Microwave & Radar Engineering

1 UNIT
Transmission Line
and Waveguide
CONTENTS
Part-1 : Transmission Line Equations 1-2E to 1-4E
and Solutions
Part-2 : Reflection and Transmission 1-4E to 1-6E

Coefficient
Part-3 : Standing Wave, 1-6E to 1-7E

Standing Wave Ratio
Part-4: Line Impedance and .1-7E to 1-9E

Admittance
Part-5 : Introduction to Strip Lines 1-9E to 1-10E
Part-6 : Microstrip Transmission Line (TL) . . .1.-10E to 1-13E

Part-7 : Waveguide : Rectangular .1-14E to 1-23E
Waveguide - Field Components
and Parameters, TE, TM Modes,
Dominant Mode
Part-8: Circular Waveguides :. 1-23E to 1-29E

TE, TM Modes
Part-9 : Wave Velocities 1-29E to 1-31E
Part-10 : Waveguide Cavities 1-31E to 1-34E
1-1E (EC-Sem-7)
1-2 E (EC-Sem-7) Transmission Line and Waveguide
PART-1
Transmission Line Equations and Solutions.
Questions-Answers
Long Answer Type and Medium Answer Type Questions
Que 1.1. Derive transmission line equations.

Answer
1 Asmall length of the line can be represented by an equivalent symmetrical
T-network with constant parameter R, L, G and C per unit length as
shown in Fig. 1.1.1.
P R Q(I+ dI, V+dV)
w W
Ax
Fig. 1.1.1.
2. Change in voltage for PQ

V-(V+dV) = (R + joL) d* I
dV
= (R +joL)!
dx
dV
Or =-(R+joL)I ...(1.1.1)
dx
3. Change in current for PQ
I-(U+ dI) = (G+joC) dx V
dI
dx = (G +joC) V
Microwave and Radar Engineering 1-3E(EC-Sem-7)
dI
OT =-(G+joC) V ..(1.1.2)
dx
4. Diferentiating eq. (1.1.1) with respect to xthen we get
=- (R+jaL) ..(1.1.3)
dl
5. Substituting the value of dx
from eq. (1.1.2) in eq. (1.1.3),
=(R +joL) (G +joC)V

da?
dy
.(1.1.4)
dy?
Here, = (R+joL) (G+ joC)
6. Differentiating eq. (1.1.2) with respect to x then we get
dV
d1 =- (G +joC) ...(1.15)
d? dx
dV
7. Substituting the value of from eq. (1.1.1) in eq. (1.1.5),
dx
= (G+joC) (R +joL)I ...(1.1.6)

du?
...(1.1.7)
du?
Here, t= (R+joL) (G +joC)
Y= a+JB
where Y= Propagation constant
a = Attenuation constant
B = Phase constant
8 Eq. (1.1.4.) and eq. (1.1.7) are differential form of transmission line
equations.
9 The solution of eq.(1.1.4) and eq. (1.1.7)give the voltage and current at
any pointx and given by
V«) = V,e+V,e
I«) = I, e +I, e
Here V, = Sending voltage amplitude
I,= Sending current amplitude
V, = Reflected voltage amplitude
I,= Reflected voltage amplitude
14E (EC-Sem-7) Transmission Line and Waveguide
Que 1.2. What are characteristic and input impedances ?

Answer
A Characteristic impedances :
1 When the reflected wave in the line is zero, the ratio V(z)/Iz) is called
the characteristic impedance of the line and is defined by
Z,= V/l, = R+ joL

V| G+ joC|
B. Input impdeance:
1. The impedance of the line at x looking towards the load is called input
impedance of the line.
V() =Z, = V,e +V, e
I«) V,e-V, e
Que 1.3. A telephone line has R= 6 ohms/km, L= 2.2 mh/km,
C= 0.005 4F/km, and G=0.05 umho/km. Determine Z,a, Bat 1kHz.
Answer
Given :R=6km, L=2.2 mh/km, C= 0.005 uF/km, G=0.05 umho/km

To Find : Zo O
1. Frequency, Ps
) = 2r x 1000 = 6280 rad/sec
R+ joL
2. Input impedance, Z, =
G+ joC
6+j6280 x 2.2 x 103
0.05 x 10+j6280 x0.005 x 10
= 692.5 -jl1.52 ohm
3 Y= /(R + joL) (G + joC)
= J(6 +j6280 x2.2 x10 )(0.05 x 10 +j6280 x0.005 x109)
= 0.0045 +j0.0213 = a +jß
4. Therefore, a= 0.0045 Np/km and
B = 0.0213 rad/km
PART-2
Reflection and Transmission Coefficient.
Microwave and Radar Engineering 1-5E (EC-Sem-7)
Questions-Answers
Que 1.4. What are reflection and transmission coefficients ?
Answer
A. Reflection coefficient :
Due to the presence of a reflected wave, the voltage reflection coefficient

at any point x on the line is defined by
V,el-d) V,ee -2yd
T«) = V.el-d) V,ed
I, =ed;r=l-d
where V,e
V,e
where, T, = Load end voltage reflection coefficient
d= Distance measured from the load end.
B. Tran smission coefficient:
1 Transmission coefficient is defined as
T= Transmitted voltage or current V,

Incident voltage or current
...(1.4.1)
2. Fig. 1.4.1 shows the transmission of power along a transmission line

where Pn, is the incident power, P the reflected power and P,.
transmitted power.
3 Let the travelling waves at the receiving end be
V,ed+V,e = V,,e ...(1.4.2)
Z,Ve=
Vr ...(1.4.3)
W
Pr
P, Pref
Load
Fig. 1.4.1. Power transmission on a line.

5. Multiplication of eq. (1.4.3) by Z, and substitution of the result in
eq. (1.4.2) yield
V,e Z-Z,
Ve Z, +Z%
which, in turn, on substitution back into eg. (1.4.2), results in
T 22 ...(1.4.4)
V, Z, + Z,
PART-3
Standing Wave, Standing Wave Ratio.
Questions-Answers
Que 1.5. How standing wave can be formed? Also define standing
wave ratio.
Answer
1. In a mismatched terminated line, the incident and reflected signals
interfere toproduce a standing wave pattern allong the line.
2. The magnitude of the standing waves is measured in terms of 'Standing
Wave Ratio' (SWR) defined by
3 SWR = S = Maximum voltage or current
Minimum voltage or current
1+|r, le-2ad a0 ...(1.5.1)

or, S=
l-|r, le2ad
or, S= 1+||. a=0 ...(1.5.2)

1-|r'
It can be written that,
S-1 ...(1.5.3)
S+1
Que 1.6.A 60 ohm lossless line connects a signal of 100 kHz to a

load of 120 ohm. The load power is 100 mW. Calculate the
a. Voltage reflection coefficient
b. VSWR
Answer
Given :Z,= 60 ohm,f= 120 kHz, Z,= 100 ohm, P=100 mW,
To Find: T,,VSWR
Z, -2, 120- 60 1
a.
Z, +Z, 120+ 60 3
1+1/3
b. VSWR = 1+IL 2
1-T, 1-1/3
PART-4
Line Impedance and Admittance.
Questions-Answers
Que 1.7. Derive the expression for line impedance of a

transmission line.
Answer
1 The line impedance of a transmission line is the complex ratio of the
voltage phasor at any point to the current phasor at that point. It is
defined as
V(z)
Z= ...(1.7.1)
I(2)
2. Fig. 1.7.1 shows a diagram for a transmission line.
Sending end Receiving end
V V
s Lo
d<
Fig. 1.7.1. Diagram of a transmission line showing notations.

3 In general, the voltage or current along aline is the sum ofthe respective
incident wave and reflected wave,
i.e., V= Vine +Vror= V,e +V, ee ..(1.7.2)
I= e te=Y,(V,e + V,e,e) ...(1.7.3)
4. At the sending end z = 0; then eq. (1.7.2) and eg. (1.7.3) become
I2, = V, + V, ..(1.7.4)
I7,= V,-V, ...(1.7.5)
5. By solving eq. (1.7.4) and eq. (1.7.5) for V,and V. we obtain
V,- Z, +Z,) ..(1.7.6)
V,= 2,-2,) ...(1.7.7)

6. Substitution of V, and V in eq. (1.7.2) and eq. (1.7.3) yields
V- (2,
2
+Z,)e* +(Z, - Z,)e"] ...(1.7.8)
22,
-(Z, +Z,Je-(Z, - Z,)e] ...(1.7.9)
7. Then the line impedance at any point z from the sending end in
Z, and Z is expressed as terms of
Z= 2, (2, +Z,)e* +(Z, - Z,e

(Z, +Z,)e* -(Z, - Z,Jer
Microwave and Radar Engineering 1-9 E (EC-Sem-7)
Que 1.8. Discuss line admittance in brief.
Answer
1. When a transmission line is brached, it is easier to solve the line equations
for the line voltage, current, and transmitted power in terms of
admittance.
2 The characteristic admittance and the generalized admittance are defined
as
1
Y, = =G +jB, ...(1.8.1)
1
Y= -=Gt jB ...(1.8.2)
Then the normalized admitance can be written
y=
Y Z,1 =gt jb ...(1.8.3)
Y, 2
PART-5
Introduction to Strip Lines.
Questions-Answers
Que 1.9. Write a short note on strip lines.
Answer
1. Strip lines are modifications of two wire lines and co-axial lines. These
are basically planar transmission lines that are used at frequencies from
100 MHz to 100 GHz.
2. cross-sectional view of strip line is shown in Fig. 1.9.1(a). It consists of

A
its
a central thin conducting strip of width w which is greater than
thickness t.
3. It is placed inside the low-loss dielectric (e) substrate of thickness b/2
between two wide ground plates.
4 The dominant mode for strip lines is a TEM mode as shown in
line
Fig. 1.9.1(6), and the fields are confined within the transmission
with no radiation losses.
5. The width of ground planes is at least five times greater than spacing
between the plates to avoid any vertical side walls at the two transverse
ends.
6 There are no fringing fields after a certain distance from the edges of
the centre conductor.
Ground plane
Insulator
W
----b-
Insulator Centre
conductor
Ground plane
Electric field lines
-- Magnetic field lines
Fig. 1.9.1.
7. The velocity of propagation for strip line is
U= m/s
Ve,
and wavelength of EM signal
C
2=
PART-6
Microstrip Transmission Line (TL).
Questions-Answers
Que 1.10. Write short note on microstrip

transmission line.
Answer
1 Microstrip line is an unsymmetrical strip line. It is parallel plate
transmission line having dielectric substrate, the one face of which is
ground and the other face hasa thin conducting strip of certain width w
and thickness t.
2. Sometimes a cover plate is used for shielding purposes but it is kept
much farther away than the ground plane so as not to affect microstrip
field.
3 Due to absence of a top ground plate and the dielectric substrate above
the strip, the electric field lines remain partially in the air and partially in
the lower dielectric substrate. This makes the mode of propagation not
pure TEM but it is called quasi-TEM.
4 Due to open structure and any presence of discontinuity, the microstrip
line radiates electromagnetic energy.
5. The radiation loss is proportional to the square of the frequency.
6. The use of thin and high dielectric materials reduces the radiation loss
of the open structure where the fields are mostly confined inside the
dielectric mode on microstrip lines are only quasi.
Conductor strip. Kw
Dielectric substrate
h
< Ground plane

Fig. 1.10.1. Microstrip line.
8. The pattern for electric field and magnetic field is shown in
Fig. 1.10.2.
E-field H-ield
(a) (6)
Fig.1.10.2. Approximate electric and magnetic
field in a microstrip ine.
Que 1.11. Explain characteristie impedance of microstripline. Also

give the types of mierostrip line.
Answer
A. Characteristic impedance of microstrip lines :
1 The characteristic impedance of a microstrip line is a function of the
strip-line width, the strip-line thickness, the distance between the line
and the ground plane, and the homogeneous dielectric constant of the
board material.
2. There are so many methods to calculate characteristic impedance. The
well known equation is
60 4h
ln for h >>d ...(1.11.1l)
d
where, ¬ = 0.475 ¬, + 0.67 ...(1.11.2)

where, ¬, = Relative dielectric constant of the board
material.
B. Types of microstrip lines :
1 Embedded microstrip.
2 Standard inverted microstrip.
3. Suspended microstrip.
4. Slotted transmission line.
(a) Embedded microstrip (b)Inverted microstrip;
(c) Suspended microstrip (d) Slotted microstrip

Fig. 1.11.1. Various types of microstrip lines.
Que 1.12. A microstrip line is made of a copper conduetor

0.0254 mm wide on a G-10 fiberglass epoxy board 0.20 mm in height.
The relative dielectric constant &, of the board material is 4.8,
measured at 25 GHZ. The microstrip line 0.035 mm thick is to be
used for 10 GHz. Determine the :
i. Characteristic impedance Z, of the microstrip line.
ii. Surface resistivity R, of copper conductor.
iii. Conductor attenuation constant a,.
iv. Dielectric attenuation constant a.
v. Quality factor. |AKTU2016-17, Marks 10
Answer
Given :h = 0.20 mm, &, = 4.8,f= 10 GHz, t= 0.035 mm

C 3x 1010
W=0.0254 mm, = -3 cm
f 10 x 10
To Find : Z, R, a a
0.0254
= 0.127 <1
0.20
E, +l + ,-1+ 12h /W)/2 + 0.04 (1- W/h]

Ceff 2 2
4.8 +14.8-1+12/0.127)12
+ + 0.04 (10.127)]
2 2
= 2.9 + 1.9 [0.102+0.04 (0.762)] = 3.15
60 8h W 60 8 0.127
In In
W 4h V3.15 0.127 4
= 140.08 ohm
TX 10 x 10 x 4IX10-7
ii. Surface resistivity, R, = 5.8 x 10
= 2.6 x 10- ohm/m²
iii. Conductor attenuation constant,
8.686 R, 8.686 x 2.6 x 10-2
Z,W 140.08 x 0.0254 x 103
= 63.47 dB/m
3
iv. 1.69 cmn
Veff V3.15
1
tan &= tan
1
= tan
WTX10 x 10 x 4I x 10- x 5.8 x 10"
= 1.15 x 10-8
Dielectric attenuation constant, a,
Eelf-1) E, tan&
= 27.3
E,-1) Eef g
3.15 -1) 4.8 )|1.15 x108
= 27.3
4.8-1)\3.15 1.69 x 10-2)
= 1.606 x 10-5 dB/m
27.3 27.3 = 16.99x 105

V. Quality factor,Q, = 1.606 x 10-5
Quality factor, Q, =4780 h \fcH)

= 4780 x 0.20 x 10-8 J10 =3.023
PART-7
Waveguide : Rectangular Waveguide - Field Components

and Parameters, TE, TM Modes, Dominant Mode.
Questions-Answers
Que 1.13. What do you mean by rectangular waveguide ? Give the

solution of wave equations in rectangular co-ordinate system.
Answer
A Rectangular waveguide:
1. Arectangular waveguide is a hollow metallic tube with a rectangular
cross section.
2.The conducting walls of the guide confine the electromagnetic fields and
thereby guide the electromagnetic wave.
B. Solution of wave equations in rectangular co-ordinate system :
1. The equations obtained for electric and magnetic field intensities are
having the form of propagating wave, these equations are called as the
wave equations.
2 Let us consider the rectangular co-ordinate system as shown in
Fig. 1.13.1.
3. The solution can be obtained in time domain and in frequency domain.
In frequency domain, electric and magnetic wave equations can be written
as
Fig. 1.13.1. Rectangular co-ordinate system.

