1.0 u 10 4 Wm 2 .
Terminal Questions
1. We know that 1-D sound wave propagating in the positive x-direction is
given as
So, to write the mathematical expression for the given wave, we need to
determine amplitude, a, wave number k and angular frequency Z. As per
the problem, the maximum displacement of the particles of the medium is
0.03 m. So, amplitude, a = 0.03 m.
The distance between two compressions is equal to the wavelength of the
wave. So,
2S 2 u 3.14
O 0.08 m k 78.5 m 1
O 0.08 m 1
Frequency of the wave is equal to the frequency of the vibrating object
producing the wave. So,
f 20 s 1 Z 2Sf 2 u (3.14) u (20 s 1) 125.6 s 1
So, the mathematical expression of the sound wave is
\( x, t ) (0.03) sin[(78.5)x (125.6)t ] m
2. We know that the normal mode frequencies of the string fixed at both ends
is given as
nv
fn
2L
We have, L = 1.2 m and v 3.9 u 10 3 ms 1. So, the frequency of the
fundamental mode (n = 1) is
99
3.9 u 10 3 ms 1
f1 1625 s 1
2 u 1.2 m
Frequencies f 2 and f3 of the next two harmonics, namely second and
third harmonics are
f2 2f1 2 u 1625 s 1 3250 s 1
f3 3f1 3 u 1625 s 1 4875 s 1
3. We know that the intensity level, E of sound is given as
E (10 dB) log10 I / I 0
The threshold of hearing, I 0 is 10 12 Wm 2 and E = 40 dB. So,
40 dB (10 dB) log10 I / I 0
I
10 4 I (10 12 Wm 2 ) u (10 4 ) 10 8 Wm 2 .
I0
4. Let the initial intensity level of sound is
E1 (10 dB) log10 I / I 0
where I is the intensity of sound.
a) When the intensity is changed by factor of 4, the intensity level is
E 2 (10 dB) log10 4I / I 0
So, change in intensity level is
ª 4I I º
E 2 E1 (10 dB) «log log »
¬ I0 I0 ¼
ª (4I / I 0 ) º
(10 dB) log « » (10 dB) log (4) 6dB
¬ (I / I 0 ) ¼
b) When the intensity is increased by a factor of 10, the intensity level is
E3 (10 dB) log10 10 I / I 0
So, change in intensity level
E3 E1 (10 dB) log10 10 dB
c) When the intensity is increased by a factor of 10 4 , the intensity level is
§ I u 10 4 ·
E4 (10 dB) log10 ¨¨ ¸¸
© I0 ¹
So, change in intensity level
E 4 E1 (10 dB) u 4 u log(10) 40 dB
5. The frequency of various notes in the diatonic scale having keynote
264 Hz is calculated using the frequency ratios (Table 3.2):
Note Keynote re ga ma
(sa)
Frequency 264 Hz 264u 1.125 264 u 1.250 264 u 1.333
(in Hz) 297 330 352
pa dha ni sa
264 u 1.500 264 u 1.667 264 u 1.875 264 u 2

396 440 495 528
100

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Unit 3 Acoustic Wave

“If I were not a physicist, I would probably be a musician.

Expected Learning Outcomes

 describe how sound waves are produced by vibrating objects;

3.2 PRODUCTION OF SOUND WAVES

i) Its frequency must be in the range 20 Hz and 20 KHz, and

3.2.1 Graphical and Mathematical Representation of

Fig. 3.2: a) The vibration graph of a sound wave showing displacement \( x, t )

Sound as Pressure Waves

It was shown by Fourier

Fig. 3.4: Waveforms for a) harmonic (sinusoidal) wave; b) sound produced by a

SAQ 1 – Production and propagation of sound waves

Mark the following statements as True or False:

where \( x, t ) is the instantaneous displacement of the particle of the medium

The wave parameters such as a, O and f characterising the longitudinal wave

Now, before proceeding further, you should go through an example to get an

XAMPLE 3.1: PARAMETERS OF SOUND WAVES

In a fluid medium, the speed of sound waves is 275 ms 1 and its

x Sound waves are longitudinal waves produced by vibrating objects.

SAQ 2 – Equation of sound wave

XAMPLE 3.2: SPEED OF SOUND IN DIFFERENT MEDIA

For air at STP, we have p 0.76 u 13.6 u 103 u 9.8 Nm 2 ; J 1.39

(1.39) u (0.76 u 13.6 u 103 u 9.8 Nm 2 )

b) The expression for velocity of sound in liquid is given by Eq. (3.3):

v sea- water B/U

As per the problem, B 0.23 u 1010 Nm 2 and U 1023 kg m 3

As per the problem, Y 20 u 1010 Nm 2 and U 7800 kg m3

Now before proceeding further, you may like to solve an SAQ.

SAQ 3 – Speed of sound wave in solids

3.2.3 Forced Vibrations and Resonance

Fig. 3.5: A schematic diagram of a spring-mass system executing forced

So, the net force acting on the system is

Zr (Z02  2b2 )1/ 2

This is an important result in the context of production of sound by musical

3.2.4 Musical Instruments

SAQ 4 – Calculating frequency of harmonics of a musical

3.3 INTENSITY OF SOUND

SAQ 5 – Intensity level of sound

3.4 MUSICAL NOTES AND SCALE

Pitch and Frequency

As a matter of fact, the subjective perception of sound by human ear is a

It was shown by Fourier that a complex periodic waveform (that is, a

3.4.1 Musical Scale

A musical scale is characterised by the relation among the notes in an octave.

This is the most common musical scale. It consists of a series of eight

Table 3.2: Frequency relation between notes of the diatonic scale

Name of pure notes

1 9/8 5/4 4/3 3/2 5/3 15/8 2

XAMPLE 3.33: FREQUENCY OF BASIC NOTES OF AN

256u 1.500 256u 1.667 256u 1.875 256u 2

Table 3.3: Musical intervals of diatonic scale

Musical (f2 / f1 ) (f3 / f2 ) (f 4 / f3 ) (f5 / f6 ) (f6 / f5 ) (f7 / f6 ) (f8 / f7 )

Because of equal musical interval between two consecutive notes on a

3.5 ACOUSTICS OF BUILDINGS

Doppler Effect for Sound

Source Stationary and Listener in Motion

Fig. 3.7: Spherical wavefronts of the sound waves emitted by a moving

Let us now consider the situation when source S, producing sound of

Thus, we find that the apparent frequency of sound changes whenever

describe how sound waves are produced by vibrating objects;

In a fluid medium, the speed of sound waves is 275 ms 1 and its

For air at STP, we have p 0.76 u 13.6 u 103 u 9.8 Nm 2 ; J 1.39

(1.39) u (0.76 u 13.6 u 103 u 9.8 Nm 2 )

As per the problem, B 0.23 u 1010 Nm 2 and U 1023 kg m 3

As per the problem, Y 20 u 1010 Nm 2 and U 7800 kg m3

Zr (Z02 2b2 )1/ 2

Production of Sound is a longitudinal wave produced by vibrating object. Sound waves