...(1,13.1)
y²H =H ...(1.13.2)
where, t= Jjon (o+ joe)

= 0+jß
Y= Propagation constant ...(1.13.3)
4. In rectangular co-ordinate system, the electric and magnetic intensities
satisfies the Helmholtz equations.
...(1.13.4)
5. The eq. (1.13.4) can be written for three co-ordinate system as
..(1.13.5)
6. By method of separation of variables, the solution is assumed in the

form of
Y = X*) Yy) ZIz) ...(1.13.6)
where, X(*) = Function of x co-ordinates
Yy) = Function ofy c0-ordinates
Zz) = Function of z co-ordinates
Now eq. (1.13.6) can be written as
Y= XYZ ...(1.13.7)
7. Substituting the value of eq. (1.13.7) into eq. (1.13.5) we get
&(XYZ) (XYZ) (XYZ) =y (XYZ)
8'X aY
.. YZ +XZ = XYZ) ...(1.13.8)
8. Dividing both sides of eq. (1.13.8) by (XY), we get

18X 1 Y+ 1z ..(1.13.9)
X an?Y Zaz?
9 The sum of three terms of left hand side is constant. Let the constants
in x,yandz directions be -,',-k,", and -k,respectively.
10. Now the general solution of each differential equation can be written as
X=A sin (hx) + Bcos (k_x) ...(1.13.10)
Y= Csin (k,y) +Dcos (k,y) ..(1.13.11)
Z= E sin (kz) + Fcos (k,2) ...(1.13.12)
Here A, B, C, D, E and Fare constants.
11. Substituting the values of X, Y, Zfrom eq. (1.13.10), eq. (1.13.11),and
eq. (1.13.12) in eg. (1.13.7) we get,
1-16E EC-Sem-7) Transmission Line and Waveguide
Y= A sin (kx) +Bcos (k,r)l[C sin (k,y)

+D cos (k,y)| |E sin (k,z) +F cos (kz))
Que 1.14. Derive the field distribution of TE,, mode in rectarngular
waveguide and draw its field pattern.
Answer
1. It is assumed that waves are propagating in the positive z-direction in
the waveguide.
0-a
Fig. 1.14.1 Co-ordinates of a rectangular guide.
2. Helmholtz equation is VH, =H
3. The TE modes in arectangular guide are characterized by E, =0. We
know the solution of Helmholtz equation,
y= (A sin (kr) +Bcos (k_x) [C sin (k_y)
+D cos (ky)) [E sin(k,z) +F cos (kz)] ...(1.14.1)
4 Now replacing k, =mrla and k, =nab according to boundary conditions
in eg. (1.14.1), we have
mX mTL
H =A, sin + B cos
nTry
+D, cos ...(1.14.2)
5.
For a lossless dielectric, Maxwell's curl equations in frequency domain
are
VxE = -jo uH
VxH= joe E
6. In rectangular co-ordinates, their components are
E, E, ...(1.14.3)
=-jou H
aE, E, ...(1.14.4)
=-jou H,
OE, OE,
oy
=-jop H, ...(1.14.5)
oH, oH, = joe E, ...(1.14.6)

Ôy ôz
oH, ôH,
=joe E, ...(1.14.7)
ôH,
oy
=jwe E, ...(1.14.8)
7. For TE mode, substitute =-B,and B, =0 in eq. (1.14.3), eq. (1.14.4),

eq. (1.14.5), eq. (1.14.6), eq. (1.14.7) and eq. (1.14.8) then we get
BE, =-0uH, ..(1.14.9)
BE= ouH, ..(1.14.10)
OE, OB, -jouH, ...(1.14.11)
ôy
+ip, H,= joeE, ...(1.14.12)
...(1.14.13)
oH, oH, =0 ..(1.14.14)

8 On solving eq. (1.14.9), eq. (1.14.10), eq. (1.14.11), eq. (1.14. 12),
eq. (1.14.13) and eq. (1.14.14) for E, E,, H, andH, in terms of H,will
give the TE mode field equations as
jou ôH,
E, = ...(1.14.15)
jou oH,
E, = ...(1.14.16)
E, = 0 ..(1.14.17)
-B, oH,
H,= ...(1.14.18)
-JB, oH,
H, = ..(1.14.19)
mX mTX
H,- A, sin +B,, cos ...(1.14,20)
C, sin nry +D, cos

nny -JB
1-18E (EC-Sem-7) Transmission Line and Waveguide
where, '= o'e-B. surface,

9. The normal derivative ofH, must vanish at the conducting
ôH, = 0(at guide walls)
ie., ôn
10. Therefore, the magnetic field in positive z-direction becomes

mTY eßgz ...(1.14.21)
H, =H, cos COS
where, H,, =Amplitude constant

11. Substituting eq. (1.14.21) in eg. (1.14.15), eq. (1.14.16), eq. (1.14.18), eq.
(1.14.19) and eg. (1.14.20), TE field equations are as follows
nTy e-Jßgz
sin ...(1.14.22)
E, = Eo, cos
mTC ny
...(1.14.23)
E, =E, sin COS
E, = 0
nTy
H =H, sin COS ...(1.14.24)
mX (n+y e-Jßgz ...(1.14.25)

H, =H, cos Sin
mIK
p-Jßgz ...(1.14.26)
H, = H, cos cOS
12. The field component of dominant mode (TE,) can be found by putting
m=1,n =0in eq. (1.14.22), eq. (1.14.23), eq. (1.14.24), eq. (1.14.25) and
eq. (1.14.26).
Thus,
E, =0
TX elgz
E, =Eg, sin
E, = 0
e-igz
H - H, sin
H, = 0
e-Bgz
H, =H, cos
13. Fig. 1.14.2 shows the field pattern for TE,, mode.
OiOiOioid
X
b>
Top view End view
Fig. 1.14.2. Field pattern of a TE wave.
Que 1.15. Write the short note on following :

i Dominant mode
ii. Degenerate mode
iii. Guide wavelength
iv. Cut-off wavelength.
Answer
i. Dominant mode :
1. The mode having the highest cut-off wavelength is known as dominant
mode of the waveguide.
For example, TE,, is the dominant mode for TE waves.
2. Dominant mode is almost a low-loss,distortion less transmission.
ii. Degenerate mode : Whenever two or more modes have the same
cut-off frequency, they are said to be degenerate modes. In a rectangular
guide the corresponding TE, and TM,m, modes are always degenerate.
iii. Guide wavelength : The distance measured along the axis of
waveguide for a phase shift of 2r radians is called as guide wavelength
2
sin 0,
iv. Cut-off wavelength : When there is no propagation of wave at certain

value of wavelength, it is called as cut-off wavelength (2,).
26
,= m
Que 1.16. How are waveguides different from normal two wire
transmission line? Discuss the similarities and dissimilarities. Show
that for TE mode a frequency of 6 GHz will pass through the
waveguide of dimensions a = l.5 em, b = 1 em if a dielectric with
6, = 4 is inserted into the waveguide. AKTU2015-16, Marks 10
Answer
A. Difference:
S. No. WaveguideTransmission
1 The waveguide is a hollow The transmission line is a
metallic structure through conductor which is used to carry
which electric and magnetic electrical signal over a long range.
fields are transmitted.
2, In waveguide the power In transmission line the power

handling is high as compared handling is low as compared to
totransmission line. waveguide.
3. In waveguide high power is In transmission line low power is
transmitted. transmitted.
4. In waveguide the In transmission line the electrical
electromagnetic signal is signal is transmitted.
transmitted.
5. The operating frequency is The operating frequency is up to
3GHZto 100 GHZin waveguide. 18 GHz.
B. To show :
1. o= 2a = 2x 1.5 =3 cm
3x 1010
= 10 GHz
2. The impressed frequency of 6 GHz is less than the cut-off frequency and
hence the signal will not pass through the guide. Alternatively, the
wavelength of the impressed signal is
3x1010
A= =5 cm
6x 109
which is longer than the cut-off wavelength (3 cm) and hence no
propagation of the wave.
3. If the waveguide is loaded with dielectric of e, = 4, then
the wavelength
A=air 5cm
= 2.5 cm
which is less than air

4. Now the signal with 6 GHz frequency will pass through the dielectric
loaded waveguide.
Que 1.17. Derive all electrie and magnetic field components in
transverse magnetic mode of rectangular waveguides.
AKTU 2016-17, Marks 7.5
Answer
1 The TM mn modes in a rectangular waveguide are characterized by
H, =0. The Helmholtz equation for electric field E in a rectangular
co-ordinate is given by
...(1.17.1)
2. Solution for eg. (1.17.1) is in the form of
mTC
E, = A, sin +B cos
x
C,siny +D, cose-ge ..(1.17.2)
3. Applying boundary condition according to requirement such that for
E, =0 at x=0, a then B, =0, and for E, =0 at y=0, bthen D, =0. Thus
the solution becomes as
mTx
E, = Eg. sin sin nTy e-Bgz ...(1.17.3)
where, m = 1,2, 3, ....

n = 1,2, 3, ....
4 For H, =0, the field equations, after expanding VxH= jo eË are as

follows,
oE,
ôy
+JB, E, =-jou H, ..(1.17.4)
JB, E, + Pi= jouH, ...(1.17.5)
OE, = 0 ...(1.17.6)
oy
B, H, = oe E, ...(1.17.7)
-B, H, = weE, .(1.17.8)
oH,
= joe E, ...(1.17.9)
ôy
1-22 E (EC-Sem-7)
Transmission Line and Waveguide
5. On solving eq.(1.17.4), eq. (1.17.5), eq. (1.17.6), eq. (1.17.7), eq. (1.17.8)
and eq. (1.17.9) for E,, E,, H,, and H, in terms of E,, we get field equations
as follows,
E, = JB, oE, ...(1.17.10)
E, = -JB, OE,y ...(1.17.11)

mIK
E, = E, sin sin nry Je-Bez ...(1.17.12)
joe OE,
H, = ...(1.17.13)
ôy
H, = joe OE, ...(1.17.14)
H, = 0 ...(1.17.15)
where, -k? = B2-o' e
6 Substituting result of differentiation ofeq. (1.17.3) with respect tox ory
in eq. (1.17.10), eq. (1.17.11), eg. (1.17.12), eq. (1.17.13), eq. (1.17.14) and
eq. (1.17.15),we get TM, mode field equations as
mn
mTX nny
Cos sin e-ißge
mTC nTy
E, = E, in cos e-jßge
nny eJBer
E, = E, sin sin
mTX
H,= H, sin cos
nTy e-Bgz
mTK nTry e-iBgz

H, = H, cos sin
H, = 0
Que 1.18. Show that TM, and TM,, modes in
rectangular
waveguide do not exist. AKTU2016-17, Marks 7.5
OR
Derive the field distribution of TE, mode in
and draw its field pattern. Show that rectangular waveguide
TM, and TM,, modes do not
exist in rectangular waveguide. AKTU2017-18, Marks 10
Answer
A. Derivation of field distribution :Refer Q. 1.14, Page 1-16E, Unit-1.
B. To show :
1. The TM,m, mode field equation in rectangular waveguides are:
mn
mTC
E, = E: cos sin e
mTC
E, = E., sin COS
b
mTX
E, = E, sin sin
b
H=H, sin COs
H, = Hoy cos
mX sin y
H, = 0
i. TM, mode : m = 0 and n = 1
Ifm =0and n=l are substituted in E,,E,, E,, H, and H,, so that all of
them vanishes and hence TMo, mode cannot exist.
ii. cannot
TM,, mode
exist.
: Again all field components vanish and hence TM,, mode
PART-8
Circular Waveguides : TE, TM Modes.
Questions-Answers
Que 1.19. Explain the co-ordinate system for circular waveguide

in support with solution of wave equation.
Answer
1 For the cylindrical co-ordinate system, the Helmholtz equation in the
scalar form is given by
²y=yy ...(1.19.1)
2. The co-ordinate system for circular waveguide is shown in Fig. 1.19.1
Fig. 1.19.1. Co-ordinate system for circular waveguide.

1 1ß'yoy ...(1.19.2)
3. Using the method of separation of variables

y= R(r) () Z(z) ...(1.19.3)
where, R(r) = Function of rco-ordinate.
o (6) = Function ofo co-ordinate.
Z (z) = Function of zco-ordinate.
4. Substituting eq. (1.19.3) in eg. (1.19.2), we get
10 rozR
+ RZ R) ...(1.19.4)
ôr
5. Dividing eq. (1.19.4) by eq. (1.19.3), we get

1 0 OR 1 'o 18Z
+
rR ôr ...(1.19.5)
6. As the sum of three terms is aconstant, each of the three terms must be
a constant. The third term is set equal to constant Y:2.
1 aZ 2
i.e.,
..(.1.19.6)
Here y, is the propagation constant of wave.
7. The solution of eq. (1. 19.6) is
Z= Ae- + Bes ...(1.19.7)
8. Substituting eq. (1.19.6) in eq. (1.19.5), we get
1 OR +
1 '
rR ôr
1 0 OR 1 o' ...(1.19.8)
rR dr ôr.
--(y'-y) =0
9 To make the second term of eq. (1.19.9) in terms of ¢only, we multiply
both sides of this equation by r,
1a
R ôr
--(y'-Y;) =0 ...(1.19.9)
10. Equating the second term of eg. (1.19.9) to a constant (-n²) yields
=-n ...(1.19.10)
11. The solution of eg. (1.19.10) can be written as

O=A, sin (n¢) +B, cos (n¢)
12. Substituting eg. (1.19.10) in eg. (1.19.9), we get
OR
Rôr -n'-(y'-r)r=0
OR
r
ßr ar -[r-(o-)]R-0 ...(1.19.11)
we have k =y'
13. Thus eq. (1.19.11) becomes
OR
-n'R+k Rr²=0
OR
r ...(1.19.12)
ôr or
14. Eq. (1.19.12) is the Bessel's equation of n'h order. The solution of Bessel's
equation
R= 0,J(ky) +D,N,kr)
Here J(kr) =nh order Bessel's function representing astanding wave
of cos (kr) for r <a.
N,(kr) =nth order Bessel's function representing a standing wave of
sin (k r) for r >a.
15. The total solution becomes
Y= (C:J(kr)+ D,N, (k_r)) A, sin (n¢) +B, cos (n¢)Je*jßg r
Atr= 0, kr =0, then the function N, approaches infinity, so D, =0.
Finally, V=V(kr)cos (n) e-ißgz
Que 1.20. Define the various field components present in TE mode
in circular waveguide.
Answer
1 The Helmholtz equation for H, is written as
yH, =H, ...(1.20.1)
2 Its solution is given as
H, =H, J, (k, r) cos (n¢) e
3 Consider dielectric to be lossless
Vx E =-jou H ..(1.20.2)
Vx H =joe E ...(1.20.3)
4 Solving eq. (1.20.2) and eg. (1.20.3) in cylindrical co-ordinate,
E, = Eo.J, (X sin (n¢) e-ilaz
cos (n¢) e M
E, = 0
H, =
En cos (n¢) e
Bor J sin (n¢) e M
H, = H,, J; cos (n¢) e
-E,
5. Here,Z, =Wave impedance = E,
H, H,
n=0, 1, 2, 3, ...
p= 1,2, 3, 4, ....
6. Here n is the number of full cycles of field variation in one revolution
through 2r radians, p is the number of zeros of E,
Que 1.21. Derive the equations of TM modes in a circular
waveguide.
Answer
1. The TM, modes in a circular guide are characterized by H, = 0.
2. However, the z component of the electric field E, must exist in order to
have energy transmission in the guide.
3. Consequently, the Helmholtz equation for E, in a circular waveguide is

given by
VE,=E, .(1.21.1)
4. And
E, =EJ(k, r) cos (n¢le-jBgZ ...(1.21.2)
Which is subject to the given boundary conditions.
5. The boundary condition requires that the tangential component of
electric field E, at r =avanishes. Consequently,
J,k, a) =0 ...(1.21.3)
6. For H, = 0 and ö/ôz =-jB, the field equation in the circular guide, after
expanding VxE= -jeu Hand VxH=jo: E, are given by
- jB, E, ...(1.21.4)
E, =
- jB, 1 E, ..(1.21.5)
E, =Ed,(k, r) cos (n¢)e-jBgZ ...(1.21.6)

jo[ 1 E, ..(1.21.7)
H,= rô
jo[ ôE, ...(1.21.8)
H=
H, = 0 ...(1.21.9)
where k2= o u8-B2
7. Diferentiation'of eq. (1.21.2) with respect to z and substitution of the
result in eq. (1.21.3), eq. (1.21.4), eg. (1.21.5), eq. (1.21.6), eg. (1.21.7) and
yield the field equation of TM,np modes in a circular waveguide:
Xr
E, = EJ Pcos(n¢)e ..(1.21.10)
E, = Ej,sin(nd)e .(1.21.11)
Xr
np' cos (nd)e-jBg2
E, =Ejn ...(1.21.12)
H, Lg Xsin(n)e ...(1.21.13)
H, = cos(n¢)e -B ...(1.21.14)
1-28 E (EC-Sem-7)
Transmission Line and Waveguide
H, = 0 .(1.21.15)
where Z, =E,IH, =-EJH, =p/(wE), k, =X la n=0, 1, 2, 3,... and
p=1,2, 3, 4, .... ..
Que 1.22. A TE,u mode is propagating through a
circular
waveguide. The guide is air filled and has a diameter of 12 cm.
Calculate:
i
(Given X,, =1.841)
Cut-off frequency.
ii. Guide wavelength for the
iii. Wave impedance at 2.5 GHzfrequency 2.5 GHZz.
of
frequency.
AKTU2016-17, Marks 7.5
AKTU2018-19, Marks 07
Answer
Given :X, = 1.841,r = 12 cm /2 = 6 cm, m =1, n= 1,f= 2.5 GHz

To Find:fo , and Z
i. Cut-off frequency,
cXi 3 x 100 x 1.841
f.=
2r 2 x3.14 x6
= 0.146x 1010
= 1.46 x 10 Hz = 1.46 GHz
ii. Guide wavelength, =
(clf) 3 x 10° / 2.5 x 10

= 14.78 cm
iüi. Wave impedance, Z, = 377 x = 377 x 14.78

12
= 464.34 ohm
Que 1.23. Write down the
advantages, disadvantages and
applications of a circular waveguide. A circular
dominate mode at a frequency of 9 GHz have waveguide in a
5 cm. Calculate
guide wavelength and cut-off initial diameter of
wavelength.
Answer
A Advantages :
1. It has greater power handling capacity.
2 It has lower attenuation for a given cut-off wavelength.
3. The polarization of the transmitted wave can be altered due to the
minor irregularities of the wall surface of the circular wave guide.
B. Disadvantages :
1 It has limited dominant mode bandwidth.
2 Large size and weight.
C. Applications:
1. It isused in rotating joints in radars to connect the horn antenna feeding
a parabolic reflector.
2. Its TE, mode is suitable for long distance waveguide transmission above
10 GHz.
3 It is used in short and medium distance broadband communication.
D. Numerical :
Given : f= 9GHz, 2a = 5 cm=5x 10-2m

To Find:h e
c 3x108
Guide wavelength, = f 9x10 =3.33 cm
Xnp
2rayue
1.841 x3x108 : For dominant mode
Tx5x10-2 Xhp =1.841
= 0.352 x 1010
f,=3.52 GHz
iü. Cut-off wavelength,
3x108 =0.852x 10-1
A, =
fe 3.52x 10
,= 8.52 cm
PART-9
Wave Velocities.
Questions-Answers
Que 1.24. Derive the expression for phase velocity and group
velocity. And also give a relation between them.
Answer
A Expression for phase velocity, v, :
1. We know that v, =
Also, h²=+ o He=A' +B'=

and Y=a+jß
2. For wave propagation, y=Jß (:: Attenuation, =0)
2
= UB)= ...(1.24.1)
3. At f=f, o =0,, y= 0
2 2
+ ...(1.24.2)
4 Putting eq. (1.24.1) in eq. (1.24.2), we get
..(1.24.3)
1 1
Le.,
J1-f,//
5. We also know that, f (any frequency) = ch, where , is free space
wavelength and f, (cut-off-frequency) =c, where ., is cut-off
wavelength.
J1-(a, /a,
B. Expression for group velocity, v,:
1. We know that, v, = do
dß
2. But from eq. (1.24.3), B= Vue (o - o)
1-31 E (EC-Sem-7)
Microwave and Radar Engineering
3. Now differentiating ß with respect to 0, we get

dß 2ou[
do 2/(o'- o) u[
dB
do J1-(o,/o') 1-fIf)
do y1-(f.If)
dß
Or
4 Consider the product of v, and v,

C
i.e.,
2,)
1-a,
PART- 10
Waveguide Cavities.
Questions-Answers
Que 1.25. What is a waveguide cavity resonator ?
Answer
1 Waveguide cavity resonators are formed by shorting two ends of a
section of awaveguide as shown in Fig. 1.25.1.
2
1.25.1. Waveguide cavity resonators

(a) Reetangular cavity (b) Circular cavity.
be computed from the wave
2.The field components inside the cavity can zero tangential
equations which satisfy the boundary condition of the
E field at all conducting walls.
3 Within the cavity, various TEmnn and IMmnn modes exist.
band-widths can be
4 Very high Q factors and accompanying narrow
obtained with these resonators.
line
5. External circuits are coupled to the cavity through transmission
probes or loops or apertures.
6 input value because
The cavity fields can be very large compared to theelectric and magnetic
the constant stored energy oscillates between the
fields.
Que 1.26. Show that a rectangular cavity may be viewed as a

rectangular waveguide shorted at both ends. Also find the
resonance condition.
Answer
1. The co-ordinate system of rectangular cavity is shown in Fig. 1.26.1. Let
fis the frequency in cavity. If the length d is made equal to the multiple
of half guide wavelength then the standing wave pattern is obtained.
Z
d
Fig.1.26.1. Arectangular cavity.
2 In such condition xand ycomponents of electric field intensity are zero
atz =0 and thus the resultant is a rectangular cavity. The waveguide is
called as the short circuited waveguide.
i. Resonance condition :
1. We have, o' uE-B= k ...(1.26.1)
where o= 2rf= Angular frequency
H= Permeability
¬= Permittivity
2 If the medium is a lossless dielectric medium thenß = 0
Thus eg. (1.26.1) becomes k = o e
...(1.26.2)
3. Iff. denotes the resonance frequency then o, = 2rf.
Then eq. (1.26.2) becomes = (2f) ue
..(1.26.3)
(2' e
4. Substituting the value of kin eq. (1.26.3), we get

2
ma
(2r)' e
1 m
..(1.26.4)
2\/ue
5 Eq. (1.26.4) gives the resonance frequency for TEmniand TMmnmodes
for the rectangular resonant cavity.
Que 1.27. Arectangular cavity resonator has dimension a =7.5 cm,
b=4 cm and d=16 cm. Calculate the resonant frequeney of dominant
mode, cut-off wave number and phase constant.
OR
A rectangular cavity resonator has dimension a = 7.5 cm, b =4 cm
and d = 16 cm. Calculate cut-off wave number and phase constant.
AKTU 2018-19, Marks 07
Answer
Given :a=7.5 cm, b = 4 cm, d =16 cm
To Find :f,ke Pg
1. For dominant mode (TEo), m = 1, n = 0,l=1
i. Resonant frequency,
2
1
f,=x3x
2
10ª 0.075 0.16/
2
40) 25)
f,= l5x 108 =l.5 x10* ,J(13.33)° +(6.25)
f.= 1.5 x 10 /177.69 + 39.06 = 22.05 x 10 Hz = 2.2GHZ
ii. Cut-off wave number,
1-34 E (EC-Sem-7) Transmision Line and Waveguide
= 3.14 =3.14 x 14.7

0.075)
k, = 46.158
iii. Phase constant, B, = Jo' ,E -k
Consider f= 3 GHz
B, =J(2r x3 x 10 (4n x 10 x8.85 x 1o ")-(46.158
B, = 42.6717 rad/m
VERY IMPORTANT QUESTIONS

Following questions are very important. These question8
may be asked in your SESSIONALS as well as
UNIVERSITY EXAMINATION.
Q. 1. Derive transmission line equations.

Ans. Refer Q. 1.1.
Q. 2. A60 ohm lossless line connects a sigmal of 100 kHz to a load

of 120 ohm. The load power is 100 mW. Calculate the
a. Voltage reflection coefficient
b. VSWR
Ans. Refer Q. 1.6.
Q.3. A microstrip line is made of a copper conductor

0.0254 mm wide on a G-10 fiberglass epoxy board 0.20 mm
in height. The relative dielectric constant e, of the board
material is 4.8, measured at 25 GHz. The microstrip line
0.035 mm thick is to be used for 10 GHz. Determine the :
i. Characteristic impedance Z, of the microstrip line.
i. Surface resistivity R, of copper conductor.
iii. Conductor attenuation constant a,.
iv. Dielectrie attenuation constant ag
v. Quality factor.
Ans. Refer Q. 1.12.
Q.4. Derive all electric and magnetic field components in
transverse magnetic mode of rectangular waveguides.
Ans. Refer Q. 1.17.
2 UNIT
Passive Microwave
Devices
CONTENTS
Microwave Junctions .2-2E to 2-7E
Part-1:
and Couplers
Part-2 : Scattering Matrix 2-8E to 2-10E
Part-3 : Passive Microwave Devices 2-10E to 2-20E

Microwave Hybrid Circuits
Part-4 : Terminations 2-20E to 2-22E
Part-5 : Attenuators 2-22E to 2-25E

Part-6 : Phase Shifter 2-25E to 2-26E
Part-7 : Microwave Propagation in 2-26E to 2-29E

Ferrites, Faraday Rotation, Isolators
Part-8 : Circulator, S-Parameter 2-29E to 2-32E
of Circulator
2-1 E (EC-Sem-7)
2-2 E (EC-Sem-7) Passive Microwave devices
PART- 1
Microwave Junctions and Couplers.
Questions-Answers
Que 2.1. Define microwave junction.

OR
What do you mean by microwave coupler? Also explain directional
coupler.
Answer
A Microwave junction : The point of interconnection of two or more
microwave devices is called microwave junction.
B. Microwave coupler : Microwave couplers are devices which divert a
fraction of the signal on one transmission line to another transmission
line.
C. Directional coupler :
1. The directional coupler is a four port device. It is used to sample the part
of energy passing through the main waveguide.
2. They are also used tocheck whether the signal passing through two
arms is in phase as well as in amplitude.
3. There are no reflections at the junction of these four parts. Directional
coupler having such property is shown in Fig. 2.1.1.
Port 4 Port 3
Coupling device
Port 1 Port 2
Fig. 2.1.1. Directional coupler.

4. When the power is incident from port 1 then it is passed to port 2 and
port 3, but it does not appears on port 4. Thus port 4 is uncoupled when
incident power is fed from port 1.
5. Similarly when the power is incident from port 4 then this power is
coupled to port 2and port 3 but not coupled to port 1.
6. The directional coupler can also be made from two waveguides. In such
cases one waveguide is straight but other is having a curve shape.
Microwave and Radar Engineering 23E (EC-Sem-7)
7. Ifthe power is incident from output end, there should not be any leakage
of power into the auxiliary arm. The power incident from output end is
called the reverse power.
Que 2.2. Explain the construction and working of directional
coupler. Derive expression for coupling factor and directivity.
Compare single hole and double hole directional coupler.
AKTU2017-18, Marks 10 |
Answer
A Directional Coupler: Refer Q. 2.1, Page 2-2E, Unit-2.
i. Construction and Working :
1.
The power transfers through these two hole as shown in Fig. 2.2.1.
Auxiliary
Waveguide Holes
waveguide
termination
Forward Ak /4 B
-Reflected wave
wave
Main waveguide
Fig. 2.2.1. Hole directional coupler.
2 The forward wave traveling through main waveguide enters into
auxiliary arm at A. Some portion of the wave enters at B.
3 The direction in auxiliary waveguide for these wave components is from
left to right.
4. The wave entering at A and B get added and passes in the auxiliary
waveguide. Reflected wave entering through Ain auxiliary waveguide
has to travel double distance as compared to the position entering through
B. i.e., 2x N4= N2.
5. Thus, these two reflected waves meeting at B are 180° out of phase. So
they cancel each other.
ii. Directivity:
1 It is defined as the ratio of power coupled in forward direction to reverse
direction in auxiliary arm.
2 The directivity is denoted by D. It is given in decibels.
D = 10log,o P(Forward)
PReverse)
where, P(Forward) = Power coupled in auxiliary arm in forward
direction.
PReverse) = Power coupled in auxiliary arm in reverse
direction.
The S-matrix for directional coupler is given as :
24E (EC-Sem-7) Passive Microwave devices
0 S
S 0
S= Sa
Ss 0 S4
S,, 0 Sg
iii. Coupling factor :
1. It is defined as the ratio of incident power to the power output from
auxiliary arm. Coupling factor is always given in decibels. It is denoted
by C.
C= 10 log,, (P/P)
2. Ifcoupling power is small, it indicates that the value of coupling factor is
high.
3. The coupling factor also gives the amount of attenuation taking place in
the output power.
4. The total input power into the coupler is sum of output power from
coupler and the output power from auxiliary arm.
iv. Comparison :
S. No. Single hole Double hole
directional coupler directional coupler
These are forward couplers. These are reverse couplers.
2 The degree of directivity is The degree of directivity is low.
high.
Que 2.3. What is directional coupler ? What are the different

types of directional coupler ? Explain the working principle of
2-hole directional coupler. Also determine its S-matrix.
Answer
A. Directional coupler: Refer Q. 2.1, Page 2-2E, Unit-2.
B. Types of directional coupler :
i. Single hole directional coupler
ii. Two hole directional coupler : The two holes which are quarter
wavelength apart are made between main arm and the auxiliary arm.
Working:
1. Atwo-hole directional coupler is designed to meet the ideal requirement
of directional coupler, which is to avoid back power. Some of the power
while travelling between Port 1and Port 2escapes through the holes 1
and 2.
2. The magnitude of the power depends upon the dimensions of the holes.
This leakage power at both the holes are in phase at hole 2, adding up
the power contributing to the forward power P. However, it is out of
phase at hole 1, cancelling each other and preventing the back power to
0ccur.
S-matrix :
1. We use the properties of the directional coupler to arrive at (S] matrix.
Main WG
W W
Port 1 P P, Port 2
P'b
P
Port 3 Port 4
Fig. 2.3.1.
2 Directional coupler is a 4-port network. Hence [S] is a 4 x 4 matrix.
Se S S,.
(S] = S1 Sa SA
Ss
S S S S
3 Inadirectional coupler allfour ports are perfectly matched to thejunction.
Hence the diagonal elements are zero.
i.e., S,,= S, =S, =S, =0
4 From symmetry property, S, = S
S,,= S, S=S,j; S, =S
S,,= S S, =S,,
Ideally back power is zero (P, =0) i.e., there is no coupling between port
(1) and port (3),
S,= S, =0
5. Also there is no coupling between port (2) and port (4)
S,, =S=0
6 The values of scattering parameters are
2-6E (EC-Sem-7) Passive Microwave devices
0 S 0 S.1
S 0 S
[S] =
0 S. 0 Ss4
S, 0 S4 0
7. Since [S] [S*]=I, we get
S; 0 S; 0 S;, 1 0 0 0]
S,3 0 010 0
0 S 00 1 0
Si S
|S,. 0 S;, 0 S 0 0 0 1|
R,C,: |S,p l2+ |S,,1' =1 ...(2.3.1)
R,C,: |S, |'+ |S l' =1 ...(2.3.2)
R, C,: |S, |+ |S,1' =1 ...(2.3.3)

R,C,:S,, S* +S, S= 0 ...(2.3.4)
8 Comparing eq. (2.3.1), eq. (2.3.2), eq. (2.3.3) and eg. (2.3.4), we have
S,= S
and S,,= Ssa
9. Let us assume that S,, is real and positive =p
S,, = S,, =p = S*,, ...(2.3.5)
10. From eq. (2.3.4) and eg. (2.3.5)
pS*23 +S,,p = 0
plSg + S*l=0
Since, p 0,S,, + S*,,=0
23=Jq
i.e., S,, must be imaginary.
11. Let Sg=j =S4
Therefore, S= Sy =p
and Sg= S =jq (Also p² +q²= 1)
Substituting these values in (S] matrix ofa directional coupler, it is
reduced to
0 p 0 jg
0 jg 0
[S] = 0 Jq 0
Ljq 0 p 0
Que 24. Describe the operation of atwo hole directional coupler.

directional coupler
A 90 Wpower source is connected to the input of a
with C = 20 dB, D = 35 dB and an insertion loss of 0.5 dB. Find the
output power at the through coupled and isolated ports. Assume all
ports to be matched. AKTU 2015-16, Marks 10
Answer
A Two hole directionalcoupler : Refer Q. 2.3, Page 2-4E, Unit-2.
B. Numerical :
Given : C= 20dB, D =35 dB, P, = 90 W
To Find:Output power.
1 C= 20 = 10 log P
P,
-102= 100
P
Pf= [: P,= 90 W]
100
P,= 0.9 W
2. Also D =35 = 10 log P,

P
P = 10 3.5
P
P, = 284.6 uW
P,= 105
3. Received power
P, =P-P-P,
P = 90-0.9 - 284.6 x 10-6
P= 89.09 Watts
90
P, (in dB) = 10log = 10 log
P 89.09/
P, (in dB) = 0.044 dB
4. Effective received power
P= P,-insertion loss
P'= 0.0440.5
P'=-0.455 dB
2-8E (EC-Sem-7) Passive Microwave devices
PART-2
Seattering Matrix.
Questions-Answers
Que 2.5. Discuss the concept for the representation of scattering

matrix.
Answer
1 Consider a microwave junction having n ports as shown in Fig. 2.5.1.
2 Three cases arise for transmission coefficient:
Case 1: When i=r, i.e., amplitude of both the incident and reflected
wave is equal and it is called as reflection coefficient.
b. Case 2: When i <j then it is called reverse transmission coefficient.
ag b
Z02
Zo1 Zo3
bË ba
Zon
Fig. 2.5.1.
Case 3:
1 When i >j,reflection of wave from junction is very small and is called as
forward transmission coefficient.
2. Novw both the incident and reflected waves are related as
b,= )s, 4
J
. In general form this can also written as
b, = S, a, +S a, t ........
:
b, =S, nn n
4 In matrix form we can write as

b] = [S]la]
S2
(S] = S1 S Son
S..
nn
.
where, [al = Column matrix =
b
[b] = Column matrix = b,
5 The coefficient parameters S,,, Sps nn are the scattering

parameters.
Que 2.6. What are S-parameters? Why are they used at microwave
frequencies to describe multiport network ?
Answer
A S-parameter :
1. At low frequencies, circuits can be described by two port networks and
their parameters like Z2, Y, H, ABCD etc.
2. In the similar way at microwave frequencies, we are considering traveling
waves with associated powers in place of voltages and currents and
microwave circuits can be described by parameters called S-parameters.
B. Importance of S-parameters :
1 Equipment is not readily available to measure total voltage and current
at the ports of the network.
2. Short and open circuits are difficult to achieve over broadband
frequencies.
3. Active devices, such as power transistors and tunnel diodes, frequently
will not have stability for a short or open circuit.
4 Above difficulties can be resolved with the help of S-parameter.
S-parameters can be expressed as
2-10 E EC-Sem-7) Passive Microwave devices
...(2.6.1)
b, = S a,+Sgag ...(2.6.2)
5. Fig. 2.6.1 shows two port network for S-parameters.
S11 S12
b S1 S92 b,
Fig.2.6.1.
PART-3
Passive Microwave Devices :Microwave Hybrid Circuits.
Questions-Answers
Que 2.7. Write a short note on microwave passive devices.
Answer
1. Microwave passive devices and components are designed using sections
of co-axial line, waveguides, strip lines and microstrip lines for use in
both, laboratory and in microwave communication and radar systems.
2. These components can be considered as one-port or multiport networks
characterized by the basic parameters, like the VSWR, reflection
coefficient, and various losses under output matched conditions.
3. Microwave passive devices are:
i. E-plane tee
ii. H-plane tee
ii. Magic tee
Que 2.8. Prove that it is impossible for a general three-port
junction (for example E-plane tee) of arbitrary symmetry to present
matched impedance at all three arms.
OR
Discuss E-plane tee in brief.
Answer
1. An E-plane tee is a waveguide tee in which the axis oft its side arm is
parallel to the E-field of the main guide, if the collinear arms are
symmetricabout the side arm.
2. If the E-plane tee is perfectly matched with the aid of screw tuners or
inductive or capacitive windows at the junction, the diagonal components
of thescattering matrix, S,, Sop,and Sg are zero because there will be
no reflection.
3 When the waves are fed into the side arm (port 3), the waves appearing
at port l and port 2 of the collinear arm will be in opposite phase and in
the same magnitude.
Therefore Sg=-Sg ...(2.8.1)
4 From eq. (2.8.1) it does not mean that, S,g is always positive and Sg is
always negative.
6 The negative sign merely means that Sg and S,, have opposite signs.
For a matched junction, the S-matrix is given by
S2 S0
S=S,, 0 Sa ...(2.8.2)
S,, S, 0
7. From the symmetry property ofS-matrix,
Sg= S
...(2.8.3)
Port 3
Port 2
Side arm
Collinear
arms
Port 1 E
Fig. 2.8.1. E-plane tee.
Out
|Port 3
Port 1A Port 2
Out
In
(a) Input through main arm.

In
Port 3
Port 1 Port 2
Out Out
(6) Input from side arm.

Fig. 2.8.2. Two-way transmissions of E-plane tee.
8 From the zero property of S-matrix, the sum of the products of each
term of any column (or row) multiplied by the complex conjugate of the
corresponding terms of any other column (or row) is zero and it is
S, S1+S,, S22 +S3, S32=0 ...(2.8.4)
S132 = 0 .(2.8.5)
Hence,
9 This means that either S, or Sgas or both, should be zero. However,
from the unity property of S-matrix, the sum of the products of each
term of any one row (or column) multiplied by its complex conjugate is
unity, i.e.,
...(2.8.6)
S, S +S,S=1
...(.2.8.7)
S S+ S S'32=
, 1
...(2.8.8)
Sg S +Sg Sg=1
Substitution of eq. (2.8.3) in eq. (2.8.6) result in
|S,,|'= 1-|Sg|'=1-|S12 ...(2.8.9)
10. Eq. (2.8.8) and eg. (2.8.9) are contradictory, for if S,,=0, then S,, is also
zero and thus eg. (2.8.8)is false.
11. In a similar fashion, if S, = 0, then S,, becomes zero and therefore
eq. (2.8.9) is not true.
12. This inconsistency proves the statement that the tee junction Cannot be
matched to the three arms.
Que 2.9. What do you mean by E-plane tee and H-plane tee ?
Compare their propagation characteristics.
Answer
A E-plane tee : Refer Q. 2.8, Page 2-10E, Unit-2.
B. H-plane tee:
1 This is also called as shunt tee. The structure of H-planetee is shown in
Fig. 2.9.1. Auxiliary arm is perpendicular to direction of electric field.
Microwave and Radar Engineering 2-13E(EC-Sem-7)
Main arm
Auxiliary
arm
Fig. 2.9.1. H-plane tee.

2. The electric field distribution of H-plane tee is shown in Fig. 2.9.2.
Main arm
Out Out
Auxiliary arm
In
Fig. 2.9.2. Electric field distribution in H-plane tee.
C. Comparison :
S. No. E-plane tee H-plane tee
1 In an E-plane tee, the axis of In an H-plane tee, the axis of its
its side arm is parallel to the side arm is parallel to the
electric field of the main magnetic field or shunting the
waveguide. electric field of the main
waveguide.
2 The E-plane tee is also called An H-plane tee is also called a
a series tee. parallel or shunt tee.
3. When the power is fed at port When the power is fed at port
(3), that is, at the side arm, (3), that is, at the side arm,the
the resulting power is equally resulting power is equally divided
divided between port (1) and between port (1) and port (2)
(2), but a phase shift of 180 within phase.
is introduced between the
two outputs.
4 When the equal input power When the equal input power is
is fed to both ports (1) and fed to both ports (1) and (2), the
(2), no output is obtained at maximum power (i.e., addition of
port (3). two inputs) is obtained at port (3).
Que 2.10. What do you mean by microwave passive devices ?

Describe E-plane tee, H-plane tee and Magic tee.
Answer
A Microwave passive devices : Refer Q. 2.7, Page 2-10E, Unit-2.
B. E-plane tee: Refer Q. 2.8, Page 2-10E, Unit-2.
C. H-plane tee: Refer Q. 2.9, Page 2-12E, Unit-2.
D. Magic tee :
1 It is also named as hybrid tee. The magic tee is the combination of E and
H-plane tees.
2 It is called magic tee because the power gets divided into various arms
depending upon the various condition of entering the power in a
particular mode.
3 The various ports of magic tee are shown in Fig. 2.10.1.
Port 2
Port 3
E-arm
H-arm/
Side arm Port 4
Port 1
Fig. 2.10.1. Different ports of magic tee.

4. The wave gets equally divided into two side arms when the wave is
traveling through the port 3, i.e., E-arm.
5. Here the phase of wave traveling through the two side arms will be
opposite toeach other.
6. The wave also gets equally divided into two side arms, when the wave
get enters from port 4, i.e., H-arm, but the phase will be the same and
hence the wave traveling through two sides arms will be added.
Port 2
Tx-1
Port 3 E-arm
Tx-2
Port 4
Port 1
Fig.2.10.2. Magic tee coupled transmitters to antenna.

7. In such cases, the unused arm is left and must be terminated.

8 The two transmitters can be connected to port 3 and port 4 as shown in
Fig. 2.10.2.
9 The wave emerged from port 3 is equally divided into port l and 2
respectively having same magnitude but opposite in phase.
10. Similarly wave emerged from port 4is equally divided into port l and 2
respectively having same magnitude and phase.
11. Hence we obtained two in phase together at port 2and opposite waves
cancel each other at port 1.
12. Thus addition of twowaves results in double output power at port 2.
The S-matrix for magic tee can be expressed as
0 0 S S
S=
0
S
S S32
S 0 0
Que 2.11. Design the S-parameter matrix of amicrowave device

given in Fig. 2.11.1. If a signal of power 20 mW is fed into port 1,
determine the power in remaining port when other ports are
perfectly matched.
Port 3
Port 2
Side arm
Collinear arms
Port 1 E
Fig. 2.11.1.
|AKTU2016-17, Marks 7.5
Answer
The scattering matrix of an E-plane tee can be used to describe its
properties. Since it is a three port junction the scattering matrix can be
derived as follows.
IS] is a 3 x 3 matrix since there are 3 ports.
S11 S12 S13
[S]= S1 S2 S23
|Sg1 Sg2 Sg3
2 The scattering coefficient
Sg=-S9 ...(2.11.1)
Passive Microwave devices
2-16E (EC-Sem-7)
with an input at
Since outputs at ports 1 and 2 are out of phase by l180°
port 3.
3 If port 3 is perfectly matched to the junction. ...(2.11.2)
Sgg =0
4. From symmetric property, S, =S;
S= S1
Sig= Sg1 ..(2.11.3)
Sg= Sg
With these properties [S] becomes,
Si1 S12 S13 ..(2.11.4)
[S] = S12 S2 - Sh3
S13 -S13
5. From unitary property, [S][S]* = (1
S12 S18 |Si Si2 S13 [1 0 0]
[S1 01 0
S12 S2 - S13|S12 S2 -S18
0 |0 0 1|
|S13 -S13
...(2.11.5)
R,C;: |S,,12+|S,12+ |S,,12 =1 ...(2.11.6)
R, Cq: |S,l+|8g1+ |S,g12 =1
|Sl+ |S;1 =1 ..(2.11.7)
R,C,:
Sg S,, -S,g Si2 =0 ...2.11.8)
R,C,:
6. Equating eq. (2.11.5) and eq. (2.11.6) we get
...(2.11.9)
S= S
1 ...(2.11.10)
7. From eq. (2.11.7), S,8= /2
...(2.11.11)
From eq. (2.11.8), S, (Si-S;2) =0 or S, =S= S
Putting values of S,,and S,, in eq. (2.11.5)
1
|S +|S+=1
2
2|S,,|= l or S1= 1 ...(2.11.12)

2 2
10. Substituting the values from S,,, S9, S S, in the [S] matrix of
eq. (2.11.4) becomes
1 1
2 2
1 1 -1
(S] = 2 2 J2
1 -1
0
Numerical:
Given : a, =20 mW, a, =a, =0
To Find :b, b, bg
1. Since, port 2 and port 3 are perfectly matched and power is fed into
port 1,
a = 20 1mW, a, =4,=0
1
1
2 2
20 m W
1 1 -1
b 2 2 V2
1 -1
0
1 1
i. b, = power at port 1=41 tg a22+
x 20 = 5 mW
2
1 1 1
x 20= 5 mW
ii.
b,=1t42 J2 2
1 1 1
iiüi. b, = ay +0= x 20 = 10 mW
J2
2. It is seen that. b, =b, + b,
Que 2.12. A magic-T is terminated at collinear ports 1 and 2 and
difference at port 4. Impedance of reflection coefficient is 0.5, 0.6 and
0.8 respectively. If the 1 W is fed at the sum port 3 calculate the
power reflected at the port 3 and power transmitted to the other
three ports. AKTU2015-16, Marks 7.5
Answer
1. S-matrix for a matched magic-T with collinear ports 1 and 2 and sum
and difference ports 3 and 4 respectively, is given by
[0 0 1 1
00 1 -1
IS] =1/ V2
1 1 0 0
1 -1 0 0
2. Ifa,, a,, a, and a, be the normalised input voltages and b,, b, b, and b,
are the corresponding output voltage at ports 1, 2, 3 and 4 respectively,
then
a, =I,by ay=Ib, a, =input appliedvoltage
Now, P, = |a,|2=1 W, or a,= 1V

[0 0 1 1].56,
Therefore, b, =1/ 5 0 1 -1||66.
ba 1 1 0 1.0
-1 0 0 86,
or, b, +0+0-0.8 b, V2 = 1/2

0+ b, +0-0.8 b, V2 = 1V2
-0.5b, / N2-0.66, / V2 +b, +0 =0
-0.56, /V2 +0.6b, / V2 +0+b, =0
4 The unknown quantities b's may be solved by Cramer's rule
|1 0 0 -0.8
1 V2
1 0.8
0 -0.6 V2 0
0 0.6 1-0.6x0.8
b, = =V2
V2 0 -0.8 2-0.8(0.5+0.6)
V2 0.8
-0.5 -0.6 V2
-0.5 0.6 0 V2
=l-0.48 = 0.6566 V
2-0.88
1-0.5x 0.8
5. Similarly, =0.7576V
2-0.8(0.5 +0.6)
0.5+0.6-2x0.5 x 0.6 x 0.8
b, = = 0.5536 V
2-0.8(0.5 +0.6)
0.5-0.6
b, = V2 -0.0893 V
2-0.8(0.5+0.6
6. Therefore,
Power transmitted at port 1= |b, |'=0.4309 W
ii. Power transmitted at port 2 = |b,|'=0.5738W
iii. Power transmitted at port 4 = |b,|'=0.00797 W
iv. Power reflected at port 3= |b,|2=0.3065W
V. Power absorbed at port i= V2 (|b,|2- |a, |), i=1, 2, 4.
vi. Total power absorbed by the system = 12(|a,|2-|b,|2).
Que 2.13. Discuss hybrid ring in detail.

Answer
1 Aform of hybrid junction is the ring type structure named as rat-race.
2 It is a four port junction added to normal three port tee at proper
intervals by means of series or parallel junction. To sustain standing
waves, hybrid ring consists of an annular line of proper electrical length.
3.
For proper operation it is necessary that the mean circumference of
the total race be 1.5., and each of the four ports be separated from its
neighbour by a distance of ,/4.
4. The Fig.2.13.1 depicted the series junction.
3A 14
Port 1
Port 4
J4 J4
Port 3 Port 2
Fig. 2.13.1. Hybrid ring.
5. S-matrix for hybrid ring can be written as:
Sp 0 S,.
S= Sg
0 S32 0 S4
S,, S3
Que 2.14. Write a short note on waveguide corner and bends. With
support of figures explain the waveguide corners and bends.
OR
Explain wave guide discontinuity.
Answer
1 Waveguide corners and bends are used to remove the reflection arising
from discontinuities during matching of various hybrid
junctions.
2. Such waveguide componentsare generally used to divert the direction
of processing of guide through an appropriate angle.
3. In order to minimize reflection from the
length L between any two possible nearby discontinuities, the mean
junction of corner is kept
equal toan odd number of quarter wavelengths
i.e., L= (2n+1) /4
where, n = 0, 1, 2, . . . .
,= wavelength of guide
4 For waveguide bends, the minimum radius of curvature for reflection is
given by Southworth as,
R = 1.5 b for E-bend
R
min
=1.5 a for H-bend
where a and b are the dimensions of the waveguide.
5 The waveguide corners and bends are shown in Fig. 2.14.1.
L
(a) E-plane corner (b) H-plane corner
(c) E-plane bend (d) H-plane bend

Fig. 2.14.1. Waveguide corners and bends.
PART-4
Terminations.
Questions-Answers
Que 2.15. Define terminators. And writea short note on matched

loads and tuning screw.
Answer
A. Terminator :
1. It is one-port component that absorbs the entire power incident upon it.
Its impedance equals the characteristic impedance of the line to which it
is connected.
2-21 E (EC-Sem-7)
B. Matched load :
1 Matched load can be realized by terminating the line with a lumped
element resistor of value R= Z
2. Fig. 2.15.1(a)shows a configuration often used in co-axial systems. Its
equivalent circuit for L <<à is indicated in Fig. 2.15.1(6).
3. As we know the lumped element model is only valid when the dimensions
of actual element are small compared to the operating wavelength.
Metal contacts Thin resistive line
R
Hollow dielectric rod

(a) (6)
Fig. 2.15.1. Resistor type load and its equivalent circuit.
C. Tuning Serew :
1 Considering in mind the case of fabrication and the ability to adjust the
discontinuity, a serew projecting into the waveguide is one of the
discontinuity.
2. It is not necessary for screw to be located on the center line of the
waveguide as shown in Fig. 2. 15.2.
Fig. 2.15.2. Tuning screw.

3 When the screw is inserted, it presents a capacitive discontinuity. When
it crossed the waveguide, it looks like an inductive port, i.e., it behaves
as a reduced inductance.
4. When the screw projects about 5/8 of the way across the waveguide the
transmission occurs and at this point there is an infinite susceptance
across the waveguide.
5. Thin screw of diameter << /4 possesses susceptance of following nature,
Capacitive when h </4
i. Series resonant circuit when h J4
iüi. Inductive whenh> J4
6 All of these discontinuities can also be used in circular waveguide.

7. In this case there are no wide or narrower dimensions, but test whether
a discontinuity is inductive or capacitive depends on if the edge of
discontinuity is parallel to the voltage line or perpendicular to it.
PART-5
Attenuator.
Questions-Answers
Que 2.16. Define attenuators. Discuss various types of waveguide

attenuators.
Answer
A. Attenuator :
1 Attenuator is a passive device that reduces the power of a signal without
distorting its waveform.
2 An attenuator is effectively the opposite of an amplifier, though the
twowork by different methods. While an amplifier provides gain, an
attenuator provides loss, or gain less than 1.
B. Types of waveguide attenuator :
i. Flap attenuator :
1 The arrangement of variable flap attenuators is such that, a slot is made
in the waveguide.
2 The formation of slot is at the maximum electric field in the waveguide
andthen the resistive vane is inserted into this slot.
3. Such insertion will result in attenuation. The disadvantage of variable
flap attenuator is that it needs to be calibrated against a standard as it is
not a precision attenuator.
Flap Slot
Waveguide
Fig. 2.16.I. Flap attenuator.

ii Rotatory-vane attenuator :
1. The rotary attenuator gives the attenuation which is independent of
frequency.
2. It consists of two rectangular to circular waveguide transitions with an
intermediate section of circular waveguide which is free to rotate.
3 Each section has a resistive card placed at the center which is of rotary
nature.
4 Aresistive rotary vane attenuator provides precision attenuation with
an accuracy of + 2.1% of the indicated attenuation.
5 The Fig, 2.16.2 shows the suitable arrangement for
attenuator.
rotary-vane
6 For zero attenuation all the three vanes are aligned at 90° to the direction
of electric field. Electric field at the output of vane l is vertically polarized.
7 Vane 2is of rotating type and if it is rotated by an angle 0, the output of
vane 2 is E cos 0 as the E sin component is attenuated.
8 The output of vane3 is E cos?0 which has same polarisation as the input
wave. Rotary-vane attenuator's attenuation is
20 log cos²0 = 40 log cos 0.
9 The attenuation depends only on the angle of rotation .
Resistive cards
Rectangular tocircular Rotating section of

waveguide transition circular guide
Fig. 2.16.2. Basic construction of a rotary attenuator.
ii. Slot Vane Attenuator:
1. Aresistive material is placed parallel to electric field of the field current
in the wave guide. This induces a current which produces T'R loss.
2 This type of attenuator is also called as slide vane attenuator. The
construction of this attenuator is shown in Fig. 2.16.3.
Resistive material
Waveguide
Rods
Rods
Fig. 2.16.3. Slot vane attenuator.

3 It consists of a thin dielectric material such as glass on which a coating

of resistive material is done.
4 The glass material is havingg selective features as follows:
Its surface is smooth.
b It can withstand higher temperature.
C. It does not react with resistive material coated on it.
5. The Rloss in the resistive material is produced when an electric field
enters into the waveguide then it produces the dissipative current and
thus the attenuation is achieved.
6. For the dominant TE,,mode, the maximum attenuation will be obtained
if resistive material is placed at the centre of waveguide.
7. The attenuation depends on the strength of electric field and the location
ofresistive material.
8 Attenuation can also be varied by varying the area of resistive material
as well as by varying the distance between two rods.
Que 2.17. Describe rotary-vane attenuator. Show that its [S]
matrix is given by
sin
[S] =
|sin'
Answer
A Rotatory-vane Attenuator : Refer Q. 2.16, Page 2-22E, Unit-2.
B. To Show:
1. The S-matrix of a rotary-vane attenuator isgiven by
0 A ...2.17.1)
[S] =
A 0
where Ais the attenuation factor (in linear units). S,, and S.,, are Osince
they are perfectly matched.
2. In rotary-vane attenuator, S.,, and S,, are equal to each other and are
equal to the attenuation factor.
3. To caleulate the attenuation factor, consider the expression for the TE
mode electric field.
E=J,(p'rla) â, cos -Pn J P a, sin ...(2.17.2)

But, sin = sin ( 0+ 0) = cos 0 sin ( - 0) + sin cos ( -0)
...2.17.3)
4. Similarly,
cos = cos (- 0 + 0) = cos 0 (cos - 0) sin 0sin (-0)
...(2.17.4)
5. Using eq. (2.17.3) and eq. (2.17.4) in eq. (2.17.2), we get
E= cos a, cos (o -0) - P ; a, sin (o
sin 9| å, sin (o -0) + ;a, cos (¢ - )|

...(2.17.5)
6. Since the frst part is completely absorbed, only the portion multiplied by
sin i.e., second part of eg. (2.17.5) is transmitted. Thus,
E =- sin à, sin (ó - 0) + nJ, å, cos (o - 0)
= sin? a, cos - Pu J å, sin
- sin cos 0 a, sin + n J; å, cos
...(2.17.6)
7. Since, sin ( 0) = cos 0 sin - sin cos
and cos (-0) = cos cos + sin sin 0
8 Comparing eq. (2.17.2) and eq. (2.17.6), the transmitted field is
reduced by a factor sin? 0 from the amplitude of incident field. Hence
attenuation factor is given by,
A = sin'0 :.(2.17.7)
9. Putting value of attenuation factor in eq. (2.17.1), we get
sin 9
(S=
sin 9 0
PART-6
Phase Shifters.
Questions-Answers
Long Ans we. Type and Medium Answer Type Questions
Que 2.18. Explain the following:

i. Phase shifters.
ii. Wave guide discontinuity. AKTU 2015-16, Marks 10
Answer
i. Phase shifter:
1. Atwo port device that produces a variable change in phase of wave
transmitted through it is known as phase shifter.
2-26 E (EC-Sem-7) Passive Mierowave devices
2. A phase shifter can be designed by placing a lossless dielectric slab

within a waveguide parallel to and at the position of maximum electric
field.
3. Aphase change (differential) is produced due to change of wave velocity
through the dielectric slab compared to that through an empty waveguide.
4 Twoports are matched by reducing reflections of the wave from the
dielectric slabtapered at both ends.
Dielectric slab
Fig. 2.18.1. Phase shifter.

5 The propagation constant through a length l of a dielectric slab,
2r 2r (1-(a,/ 2a/e)1
6. The propagation constant through a length of an empty guide,

2r J[1 -(a, / 2a)']
By =
7 Thus differential phase shift s =(B,-B,) l.By adjusting4, different
phase shifts can be produced. The S-matrix of an ideal phase shifter can
be expressed as
e j4
(S] =
e 0
i. Wave guide discontinuity: Refer Q. 2.14, Page 2-19E, Unit-2.
PART-7
Microwave Propagation in Ferrites, Faraday Rotation, Isolators.
Questions-Answers
Que 2.19. What is Faraday rotation ? How it is used in designing

microwave components ? AKTU 2017-18, Marks 05
OR
Explain the construetion, working and application of mierowave
isolators. AKTU 2018-19, Marka 07
|AKTU 2016-17, Marks 06
OR
Explain the operation of a Faraday rotation isolator with the help
of nent sketch. List the application of ferrite isolator.
Answer
A Faradayrotation in ferriteN :
1 Aplane circularly polarised wave propagating in #, direction willhave
two different propagation constants given by
2r
(Clockwise)
2 (Anticlockwise)
2. Therefore, for alinearly polarized wave propagating along H, the plane

of polarisation rotates. This phenomenon is a non-reciprocal one.
Fig. 2.19.1. Faraday rotation in ferrite.

3. The rotation of the electric field of a linearly polarised wave passing
through a magnetised forrite is known as Faraday rotation as shown in
Fig. 2.19.1.
4. Let a linearly polarised TEM wave propagate in ferrite along the
z-axis with E = #E at z = 0. The linearly polarised wave may be

decomposed into sum of clock and anti-clockwise circularly polarised
waves.
5. The component waves propagate with different phase constants B* and

B, respectively, and the two corresponding electricfield vectors rotate
at different rates.
6 Over a distance à the resultant linearly polarised wave will undergo a
phase delay of
(B+B-)2= 4n
Therefore, A= 4r/(B *+B-)=22-2*/(0* +2)
and corresponding rotation angle
B-B 2r
(p*-B)
2
=\B+B)
7. The rotation per unit distance is 0=(3*-BV2. This propertyis utilised
in designing ferrite isolator and circulators.
B. Faraday rotation in designing :
i Isolator:
1 An isolator is a non-reciprocal transmission device that is used to isolate
one component from reflections of other components in the transmission
line.
2 An ideal isolator completely absorbs the power for propagation in one
direction and provides lossless transmission in the opposite direction.
Thus the isolator is usually called uniline.
ii. Operating principleand working:
1 The input resistive card is in the y-z plane. The output resistive card is
displaced 45 with respect to the input card.
2 The DC magnetic field is applied longitudinally to the ferrite rod, it
rotates the wave plane of polarization by 45°.
45
45°
Direction Output
Resistive of rotation waveguide
vane
"Magnetic
field
Input Reflected Ferrite rod
waveguide wave vector
Fig. 2.19.2. Faraday rotation isolator.

3 The degrees of rotation depend on the length and diameter of the
and on the applied DC magnetic field. rod
4. An input TE,, dominant mode is incident to the left end of the isolator.
As the TE mode wave is perpendicular to the input resistive card, so
the wave passes through the ferrite rod without attenuation.
5. The wave in the ferrite rod section is rotated clockwise by 45° and is
normal to the output resistive card.
6 As a result of rotation, the wave arrives at the output end without
attenuation.
7 On the contrary, a reflected wave from the output end is similarly
rotated clockwise 45° by the ferrite rod.
8. However, the reflected wave is parallel to the input resistive card. So
the wave is thereby absorbed by the input card.
9. The typical performance of these isolators is about 1dB insertion loss in
forward transmission and about 20 to 30 dB isolation in reverse
attenuation.
ii. Applications:
1. Used to improve the frequency stability of wave generator such as
klystrons and magnetrons.
2. Used to isolate one component from reflections of other components in
the transmission line.
PART-8
Circulator, S-Parameter of Circulator.
Questions-Answers
Que 2.20. Derive the schematic diagram of four port microwave

circulator and derive it S-matrix.
OR
Explain the working and applications of circulator. Are they
reciprocal or non-reciprocaldevice ? |AKTU 2017-18, Marks 05
OR
What are S-parameters? Why are they used at microwave frequeneies
to deseribe multipoint network ? Show that the scattering matrix
of four port circular using magic tees is
2-30 E EC-Sem-7) Passive Microwave devices
fo 0 0 11
1 00 0
[S]= i
0 0
|0 0 1 0|
OR
What is circulator ? Discuss its theory of operation and suggest its
applications. AKTU2018-19, Marks 07
Answer
A S-parameter:Refer Q. 2.6, Page 2-9E, Unit-2.
B. Importance S-parameters: Refer Q. 2.6, Page 2-9E, Unit-2.
C. Circulator :
1 A
microwave circulator is a multiport junction in which the wave can
flow only from the nh port to the (n + 1h port in one direction only.
2. There is norestriction on number of ports. It is a non-reciprocal device.
Wave incident in port l is coupled into port 2 only, a wave incident in
port 2 is coupled into port 3 only and so on.
3 Generally circulator is a four port device. The schematic of four ports
circulator is as shown in Fig. 2.20.1.
4.
In such cases each port is connected to the next port in a clockwise
direction i.e., port l is connected only to the port 2 and not to the port
3 and port 4.
5. Circulators are generally used to provide the isolation between input
and output terminals in case oftwo terminal amplifier devices.
Port 2
Port 1 Port 3
Port 4
Fig. 2.20.1. Schematic of four port circulator.
i. Scattering matrix of circulator :
1 Acirculator shown in Fig. 2.20.2 is made up of using two magic tees and
phase shifter. The phase shifter produces a phase shift of 180°.
Magic tee
180°
Phase shifter
Fig.2.20.2. Afour port circulator.
2. A perfectly matched, lossless, and non-reciprocal four port circulator

has an S-matrix as
|0 S, S,3 S4
S, 0 S3 S
(S]=
S Ssa 0 S4
S S S3 0
3. From the symmetry property of S-matrix
4. From the zero property of S-matrix
S,, S, +S,8, =0= S,, S, +S,S

S,,Si, +SS, =0= S,gS, +SSs
S,,S,+S,gS =0= S,S, +S,S
5. From the unitary property of S-matrix
S,,S, +S,, S, +SS, =l= |S,,1²+ |Sg|+ |S,4'=1
|S,1+|S,s l+ |S,1'= 1
|Ss1'+ |S, |²+|S4|'= 1
|S'+|S,'+|Ss4|'= 1
6. Now S-matrix is given as
[o 0 0 1]
|1 0 0 0
S=
0 10 0
|0 0 1 0
C. Applications :
1 Isolation of transmitters and receivers connected to same antenna e.g.,
in radar system.
Isolation of input and output in two terminal amplifying devices e.g.,
parametricamplifiers.

Following questions are very important. These questions
may be asked in your SESSIOALS as well as
Q.1. Explain the construction and working of directional

coupler. Derive expression for coupling factor and
directivity. Compare single hole and double hole directional
coupler.
Ans. Refer Q. 2.2.
Q. 2. What is directional coupler ? What are the different types of
directional coupler ? Explain the working principle of
2-hole directional coupler. Also determine its S-matrix.
Ans. Refer Q. 2.3.
Q.3. What do you mean by E-plane tee and H-plane tee? Compare
their propagation characteristics.
Ans. Refer Q. 2.9.
Q.4. Design the S-parameter matrix of amicrowave device given

in Fig. 1. If a signal of power 20 mW is fed into port 1,
determine the power in remaining port when other ports
are perfectly matched.
Port 3
Port 2
Side arm
Collinear arms
Port 1 E
Fig. 1.
Ans. Refer Q. 2.11.
3
UNIT
Microwave Tubes
CONTENTS
Part-1 : Microwaves Tubes: Limitation of .........-2E to 3-3E
Conventional Active Devices at
Microwave Frequency
Part-2 : Two Cavity Klystron .3-4E to 3-9E
Part-3 : Reflex Klystron 3-9E to 3-11E
Part-4: Magnetron .3-11E to 3-15E
Part-5: Traveling Wave Tube .3-15E to 3-17E
Part-6 : Backward Wave Oscillators : .3-18E to 3-21E

Their Schematic, Principle
of Operation, Performance
Characteristic and Their Applications
3-1 E (EC-Sem-7)
3-2 E (EC-Sem-7) Microwave Tubes
PART-1
Microwave Tubes : Limitation of Conventional Active Devices at
Microwave Frequency.
Questions-Answers
Que 3.1. What are the limitations of conventional active devices

at microwave frequencies ? Explain in detail.
Answer
i. Inter-electrode capacitance:
1. Vacuum has a dielectric constant of 1. As the elements of the triodes are
made of metal and are separated by a dielectric, capacitance exists
between them. This capacitance is inter-electrode capacitance.
Fig. 3.1.1.
2. The capacitance between the plate and grid is C The grid to cathode
capacitance is C. The total capacitance across the tube is C,
3 Now, we know that the capacitive reactance is given by
X = V2rfC
4. So as the input frequency increases, the effective grid to cathode
impedance decreases due to decrease in reactance of inter-electrode
capacitance.
5. At higher frequencies (greater than 100 MHz) it becomes so small that
signal is short circuited with the tube. Also, gain of the device reduces
significantly.
6 This effect can be minimized by taking smaller (reducing the area)
electrodes and by increasing distance between them, therefore by
increasing reactance.
ii. Lead inductance:
1
Lead inductances are effectively in parallel within the device with the
inter-electrode capacitance. Inductive reactance is given by:
X, = 2rfL
L
-000
0000
L
Fig. 3.1.2.
2. As the frequency increases, the effective reactance of the circuit also
increases. This effect raises the frequency limit to the device.
3 The inductance of cathode lead is commnon to both grid and plate circuits.
This provides a path for degenerative feedback which reduces the overall
efficiency of the circuit.
iüi. Transit time:
1 Transit time is the time required for electrons to travel from the cathode
tothe plate. At low frequency, the transit time is very negligible.
2 But, however at higher frequencies, transit time becomes an appreciable
portion of asignal which results in decrease in efficiency of device.
iv. Gain bandwidth product :
1 Gain bandwidth product is independent of frequency. So for a given
tube higher gain can be only obtained at the expense of narrower
bandwidth.
V. Dielectricloss:
1 Dielectricmaterial is generally different silicon plastic encapsulation
materials used in microwave devices. At higher frequencies the losses
due tothese materials are also prominent.
Microwave Tubes
34E (EC-Sem-7)
PART-2
Two Cavity Klystron.
Questions-Answers
Type Questions
Long Answer Type and Medium Answer
Que 3.2. Explain in detail about 2-cavity klystron amplifier.

Answer
A Two-cavity klystron amplifier :

1. The two-cavity klystron is a widely used
microwave amplifier operated
modulation.
by the principles of velocity and current
i. Construction :
It consists
1. The construction of two-cavity klystron is shown in Fig. 3.2.1. catcher
of input cavity called as buncher cavity and output cavity called as
cavity.
Buncher cavity Catcher cavity

RF input RF output
Anode Drift space
Cathode Collector
Bunched
electron
beam
0 d L+d L+ 2d
Distance scale
Time scale
to t, t, t,
Fig. 3.2.1. Two-cavity klystron amplifier.
2. The distance between two cavities is called as the drift space. Cathode is
used to emit electron beam. Higher potential is given to the collector as
compared to the cathode.
3. Electron beam is collected by collector. The RF signal to be amplified is
applied to first cavity. Input signal is allowed to reach to output cavity. At
output cavity an amplifed signal is obtained.
ii. Working and principle :

1. All electrons injected from the cathode arrive at the first cavity with
uniform velocity.
2. Those electrons passing the first cavity gap at the zero gap voltage (or
signal voltage) pass through with unchanged velocity, those passing
through the positive half cycle of the gap voltage undergo increase in
velocity and those passing through negative half cycle of the gap voltage
undergo a decrease in velocity.
3. As a result of these actions, the electrons gradually bunch together as
they travel down the drift space as shown in Fig. 3.2.2.
4. The variation in electron velocity in drift space is known as velocity
modulation. The density of the electron in the second cavity gap varies
cyclically with time.
5 The maximum bunching occur approximately midway between the
second cavity grids during its retarding phase. Thus the kinetic energy
is transferred from the electrons tothe field of the second cavity.
6 The electrons then emerged from second cavity with reduced velocity
and terminate at the collector.
Output gaP Bunched

voltage
Catcher \center/
gridDistance
Input gap voltage

V, sin wt
Bencher
grid T T
Fig. 3.2.2.
Que 3.3. With the help of functional diagram, explain the working
principle of two-cavity klystron amplifier. Calculate optimum
length of drift space, maximum efficiency, and voltage gain.
Answer
A Two-cavity klystron amplifier: Refer Q. 3.2, Page 3-4E, Unit-3.
B. Expression for the efficiency of two-cavity klystron amplifier :
3-6E(EC-Sem-7) Microwave Tubes
1 From the basic principles, we can say that the klystron is generally
tuned to fundamental AC component of current given by,
i,(t,) =21,J, ) cos (ot,-8,-0,) ..(3.3.1)
where, t= Time when the bunched electrons are at the
cateher grid after travelling through the field
free drift space L.
6, =Transit angle =ot, =olt,-t).
t, =Time when electron beam enters the buncher.
t, = Timewhen electron beam out.
L,= DC beam current in the buncher.
2. Here J(X) is a function of V, because
X=
n NB, V,
..(3.3.2)
where,
B,=Beam coupling coefficient of buncher cavity.
V= Input RFsignal amplitude.
Vo= Anode potential with respect to cathode potential.
N= Number of RF cycles elapsed during transit time
of reference electron with velocity (u,).
L
3. We have, = NT
L
N=
N= Lf L(2rf) Lo
2 u, 2r uo
For maximum optimum drift space length,
X= 1841
4. Putting the values of N and X in eq. (3.3.2)
1.841 = rLoß,V,
2ru,V,
3.682 u,V,
op,V,
where L, = Maximum optimum drift space length.
5 The fundamental component of RF beam current passing through the
output cavity gap induces a current in catcher cavity,
i,=i,ba ..(3.3.3)
where, p,= Beam coupling coefficient of catcher cavity gap.

6 When both buncher and catcher cavities are identical,
7. Then from eq. (3.3.1) and eq. (3.3.3),

i, =21, B,J,(X) cos (ot, -9.-0)
=1, B, cos (ot, -9.-0,)
(: Let I, =21,J, (X))
8. The corresponding RF voltage across the catcher cavity is
V,=V, cos (ot,-0, -0,-¢]
= P,1,Rah
where is phase angle between i, and V,.
9. The average power delivered tothe output cavity is
27
1
P c =Po= 2
V,dot,)
- B,, V,J, (X) cos ¢
10. Efficiency n of a two cavity klystron can be defined as the ratio of RF
output power to DC beam power,
n=
Pac_B V,J, (X) cos
Ppc 1,V,
11. The efficiency becomes maximum when
cos = 1, ¢=0°
X= 1.841
n=
0.582 B,V,
12. If coupling is perfect, B, = 1.
0.582 V,
n=
when, V,=Vo
may = 58.2%
Voltage gain : The voltage gain of a klystron amplifier is defined as :
A, = R,
V R
Que 3.4. A two cavity klystron amplifier has the following
specifications : Beam voltage = 900 V, Beam current = 30 mA,
frequency =8 GHZ, gap spacing in either cavity = lmm, spacing
3-8E (EC-Sem-7) Microwave Tubes
between centers of cavities = 4 cm and effective shunt

impedance =49 kQ. Determine
Eleetron velocity
ii. DCransit time of electron
ii. Input voltage for maximum output voltage
iv. Voltage gain in dB
Answer
Given : V =900V, =30 mA,f=8 GHz,d= l mm, L=4 cm, R., =49 k2
ToFind : Electron velocity, DC transit time of electron, Input voltage
for maximum output voltage, Voltage gain in dB.
i. Electron velocity,
V, = (0.593 x 109) /V,.
= (0.593 x 109) J900
= 17.79x 10° m/s
ii. DC transit time of electron,
L 4x 10-2
17.79 x 10
= 0,22484 x 10B sec
iii.
1. Gaptransit angle,
od 10
-2r (8 x10)x
17.79 x 10
0, = 2.825 rad
2 Beam coupling coefficient,
=D, = sin (0,/2)
0,/2
sin (80.93)
0.699
1.4126
3. DC transit angle,
0, = 0, = 2nx 8 x 10" x (0.22484 x 10 )
0, =11.30 x 10 =113 rad
4. For maximum output voltage, J, (r) =0.582 at X=l.841.
Thus, Imax
2V,x 2x 900x 1.841
= 41.95V
BO, 0.699 x 1l13
3-9E (EC-Sem-7)
5. Voltage gain, 49 x 10°
(0.699 x113 x 0.582 x
R, x1.841
A, = R, X
= 40 k2
Let us assume that, R
(0.699)x113 x 0.582 x 49 x 10 = 21.38
A, = 40 x10x1.841
log,, A., = 20 log,, (21.38)
iv. Voltage gain in dB = 20= 26.6 dB
PART-3
Reflex Klystron.
Questions-Answers
Medium Answer Type Questions

Long Answer Type and
the
of an appropriate diagram explain
Que 3.5. By means velocity of
klystron. Calculate the modulated when the
operation of a reflex enters the cavity at the instant
electron if the electron mm and
Assume cavity gap to be 2 value of
its negative peak.
RF. sigmal is at peak to peak
frequency of R.F. signal to be 9 GHz with
the
10mVand V, = 1000 V.
a
OR
diagramn of reflex klystron. Explain the action of
Write aschematic
importance to apple gate diagram.
the tube giving AKTU 2015-16, Marks 10
OR reflex
explain the working of
means of apple gate diagram
By AKTU2016-17, Marks 7.5
klystron.
Answer
A Reflex klystron : surrounded by
klystron consists of an electron gun, a filament
Reflex shown in
1.
and a focusing electrode at cathode potential as
cathode cavity.
Fig. 3.5.1. It consists of one Due tosingle
The operating frequency for klystron is less than 16 GHz.
2.
cavity the producedoscillation gives less amount of power.
-10 E (EC-Sem-7) Microwave Tubes
RF output
Focussing
plates
Repeller
Grids anode
Cathode
Cavity gap
Cavity
Fig. 3.5.1. Schematic diagram of reflex klystron.

3 As shown in Fig. 3.5.1, a high positive voltage is applied to the cavity. So
it is alsocalled as the cavity anode.
4 The cathode terminal is connected to the negative supply. It continuously
emits the electron.
5. The repeller anode is connected to the negative terminal of power supply.
So this anode repels the incoming electrons.
6 Electrons enter the repeller region in three ways:
With greater velocity when the gap voltage is positive.
With unchanged velocity when the gap voltage is zero.
With retarded velocity when the gap voltage is negative.
Increasing
negative Center of
voltagethe bunch/
RF field
e! Dri
time
3/4 cycle
Fig. 3.5.2. Applegate diagram of rellex klystron.

7 Allelectrons turned around by the repeller voltage then pass through
the cavity gap in bunches that occurs per cycle.
8. On their return journey, the bunched electrons pass through the gap
during retarding (negative) phase of the alternating field and give up
their kineticenergy to the electromagnetie energy of the field in the
cavity.
9. Oscillator output energy is then taken from the cavity. The electrons
are finally collected by the walls of the cavity or other grounded metal
partsof the tube.
B. Numerical :
Given : V, = 1000 V, f. = 9 GHz

To Find: Modulated velocity.
We have
V,= 0.593 x 10 /V.

= 0.593 x 10 J1000 = 18752306.52
= 18.75x 10® m/sec
PART-4
Magnetron.
Questions-Answers
Que 3.6. With a relevant diagram explain the working of &-cavity

cylindrical magnetron. Also give its performance characteristies
of magnetron.
Answer
A 8-Cavity cylindrical magnetron :
1 Hull invented the magnetron in 1921 for the urgent power need for
microwave generation in radar transmitters.
2 Mechanism of the generation of microwave in a magnetron involves
interaction of electromagnetic field with electron moving in static electric
and magnetic field oriented at right angle to each other.
3. The cavity magnetron is basically a diode having a cylindrical shape.
The cros-section of cavity magnetron is shown in Fig. 3.6.1. It has 8
cavities that are tightly coupled to each others.
4. In general, an N-cavity tightly coupled system will have N-modes of
operation. Each mode's phase of oscillation is relative to the adjacent
cavity.
5. The correct minimum phase shift should be 45° (45 x 8 = 360°). It
consists of cathode having cylindrical nature.
-12 E (EC-Sem-7) Microwave Tubes
6. The cathode is surrounded by different anodes. Each anode is having
a definite gap. In between the anode and cathode there is a space for
the interaction.
Output
Anode cavities
Cathode
Gap
Space for
interaction
Anode poles
Fig. 3.6.1. Cross-section of cavity magnetron.
7. The radial electric field is applied while the DC magnetic field is
perpendicular to structure. So the device is also called as a cross-coupled
device.
8 The output is taken from one of the cavities. The basic geometry and the
static field are shown in Fig. 3.6.2.
B (axial)
d
Cathode a E (radial)
Anode
Fig. 3.6.2. Magnetic and electric balanced fields.
9 The cathode emitsa number ofelectrons. Now the magnetic field exerts
a magnetic force on the electron. This force is given by,
F= Bev
where, B= Magnetic field strength.
e= Charge of electron.
U= Velocity of electron.
10. The magnetic field is axial and is perpendicular to both electricfield
and motion of electron.So electron follows the curved path.
11, The radius of curvature of the trajectory decreases as the magnetic
field is incre ased.
12. Above a certain value of magnetic field called the cut-off feld electrons
are returned to the cathode and the anode collects no current.
13. Amagnetron is operated with magnetic field higher than the cut-off
value.
B. Performance characteristics :
Its duty cycleis 0.1%.
iü. Its efficiency is 40 %to 70 %.
ii. It works at frequency 500 MHz to 124 GHz.
iv. Power output is 250 kW (pulsed mode), 10 mW (UHF band), 2 mW
(X band), and 8 kW (at 95 GHz).
Que 3.7. Derive the hullcut-off voltage equation in cylindrical

magnetron. Explain the frequency pulling and pushing effect.
AKTU2015-16, Marks 7.5
Answer
A Hull cut-off voltage equation :
1. The hull cut-off magnetic equation is given by,
m,
...(3.7.1)
B, = b(1-a' /b²)
where, B, = Magnetic flux density.
V, = DCvoltage applied between anode and cathode.
m, = Mass of electron.
q= Charge of electron.
a= Radius of cathode.
b= Radius measured from centre toedge of anode
2. When magnetic flux density is greater than the cut-off value of magnetic
flux density ie., B, >B,, then the electrons will not reach to the anode.
3 The cut-off voltage is obtained from eq. (3.7.1),
4. At cut-off condition
V, = V
Microwave Tubes
3-14 E (EC-Sem-7)
...(3.7.2)
then
8m,
5. Eq. (3.7.2) is called as Hull cut-off voltage equation.
B. Frequency pulling and pushing effect :
1 Similar to reflex klystron, it is possible to change the resonant frequency
anode voltage
of magnetron by changing the anode voltage. Change in
in a change in orbitalvelocity of electrons. anode
2. This alters the rate at which the energy is transferred to
resonators and results in change of oscillation of frequency.
in
3. Magnetron is also susceptible to frequency variation due tochangesload
regardless of whether these
load impedance. This take place
variations are purely resistive or reactive variations.
reactive
4. However, magnetron frequency variations are more severe for
variations.
5.
The frequency variations are known as frequency pulling caused by
load impedance variations selected into cavity resonators. To prevent
frequency pushing a stablised power supply is employed.
6. Frequency pushing is prevented by using a circulator which does not
allow backward flow of electromagnetic energy. It is placed before the
wave guide connection at the output of the magnetron.
Que 3.8. Why is magnetron called cross field device ? What is
meant by r-mode operation in magnetron containing eight cavity
resonators ? Describe how strapping separates the t-mode from
other possible modes. AKTU2016-17, Marks 7.5
Answer
1. In magnetron, the DC magnetic field and the DC electric filed are
perpendicular to each other that is why it is called as cross field device.
2 The separation of r-mode frequency from other modes commonly done
by the strapping method as shown in Fig. 3.8.1.
Anode
Straps
Fig. 3.8.1. Stapping method.

3 In this method two metallic rings are arranged with one ring connected
to the even numbered anode and the other to the odd numbered anode
poles.
4 Thus for r-mode each ring is at same potential and no r-mode current
flows in the straps and the straps inductance has no effect.
5 But the two rings having opposite potentials provide a capacitive loading
in parallel to the capacitance Cat each slot ofthe resonant cavities and
lower the frequency of r-mode.
6. For the other modes each ring experiences a phase difference between
the successive connection points and the resulting current flow gives
to an inductive field with reduced capacitance effect.
7. The inductance is in parallel with the slot thus raising the unwanted
mode frequency.
8. There fore, the strapping method increases the frequency separation
between the -mode and the higher adjacent modes.
PART-5
Travelling Wave Tube.
Questions-Answers
Que 3.9. What are slow wave structures ? Explain how a helical
TWT achieves amplifications ? AKTU 2015-16, Marks7.5

OR
Draw the schematic diagram of TWT amplifier and describe its
principle of operation. Give the propagation characteristics of
different waves generated in the amplifier.
AKTU 2017-18, Marks 10|
Answer
A. TWT:
1 The travelling wave tube (TWT) is also called as slow wave structure.
2. TWTs are broad band devices in which there are no cavity resonators.
In TWT the RF field and electron moves in the same direction. The RF
field is moving with the velocity of light while the electron velocity is
more than velocity of RF field by 10 %.
B. Construction of TWT:
1 The physical construction of a typical TWT along with the schematic
electrode arrangement is shown in Fig. 3.9.1.
2. It has an electron gun as used in klystrons, which is used to produce a
narrow constant velocity electron beam.
3. This electron beam is in turn passed through the centre of a long axial
helix.
4. Amagnetic focusing field is provided to prevent the beam from spreading
and to guide it through the center of the helix.
5. Helix is a loosely wound thin conducting helical wire, which acts as a
slow wave structure.
6 The signal to be amplified is applied to the end ofthe helix adjacent to
the electron gun.
7. The amplified signal appears at the output or other end of the helix
under appropriate operating conditions.
Gun Helix Output
Input
Attenuator Collector
Cathode
(a)
Input Output
Electron gun
Cathode Anode Collector
Helix
(b)
Fig. 3.9.1. (a) Physical construction of TWT

(b) Schematicelectrode arrangngement.
C. Operation :
1. When the applied RF signal propagates around the times of the helix,
it produces an electric field at the centre of the helix.
2. The RF field propagates with velocity of light. The axial electric field
due to RF signal travels with velocity of light multiplied by the ratio of
helix pitch to helix circumference.
Microwave and Radar Engineering 3-17E EC-Sem-7)
3. When the velocity of the electron beam travelling through the helix
approximates the rate of advance of the axial field,
V, =V, (Pitch/2r)
4. When the axial field is zero, electron where the axial field is positive
node, the electron coming against it is accelerated and tries to catch up
with the later electron which encounters the nodal RF axial field.
5. At a later point where the axial RF field is negative node, the electrons
referred before tend to overtake. The electrons get velocity modulated.
Que 3.10. A travelling wave tube has the following parameter :

V,=3 kV, I,= 10 mA, Frequency = 8.5 GHz, Circuit length N=42,
Z = 120 Q.
Determine:
i. The gain parameter.
ii Phase constant.
iii. The power gain.
Answer
Given : V,=3 kV, I, =10 mA,f= 8.5 GHz, N= 42,Z, = 120 2

To Find: Gain parameter, Phase constant, Power gain.
i. The gain parameter
1/3
C= |I, Z, 10 x 10x120
4V, 4x3x10
C= 0.0464
ii. The phase constant,

2. 2r
B, =
u'= 5.93x 10 V, = 5.93 x10' V3000
u'= 324.79 x 107 m/sec
2n x8.5x 10
B, =
324.79 x 10"
B. = 16.44 rad/m
iii. The power gain,
A, =-9.54 +47.3NC
=-9.54 + 47.3(42x 0.0464)
A, = 82.63 dB
PART-6
Backward Wave Oscillators : Their Schematic, Principle

of Operation, Performance Characteristic and their Applications.
Questions-Answers
Que 3.11. How many types of configuration of backward wave

oscillator ? Explain any one.
Answer
1. The backward wave oscillator has two types of configurations :
linear M-carcinotron and circular M-carcinotron.
Linear M-carcinotron oscillator :
1. This oscillator is an M-type backward wave oscillator. The interaction
between the electrons and the slow wave structure takes place in a
space of cross-field as shown in Fig. 3.11.1.
RF signal RF termination
output Slow-wave
Accelerator structure
Electron beam BO
Collector
Vso Sole
Cathode +
Vo Vco
Fig. 3.11.1.Linear model of an M-carcinotron oscillator.
3 The slow wave structure is in parallel with an electrode known as the

sole. ADC electric field is maintained between the grounded slow wave
structure and the negative sole.
4. A
DC magnetic field is directed into the page. The electrons emitted
from the cathode are bent through a 90° angle by the magnetic field.
5 The electrons interact with a backward wave space harmonic of the

circuit, and the energy in the circuit flows opposite to the direction of the
electron motion.
RF
6 The slow wave structure is terminated at the collector end and the
signal output is removed at the electron gun end.
7. The perturbed electrons moving in synchronism with the wave in a
linear M-carcinotron are shown in Fig. 3.11.2.
Circuit
A D E F G
Sole
M-Carcinotron.
Fig. 3.11.2. Beam electrons and electric field lines in an
8. Electrons at position A near the beginning of the circuit are moving
toward the circuit, whereas electrons at positionB are moving toward
the sole.
9 Farther down the circuit, electrons at position C are closer to the circuit,
and electrons at position D are closer to the sole.
greater distance from
10. However, electrons at position Chave departed a
the unperturbed path than have electrons at position D.
energy, this
11. Thus, the electrons have lost a net amount of potential
energy having been transferred to the RF field.
the electrons moving toward
12. The reason for the greater displacement ofstronger RF fields, since they
the circuit is that these electrons are in
are closer to the circuit.
unperturbed position
13. Electrons at position G have moved so far fromthethecircuit.
that some of them are being intercepted on
a half cycle of the
14. The length from position Athrough position G is
electron motion.
efficiency is very
15. Since the M-carcinotron is a crossed-field device, its
high, ranging from 30 to 60 %.
range up to about
16. The power output is 250 kW (pulsed) atarefrequency
used in instruments and
40 GHz. Backward wave oscillators
transmitters.
circular
Que 3.12. Explain the principle of operation of
M-carcinotron.
Answer
circular reentrant
1 The M-carcinotrons are generally constructed in the
form as shown in Fig. 3.12.1.
Collector
RF attenuator OGrid
Açcelerating
anode
Cathode
RF output
Slow-wave
structure
Sole
Electron beam
RF wave
Fig. 3.12.2. Schematic diagram of a circular M-Carcinotron.

2. The slow-wave structure and sole are circular and nearly reentrant to
conserve magnet weight.
3 The sole has the apperance of the cathode in a magnetron.
4. In the circular configurations, the delay line is terminated at the collector
end by spraying attenuating material on the surfaces of the conductors.
5 The output is taken from the gun end of the delay line which is an
interdigital line.
6 In this case, the electron drift velocity has to be in synchronism with a
backward-space harmonic.
Que 3.13.What are the performance characteristics of BWO ?Also

write its applications.
Answer
A Performance characteristics of BWO:
Frequency range :1GHz to 1000 GHZ
Power output :10 mW to 10 mW (CW)
20 W(at high frequencies)
250 kW (pulsed)with duty cycle < 1 sec.
Tuning range :up to about 40 GHz
B. Applications of BWO :
1 A BWO can be used as a source of signals in microwave instruments
and transmitting devices.
2. It can be used as a broad band source with noise with an application of
creating confusion to the enemy radar about its characteristics.
3 It can be used as noise less oscillator in the frequency range 3-9 GHz
with a desirable bandwidth.
4. It is used as a continuous-wave generator.

5. It is used to generate a wide range of frequencies.

|Following questions are very important. These questions
Q.1. What are the limitations of conventional active devices at

microwave frequencies ? Explain in detail.
Ans. Refer Q. 3.1.
Q. 2. With the help of functional diagram, explain the working
principle of two-cavity klystron amplifier. Calculate
optimum length of drift space, maximum efficiency, and
voltage gain.
Ans. Refer Q. 3.3.
Q.3. By means of an appropriate diagram explain the operation
of a reflex klystron. Calculate the modulated velocity of
electron if the electron enters the cavity at the instant when
the R.F. signal is at its negative peak. Assume cavity gap to
be 2 mmn and the frequency of R.F. signal to be 9 GHz with
peak to peak value of 10 mV and V, = 1000 V.
Ans. Refer Q. 3.5.
Q.4. Derive the hull cut-off voltage equation in eylindrical

magnetron. Explain the frequency pulling and pushing
effect.
Ans. Refer Q. 3.7.
Q.5. Why is magnetron called cross field device ? What is meant
by r-mode operation in magnetron containing eight cavity
resonators ? Deseribe how strapping separates the r-mode
from other possible modes.
Ans. Refer Q. 3.8.
Q.6. What are slow wave structures ? Explain how a helical

TWT achieves an1plifications ?
Ans. Refer Q. 3.9.
4 UNIT Microwave
Measurements
CONTENTS
Part-1 : Measurement of Insertion Loss..... 4-2E to 44E
Part-2 : Measurement of Frequency 4-4E to 4-7E
Part-3 : Measurement of Cavity Q 4-7E to 4-8E
Part-4: Measurement of. . 4-8E to 4-10E

Dielectric Constant
Part-5: Measurement of Scattering. 4-10E to 4-11E

Parameters
Part-6 : Measurement of Noise Factors ........4-11E to 4-12E
Part-7 : Measurement of Return Loss .......... 4-12E to 4-13E
Part-8: Measurement of Impedance .4-13E to 4-15E
Part-9 : VSWR Meter and Measurement ..... .4.16E to 4-18E
Part-10: High Power Measurement .4-18Eto 4-22E

Power Meters
Part-l1 : Microwave Amplifiers 4-22E to 4-23F
4-1E (EC-Sem-7)
4-2 E (EC-Sem-7) Microwave Measurement
PART-1
Measurement of Insertion Loss.
Questions-Answers
Que 4.1. Describe the salient features of microwave

measurements,
Answer
Salient features of microwave measurements :
1. At low frequency, it is convenient to measure voltage and current and
use them to calculate power.
2.
However at microwave frequencies, they are difficult to measure and
value in
since they vary with position in atransmission line, are of little
determining power. Therefore at microwave frequencies, it is more
desirable and simpler to measure power directly.
3.
which can be identified
At low frequency, circuits use lumped elementselements
and measured. At microwave frequencies circuit are distributed
makes up
and as such it is usually not important to know what element
a line.
of a circuit
4 It is possible and also satisfactory to measure the impedance
without regard to the individual distributed elements making up that
circuit.
at
5. Unlike low frequency measurements, many quantities measured
microwave frequencies are relative and it is not necessary to know their
absolute values.
to know the
6. Further for power measurement, it is usually sufficient
input
ratio of two powers (or their difference in dBs) rather than exact
or output powers.
microwave
7. The following parameters can be conveniently measured at
frequencies :
i. Frequency
Power
ii. Attenuation
iv. Voltage Standing Wave Ratio (VSWR)
V. Phase
vi. Impedance
vi. Insertion loss
viü. Dielectric constant
ix. Noise factor
Que 4.2. How Insertion and Attenuation loss of isolator are

measured ? Explain in detail.
OR
What doyou mean by insertion loss and attenuation ?
Discuss any
one method for measurement of attenuation using microwave test
bench. AKTU 2017-18, Marks 10
Answer
A. Attenuation loss :
1. The term attenuation is defined as the ratio in decibels, of either power
levelor voltage leve! between two points in a circuit.
2. When a device or reiwork is inserted in a waveguide, a part of input
signal power P, is reflected from input terminal and remaining part
P-P actuaily enters ihe network is attenuated due to non-zero loss of
the network.
3. Output signal pewer P, is therefore less than input signal power P,.
Attenuation loss (dB) = 10log P
P-P
B. Insertion loss:
1 Insertion los is defined as the difference in the power arriving at the
terminating loai with and without the network in the circuit.
Since P (P -P) P
P P
j*\p-p)
10 log
P
10 log P-P) + 10log P
P P P-P.
2. Insertion loss = Reflection loss + Attenuation loss
3. Insertion loss (dB) = 10 log P

P
44E (EC-Sem-7) Microwave Measurement
4. Reflection loss (dB) = 10 log = 10 log (1l- |T,D (where p is

P
reflection co-efficient)
Return loss (dB) = 10 log = 20 log |II

P
C. Measurement of Attenuation and Insertion loss :
1. For perfect matching P. = 0 the insertion loss and the attenuation loss
will be same.
VSWR meter
B A
Detector Detector
Isolator DC, DC, OUT Detector
1kHz square
wave modulated Wavemeter
microWave source
Fig. 4.2.1. Insertion loss and attenuation measurements.
2. Connecting matched load Z, to port Aand Cand VSWR meter to port B
without disturbing any other setup. The VSWR meter reading gives
the ratio P. /P, the return loss. The reflection loss 1 - (P, / P) is
calculated.
3. Now input attenuator is adjusted to give attenuation equal to the dB
coupling of bi-directional coupler.
4. Connecting matched load to port A and B and VSWR meter to port C
without disturbing any other setup. The VSWR meter gives the ratio
P, IP, the insertion loss.
5. Attenuation of the network can be determined by subtracting the dB
reflection loss from the dB insertion loss.
PART-2
Measurement of Frequency.
Questions-Answers

Que 4.3. What are various methods of measuring frequency ?

Discuss them in detail. AKTU 2015-16, 2017-18; Marks 10
Answer
A Measuring frequency using frequency counter :

1 The schematic for this method is shown in Fig. 4.3.1. Adirectional coupler
is placed between the frequency generator and the adjustable attenuator.
Frequency counter
Mixer Local oscillator
Adjustable attenuator
Generator Directional coupler Load
Fig. 4.3.1. Frequency measurement using frequency counter.

2. This directional coupler samples some of the input microwave signal
and passes to the adjustable attenuator.
3.
The adiustable attenuator is used to attenuate some of the microwave
signal, so that it reduces power passing to the frequency counter.
4. Then this frequency counter directly measures the frequency of
incoming signal.
5 In order toextend the range of frequency counter, the mixer and local
oscillator are used.
B. Beat Frequency Measurement Method:
1 The arrange ment for beat frequency measurement is shown in
Fig. 4.3.1, the sweep generator is used to sweep the horizontal input of
oscilloscope.
2 The adjustable attenuator after attenuating the signal gives to
wavemeter.
3 Wavemeter and harmonic generator passes the signal in mixer through

the directional coupler, the mixer gives the difference frequency out of
which one is eliminated by low pass filter.
4 This signal through detector used to control the horizontal input of
oscillator.
4-6E (EC-Sem-7) Microwave Measurement
CRO
Horizontal
Detector
Low pass filter
Mixer
Directional
coupler
Harmonic
generator
Sweep Adjustable Wavemeter

generator attenuator
Fig. 4.3.2. Beat frequency measurement.

5 Now on the oscilloscope the amplitude level corresponding to the
difference in sweep generator and harmonic frequency are obtained.
6 The amplitude change as frequency changes and becomes zero at zero
beat.
Que 4.4. Explain wavemeter method of frequency measurement.
Answer
1. A typical wavemeter is a cylindrical cavity with a variable short circuit
termination which changes the resonance frequency of the cavity by
changing the cavity length.
2. TEon mode is most suitable for wavemeter because of its higher Qand
absence of axial current. Since this is higher order mode, possibility of
generation of lower order modes exits.
3. Hence for practical purposes dominant TM,010 mode is used in
wavemeter applications.
4. Wavemeter axis is placed perpendicular to the board wall of the
waveguide and coupled by means of a hole in the narrow wall as
shown in Fig. 4.4.1.
5. This excites TMo, mode in the cavity due to the magnetic field coupling.
Ablock of absorbing material (Polytron) placed at the back of the
tuning plunger prevents oscillation on top of it.
6. Thus the cavity resonates at different frequencies for different plunger
positions.
7. The tuning can be calibrated in term of frequency by known frequency
input signals and observing the dip in the display unit (power meter)
connected at the output side of waveguide.
4-7E (EC-Sem-7)
Shorting plunger
b Waveguide Coupling
hole
Circular cavity
Fig. 4.4.1. Wavemeter meth od of frequency measurement.
PART-3
Measurement of Cavity Q.
Questions-Answers
Que 4.5. How did we measure of cavity of Q?
Answer
1. A difficult measurement at microwave fre quencies is the accurate
measurement of Q of a high Q cavity. This is due to the fact that the
3dB bandwidth of the cavity response curve is a very small fraction of
the resonance frequency.
2. Moreover, the cavity has to be loaded during such measurement andQ
becomes lower.
3 There are three definitions of Q'sconnected to the associated circuit.
i. Unloaded Q0:
Energy stored in the cavity
Energy lost per cycle in the cavity
1. Qo is selectivity factor of the cavity, dependent on the geometrical
portion of the cavity.
48E (EC-Sem-7) Microwave Measurement
ii. Loaded @:
, =2 Energy stored in the cavity
Energy lost per Energy lost per cycle
cycle in the cavity in the external system
1. , is the Qof the entire system, including all sources of energy loss.
2. Q, can be determined by the formula,
=fo lAf
where fo= Resonance frequency
Af= 3 dB bandwidth
iii. External Q, :
Qg is the Qof the external system.
Energy stored in the cavity
Energy lost per cycle in the external system
From above definition, /Q, =1/Q,+ l/Qp andthus Q<Qo
4 For an aperture coupled transmission type cavity, the input and output
coupling factors B, and B, are a measure of the extent to which the
power is coupled to the cavity and from the cavity, respectively , where
4
B,= 4S, -(S, + 1 Tð)
= 1(Critical coupling)
<1(Under coupling)
> 1(Over coupling)
B,=B, S,-1
5. Here S, = VSWR at the resonance frequency fo:
Tð) =PoutPin
Tð) =Transmission loss at the resonance frequency fo
6. Measurement of both the transmission loss Tð) and VSWR S, at
resonance gives the data needed for calculating ß, and B, and determined
Qo
PART-4
Measurement of Dielectric Constant.
Questions-Answers

Que 4.6. Define dielectric constant of a solid. What are the
methods for measuring dielectric constant ? Explain any one.

Answer
A. Dielectric constant :
1. The dielectric constant &, is defined by the permittivity &of the material
with respect of that &, of air or free space.
¬, = [/Eg En = (10-9/36r) farad/m
B. Method : There are two methods available for dielectric constant
measurement.
Cavity pertubation method
ii. Waveguide method :
1 In this method, it is assumed that the material is lossless.
2. Adielectric sample AB completely fills a length of the waveguide and
end is terminated in a short as shown in Fig. 4.6.1.
C B A
Zo Po Z, Be
Z/S
Method
g/2
B A'
C
Fig. 4.6.1. Waveguide method.

3. Let
...(4.6.1)
l,= AB = Dielectric sample length
=BC ..(4.6.2)
4 Then the distance of Vmin from short circuit = l, + l, = AC. For a

dielectric filled guide of characteristic impedance Z,, input impedance
at B is purely reactive,
...(4.6.3)
Z= jZe tan B,
where B, is the propagation constant.
5 Using this Z,,' as termination at B, input impedance at Cfor the empty
guide is
Z, + j Z, tan PÍ 'o = 0, at V:min point .(4.6.4)
Dine Z, +jZ, tan B, ,
6. Therefore,
Zi+j tan Bo= 0 ...(4.6.5)
or,
jZ, tan B,+jZ, tan P,= 0 ...(4.6.6)

Or,
Z,tan Po =-Z, tan B, ...(4.6.7)

7. Assuming non-magnetic dielectric in the waveguide
...(4.6.8)
Z,
Or
...(4.6.9)
8 Substituting the value of Z, in eq. (4.6.7)
tan Po=-2, tan p ...(4.6.10)

Po
Or,
4 tan P, ,tan p, ...(4.6.11)
B..
or,
4 tan Y tan X
-;where X= Bl,, Y= Poo'
,Y X
or, (tan X)/X=-a ..(4.6.12)
9 The eq. (4.6.12) can be solved for determining X= Bl. Now
2
2r
B, = A= 2a ...(4.6.13)
where a is the waveguide broadwall dimension.

10. Since B, is known, &, can be determined from eq. (4.6.13). This equation
has infinite number of solution for [,.
PART-S
Measurement of Scattering Parameters.
Questions-Answers

Mierowave and Radar Wngineering 4-11E (EC-Sem-7)
Que 4.7. How to measure the S-parameters of amagic-tee ?
Anawer
S-parameters of anagie-tee :
The S-parameters ofa matched magic-tee can be determined using the
Deachamyp'a nnethod by measuring the reflection coefficients at different
porta under specific termination ofother ports.
Measurement of S,,:'The diagonal elements are determined from the
nlotted line measurement of the VSWR S, at the corresponding port
with all other ports matched terminated.
...(4.7.1)
IS,l - (S,-1M8, +1)
b. Measurement of S,,(i j):To measure S,g, ports 3and 4are match
terminated and port 2is terminated in a short circuit plunger when the
input is fed at port 1.
PART-6
Measurement of Noise Factors.
Quostions-Answers
Que 4.8. Definenoise factor. How did we measure of noise factor ?
Answer
1. Noise factor is defined as the ratio ofthe actual output noise power of
the deviceto the noise power that would be available if thedevice were
perfect (without contributing any noise).
2. Noise factor is expressed in decibels.
(Input signal to noise ratio) ...(4.8.1)
F= 10 lo810 (Output signal to noise ratio)
3 Noise-figure meters can be used to measure the noise factor (or noise
figure). The set-up for noise factor measurement is shown in
Fig. 4.8. 1I.
Noise Device Power

Pad under test
NOUrco meter
Fig. 4.8.1. Set-up for noise-factor measurement.

Microwave Measurement
4-12 E (EC-Sem-7)
tube) has a constant output
standard noise source (argon discharge
A
bandwidth. Such a noise source is used in
4
and can operate over a large
the set-up.
Initially,the noise output from the device under test is noted connecting
5. room temperature.
its input to a matched termination at
a standard noise source
6 Then the input of the device is connected to
along with a variable attenuator.
noise output of the device
7. The variable attenuator is adjusted until the
is doubled.
is then equal to that of the
8 The noise factor (noise figure) of the device
noise output from the attenuator.
erroneous noise
9. However, the nonlinearity of the detector results inattenuator in the
dB
figure values which can be avoided by using a 3
detector and adjusting it to read the same output.
PART-7
Measurement of Return Loss.
Questions-Answers
How reflectometer is used to measure the return

loss
Que 4.9.
and VSWR of a load ?
Answer
1
The return loss and VSWR of a load can be determined by measuring
the magnitude of the reflection coefficient with a reflectometer.
2 Let us assume that directional couplers have infinite directivity, a voltage
coupling coefficient C, main line VSWRland the detectors have constant
impedance to the line.
3. When unit input amplitude is fed to port 1, voltages at port 4 and 2 are
b, = C
b, =(1-C)2
4 Incident voltage at port 2 is reflected by the load under test.
5. IfT, is the reflection coefficient, the reflected wave amplitude at port 2
is
,= (1- C)C|r,|
Microwave and Radar Bngincering 4-10E EC-Mem 7)
6. This willbe coupled to port 3to produce avoltage of
Then
|b,10,1-0-e-K|!)
-0 b, -0
www ww.
Input Lond
Te
Fig. 4.9.1. Retleetometer.
7 Ifcoupling is extremely Nmall, Le., C<< 1, K~ 1,
Therefore, lb,1b,1- |
8. Thus knowing the voltage ratio between port 3and 4, reflection
coeflicient and hence vsWR and return loun cn be deternined from
the following relations.
VsWR,
Return tesa 20 log|L,

PART-8
Meanurement of Impedance.
Questions-Answers
Long Answ Type and Medium Anawer Type Questions
Que 4.10. How to mensure impedance by reflectometer ?Explain

with diagram.
Answer
1. The reflectometer arrangement is ahown in l'ir. 4. 10.1. It cannot have
idesl conditions of infinite directivity,constant impodance detectors
and perfect impedanee matehing
2 To measure unknown impedance Z, it in connected to the output port,
the ratio of the aignal amplitudes at porta 3 nnd 4 in given by,
AT, +B ...(4.10.1)
Cr, +D
where, A, B, C, D, are functions of the S-parameters of the four ports
formed by the reflectometer.
3 Fig. 4.10.1 consists of two tuners T, and Tp, a mnovable short, and a
sliding load of lowVSWR(< 1.02) is used to match above ideal conditions.
4. Tuner T, is adjusted to make |b,/b,| constant while the phase ofT, is
varied by changing the position of sliding load at port 4. This makes
B=0.
5. The tuner T, is adjusted to make |b/b,|constant as the phase of T is
varied by changing the position of a sliding short at port 4, then
C=0, therefore from eq. (4.10.1),
or,
6. Kis determined by noting |bJb,| using a fixed short ofknown reflection

coefficient of - 1 at port 4. Now magnitude of reflection coefficient of
any load at port 2 can be determined.
Movable To VSWR
Detector
short meter
DC, short
Fixed
or
load
XI
1
Modulating Tuner Tuner
microwave
Source DC, T DC
Fig. 4.10.1. Reflectometer with tuners for amplitude
and phase measurements.
7 For phase measurement, four identical directional coupler reflectometers

can be used. The procedure for phase measurement is as follows :
Afixed short is placed at XX plane of the waveguide section at port 2.
The movable short at port 4 and the attenuator are adjusted to obtain
null in the detector output at port 3.
ii Fixed short at 2 is replaced by the test load and shift X of the movable
short at port 4 are measured to obtain null in the detector output at
port 3.
The phase of T, is given by,

4-15 E (EC-Sem-7)
2T Ax
T,=K ; where, =
and 1-I,
1+>,
Que 4.11. DiscusS method to measure impedance of load. Indicate
the use of smith chart in this measurement.
|AKTU2018-19, Marks 07
Answer
IfVSWR and voltage minimum position is given, then the smith chart
in Fig. 4.11.1 gives a very simplified method of solution for load
impedance in the following manner :
1. Draw a VSWR circle S with centre at O(1 +j).
2 When the line is shorted, the first voltage minimum occurs at the place
of the load. This minimum shifts towards the generator by an amount
dnia when the line is loaded. The impedance at voltage minimum is
pure resistance of magnitude /S.This corresponds to a point Eon the
left half of the real axis.
3 Move above distance dmni from the minimum point Ealong the periphery
toward the load and locate this position on the periphery as F.
4 Join O and F and find the intersection point G between the line OF and
the VSWR circle.
5 Point G represents the normalised load impedance.
generator 0.5
Towards
ardTTos low ad
l0.0E 0.5
|G
o1.0 0.5
dni
.0
Fig. 4.11.1. Determination of impedance

of lossless line using smith chart.
4-16 E (EC-Sem-7)
PART-9
VSWR Meter and Measurement.
Questions-Answers
Discuss the salient features of microwave

Que 4.12.
measurements. Describe a voltage standing wave ratio (VSWR)
meter.
Answer
A. Salient features of microwave measurements : Refer Q. 4.1,
Page 4-2E,Unit-4.
B. VSWR meter:
tuned
1. It is sensitive, high gain, high Q, low noise voltage amplifier
normally at a fixed frequency of 1 kHz at which the microwave signal is
modulated.
2. The input of the VSWR meter is the detected signal output of the
microwave detector and the output of the amplifier is measured with a
square law wave calibrated voltmeter.
3
This voltmeter directly gives the VSWR readingVmVnifor an input
of Vmin after the meter is adjusted to unity VSWRto
for an input
adjust the reading
corresponding toV Again control can be used
to desired value.
4. There are mainly three scales on VSWR meter.
The normal SWR scale can be used when VSWR is between land 4.
The bottom of normal SWR scale can be used when the VSWR is between
3and 10.
ii. The expanded SWR scale can be used when the VSWR is less than 1.3.
Que 4.13. Explain the method of measuring VSWR < 10.
Answer
1. Values of VSWR not exceeding 10 are very easily measured with the set
up shown in Fig. 4.13.1 and can be read off directly on the VSWR meter.
Crystal DC milli
detector voltmeter
w Slotted
Source
Pad Load
line
Fig. 4.13.1.
2. The measurement basically consists of simply adjusting the attenuator
to give an adequate reading on the meter, which is aDC milli voltmeter.
3 The probe on the slotted waveguide is moved toget maximum reading
on the meter (corresponding to Vmax
4 The attenuation is now adjusted to get full scale reading. This full scale
reading is noted down.
5. Next the probe on the slotted line is adjusted to get minimum reading
on the meter (corresponding to V, ). The ratio of first reading to the
second (i.e., VJV.igives the VSWR.
Que 4.14. Explain Double Minima Method' for VSWR
measurement.
Answer
1 Double minimum method is used for measurement of VSWR> 20 (High
VSWR). Double minimum method as shown in Fig. 4.14.1 is used where
measurements are carried out at two positions around a voltage minimum
point. Voltage
Twice minimum power points
V, =\2Vmin
min
d, d
Distance (cms)
Fig. 4.14.1.
2 In this method, the probe is inserted to a depth where the
be read without difficulty. The probe is then moved to a minimum can
point where the
power is twice the minimum.
3 Let this position is denoted by d,. The probe is then moved to twice the
power point on the other side of minimum, this position is denoted by d,.
P min V
1 min
2
or, V = 2 V2
or, V,= V2 Vin
4. Further for TE, mode,
,= 2a
,= c/f
J1-(a,/a,F
5 Then VSWR can be calculated using the empirical relation,
SO VSWR =
nld, - d,)
PART- 10
High Power Measurement : Power Meters.
Questions-Answers
Que 4.15. What is power meter ? Explain high power measurement

using calorimetric method.
Answer
A. Power meter:
1 Microwave power meters are based on the conversion of into thermal
energy.
2. They employ sensing devices called bolometers and proces the output of
bolometer to represent the power level on a calibrated scale.
B. Calorimetric Method :
1 Calorimetric method for high power measurement involves conversion
of the microwave energy into heat,absorbing this heat in a fluid (water)
and then measuring temperature rise of the fluid as shown in
Fig. 4.15.1.
Flow meter Outlet temperature

Water Inlet temperature
out
Microwave
power point Pump
Waveguide
Glass tube for
water flow Water in
Fig. 4.15.1. Microwave calorimeter.

C. Types :
i Direct heating method : In direct heating method, the rate of
production of heat can be measured by observing the rise in the
temperature of the dissipating medium.
ii. Indirect heating method: In indirect heating method, the heating is
transferred to another medium before measurement.
2. In both methods (direct and indirect method) static calorimeter and
circulating calorimeter are used.
a. Static Calorimeters :
1. It consists of a 50 2 co-axial line cable which is filled by a dielectric load
with a high hysteresis loss.
2. The load has sufficient thermal isolation from its surrounding. The
microwave power is dissipated in the load. The averagepower input is
given by,
P=
4.187 mC, T watts
t
where, m = Mass of thermometric medium in grams
T= Temperature risein °C
t= Time in seconds
C, = Specific heat in cal/gms
b. Circulating Calorimeters :
1 In this, the calorimeter fluid is constantly flowing through a water load.
The heat introduced into the fluid makes exit temperature higher than
the input temperature.
2. Here average power,
P=4.187 vdC,T watts
where, v= Rate of flow of calorimeter fluid in cc/second
d= Specific gravity of thefluid in gm/cc
4-20 E (EC-Sem-7)
Que 4.16. Write a short note on bolometer.
Answer
power
1. Bolometer is a temperature sensitive device. When microwave
falls on it, the temperature of bolometer gets changed.
in resistance
2. This will change the corresponding resistance. This change
is proportional to the input mierowave power.
3. They are of two types :
i Barretter
Thermistor.
used. This is shown in
Por such purpose the balanced bridge circuit isarm of the bridge circuit.
Fig. 4.16. 1. Here bolometer is connected in one
2.
The optimum resistance of bolometer is 120
resistors of bridge
5. When the microwave power is not present then the means the bridge
this
are selected in such a way that the output is zero,
is balanced. So the meter M, shows zeroreading.
absorbed by bolometer,
6 Now, when microwave power is present, it will be is unbalanced.
bridge
soits resistance gets changed because now the
It gives the direct
7 The meter M,is connected at the output arm of bridge.
indication of microwave power.
Vc
(M
Bolometer
Fig. 4.16.1.
Que 4.17. Discuss thermistor in brief.
Answer
1. It is a type of bolometer sensor.

2 Thermistor is a semiconductor sensor which can be easily mounted in

microwave lines as shown in Fig. 4.17.1 due to its smaller and more
compact size.
3.The sensitivity level of thermistor is limited to about 20 dBm.
4 The thermistor mount provide good impedance match, low loss, good
isolation from thermal and physical shock and good shielding against
energy leakage.
Cover glass Thermistor
Lead Lead
1/4"
Fig.4.17.1. Thermistor mount.
Que 4.18. Explain :

i. Thermocouple detector.
ii. Bolometer mount technique.
iii. Calorimeter wattmeter technique.
iv. Slotted line carriage and its importance in uW test bench.
Answer
i. Thermocouple detector:
1. Athermocouple is ajunction of two dissimilar metals or semiconductors
(n-type silicon).
2. It generates EMF when two ends are heated up differently by
absorption of microwaves in a thin film tantalum-nitride resistive load
deposited on a Si substrate which forms one electrode of the
thermocouple as shown in Fig. 4. 18.1.
3 This EMF (generated) is proportional to the incident microwave power
to be measured.
4. Here C, is the RF bypass capacitor and C, is the input coupling capacitor
or DC block. The EMF generated in the parallel thermocouples is added
to appear across C:
5 The output leads going to the DC voltmeter are at RF ground so that
the output meter reads pure DC voltage proportional to the input
microwave power.
6 The peak power for a square wave modulated microwave signal, can
be calculated from the average power measured as
PxT
a
Ppeak =
where, T= Time period, t = Pulse width
Thin film Cold

resistor n-Si
Hot
Hot
n-Si
RF input Thin film resistor
Cold To DC voltmeter
Fig. 4.18.1. Thermocouple power sensor.
i. Bolometer Technique: Refer Q. 4.16, Page 4-20E, Unit-4.

iii. High Power Measurement (Using calorimetric watt meters) :
Refer Q. 4.15, Page 4-18E, Unit-4.
iv. Slotted line carriage :
1 Aslotted line carriage contains a co-axial E-ield probe which penetrates
inside a rectangular waveguide slotted section or a co-axial slotted line
section from the outer wall and is able to traverse a longitudinal narrow
slot.
2. The slot is cut along the centre of the waveguide broad wall or along
the outer conductor of theco-axial line overa length of2-3 wavelengths
where the electric current on the wall does not have any transverse
component.
3 The slot should be narrow enough to avoid distortion. The both ends of
slot are tapered to zero width. The probe is made to move longitudinally
at a small depth to achieve uniform coupling between electric field
inside the line.
4 This unit primarily used for the determination of location of voltage
standing wave maxima and minima along the line.
5. The probe carriage contains a stub tunable co-axial probe detector to
obtain a low frequency modulating signal output to a scope or VSWR
meter.
PART-11
Microwave Amplifiers.
Questions-Answers

Que 4.19. Explain mierowave amplifier with its types.

Answer
A Microwave amplifier:
1 Amicrowave amplifier is adevice for enhancing the output power signal
of a microwave device, usually by increasing the amplitude or height of
the wave that directly relates to its power level.
2. This is accomplished by channeling additional input power to the
microwave device so that its microwave radiation carries more energy.
3. They are used for a variety of purposes from broadband communications
to radar systems and electronie warfare by the military.
B. Different types of microwave amplifier :
i. Gyrotron :
1 The Gyrotron is a microwave amplifier that operates at the higher level
of frequencies in the radio spectrum.
2 It is used for specialized applications such as in uplink towers to orbiting
spacecraft and satellites or for planetary radar transmitter systems.
ii. Crossed-Field Amplifier (CFA):
1 The Crossed-Field Amplifier or Amplitron is another type of broadband
microwave amplifier that has properties similar to a magnetron, which
makes it a useful device for nuclear accelerators.
2 Though the Amplitron can boost efficiency ratings for microwave

equipment to around 70 %, it is usually used as an intermediate signal
anplifier in equipment.
iii. Klystron :
1 The Klystron is a sort of hybrid among amplification tools like the
Gyrotron and Amplitron.
2. It is a microwave amplifier that can produce both low power and high
power carrier wave signals, and is used both in telecommunications
systems and particle accelerator research.
5
UNIT
Introduction to
Radar Systems
CONTENTS
Part-1 : Radar Block Diagram .5-2E to 5-3E
Part-2: Radar Range Equation ...

.5-3E to 5-5E
Part-3: Probability of Detection of ....

5-5E to 5-7E
False Alarm
Part-4: Integration of Radar Pulses. ................. .5-7E to 5-8E
Part-5 : Radar Cross Section of Targets. .............

5-8E to 5-9E
Part-6: MTI Radar .5-9E to 5-11E
Part-7: CW Radar .5-11E to 5-13E
5-1 E (EC-Sem-7)
5-2 E (EC-Sem-7) Introduction to Radar Systems
PART- 1
Radar Block Diagram.
Questions-Answers
Que 5.1. Explain the block diagram of radar.

OR
With the help of schematic block diagram, explain radar transceiver
system.
Answer
A. Block diagram of radar :
1 The block diagram of radar is shown in Fig. 5.1.1. In the block diagram
the radar signal is produced at low power by a waveform generator,
which is the input of power amplifier which act as a transmitter.
Pulse
imodulatorj
Antenna
Power Waveform
Duplexer amplifier generator
RF pulse IF pulse Video pulse
|Low-noise |2D detector

Video
RF Mixer
IF
MatchedH Threshold!
Jamplifier decision
amplifier amplifier flter demodulator
Output
Local
oscillator
Fig. 5.1.1. Block diagram of a radar.
5 3E(EC-Sem-7)
and off by a pulse
2. When a power oscillator is used, it is also turned on
modulator to generate a pulse waveform.
a waveguide
3. The output of the transmitter is delivered to the antenna by
or transmission line.
B. Radar transceiver system :
i. Duplexer:
1. It allowsa single antenna to be used for both transmitting and receiving.
input
2. It is generally a gaseous device that produces a short circuit at the
to the receiver when the transmitter is operating, so that high power
flows to the antenna and not to the receiver.
3. On reception, the duplexer directs the echo signal to the receiver and
not to the transmitter.
ii. Receiver:
1. It is always superheterodyne. The input or RF stage can be a low noise
transistor amplifier.
2.
The mixer or local oscillator (LO)convert the RF signal to an intermediate
frequency (IF) where it is amplified by the IF amplifier.
3. The IF amplifier is designed as a matched filter, which maximizes the
output peak signal to mean noise ratio.
4. Thus, the matched filter maximizes the detectability of weak echo signals
and attenuated unwanted signals.
iii. 2D detector or demodulator :
1 Its purpose is to assist in extracting the signal modulation from the
carrier.
2 The combination of IF amplifier, second detector and video amplifier
acts as an envelope detector to pass the pulse modulation and reject the
carrier frequency.
3. At the output of the receiver a decision is made whether a target is
present or not.
4. The decision is based on the magnitude of the receiver output.
5. If the output is larger than the threshold level then target is present. If
it does not cross the threshold, noise is present.
PART-2
Radar Range Equation.

54E (EC-Sem-7) Introduction to Radar Systems
Questions-Answers
Que 5.2. Derive radar range equation.
Answer
1 If the transmitter power P, is radiated by an isotropic antenna, the
power density is given as :
P
Power density at range R from an isotropicantenna = 4rR2
2 The gain of an antenna is a measure of the increased power density
radiated in some direction as compared to the power density that would
appear in that direction from an isotropic antenna.
3 The maximum gain is defined as :
G= Maximum power density radiated by a directive antenna/power
density radiated by a lossless isotropic antenna with the same power
input.
4 The power density at the target from a directive antenna with a
transmitting gain Gis then given by :
PG
Power density = 4nR2
5 The radar cross-section of the target determines the power density
returned to the radar for a particular power density incident on the
target. It is denoted by o.
Reradiated power density back at the radar = PG

4TR2 4rR?
6 The radar captures a portion of the echo energy incident on it. The
power received by the radar is given as the product of incident power
density times the effective area A.
7. The effective area is related to the physical area and is given as:
A,=P, A
where, p, = antenna aperture efficiency.
7. The received signal power is then given as :
PG x A, = PGA,G
P,= 4nR? 4nR? (4n)R4
8 The maximum range of a radar (R)
max is the distance beyond which
target cannot be detected. It occurs when S_, =P, then by rearranging

terms, it is given as
1/4
Rmax PGA,G
\(4n'Smin
This is the fundamental form of radar range equation.
9 If in case we use the same antenna for both transmitting and receiving,
then the relation between the transmit gain Gand the receive effective
area A,is given as:
G=
4rA, 4Tp,A
)V4
R.
max
(4n) Smin
1/4
Rmax PA;G
4n 1Smin
Que 5.3.A radar is operating at 10 GHz with the peak power of
500 kW. The power gain of antenna is 5000 and minimum power of
the receiver is 10-14, Calculate the maximum range of radar. The
effective area of antenna is 10 m² and radar cross-section is 4 m².
Answer
Given :P. =500kW, G = 5000, S. = 10-4, A, = 10 m², G= 4 m?

To Find : Maximum Range.
1. Operating frequency = 10 GHz
2. By using equation for radar range,
1/4
R_max =
41 Smin
1/4
(500 x 10 x 5000 x 10 x 4))
Rmax =
(4n' x 1014)
1/4
((10 x 10 × 104))
R =
max
(157.75)
R = (0.06339 >x 1024)V4 = 282167.93 m
max
R
max
= 282.167 km
PART-3
Probability of Detection of False Alarm.
Questions-Answers
Que 5.4. Derive expression for probability of false-alarm.

Distinguish it from probability of miss.
Answer
1. The noise at the input to the IF flter can be deseribed by the Gaussian
probability function which is given as
1 (-2)
Pu) = exp
J2rvo 2yo
where, Pv) du is the probability of finding the Loise voltage between v
and v + duand y, is the mean square value of the noise voltage.
2. When the Gaussian noise is passed through the IF ilter, the probability
density function (PDF) is given in aform of Rayleigh PDF:
PR) =
R
exp (-R?)
Vo 2y0
3. When the noise voltage will exceed the threshold voltage V,, then the
probability is evaluated from V, to o or
P(V,<R< o) =
R -R²
exp| Zyo. JR =exp -v
Vo 2/o
4 This is the probability of false-alarm since it represents the probability
that noise will cross the threshold and be called a target when only noise
is present. Thus,
P,= exp 2yo

5. The false-alarm time T, is defined as the average time between crossings
of the decision threshold when noise alone is present, and is given by
N
1
=Nlim N ) T,
K =1
7. The false alarm probability is the ratio of the time the envelope is above
the threshold to the total time.
N
1
P.= K =1
4=<i >au TB
8. The average of T, is the false-alarm time, T.fu
1
exp
V
B
9. When the number of cognitive radios increases, the miss probability
becomes smaller for any given false-alarm probability.
10. This implies that the false-alarm probability cannot be sufficiently small
due to the bound. The false-alarm wallresults from the reporting error
probability (P), which characterizes the error probability whun the
sensing result is transmitted from one cognitive radio to the common
receiver over an imperfect result.
PART-4
Integration of Radar Pulses.
Questions-Answers
Que 5.5. What do you mean by integration of radar pulses ?

Answer
1. The number of pulses that returned from a point target by a scanning
radar having pulse repetition rate of f Hz, an antenna beamwidth 8,
degrees and scans at a rate of 0, degrees per second is
n =
60,
where, o, = Revolutions per minute
2. The number of pulses received n is usually called hits per scan or pulses
per scan.
3. It is the number of pulses within the one way beamwidth 0,.

4 The process of summing all the radar echoes available from a target is
called integration.
5. Following techniques are use to provide integration of pulses:
58E (EC-Sem-7) Introduction to Radar Systems
i Integration that is performed in a radar receiver before the second
detector is called coherent integration. It requires the phase of theecho
signal pulses to be known. It can be expressed as the signal to noise ratio
for the n-pulses
(SIN), = (S/nN),
Integration that is performed after the second detector is called as non
coherent integration. In this, the second detector converts some signal
energy into noisy energy in the rectification process. The value of signal
to noise ratio can be expressed as
(S/N)
E(n) = n(S/ N),
6 There is also a term called the integration improvement factor through
which the improvement in signal to noise ratio when n pulses are
transmitted can be done. It is given by
I(n) = n E, (n)
PART-5
Radar Cross Section of Targets.
Questions-Answers
Que 5.6. Define radar cross-section. Describe briefly some of the

factors governing the relation between the radar cross-section of a
target and its true cross-section.
Answer
1 The radar cross-section o is the property of a scattering object, or target
torepresent the magnitude of the echo signalreturned to the radar by
hitting to the target.
P,G
2. The reradiated power density back at the radar = 4rR' X
4nR?
3 It measures the target's reflection of signals in the direction of the
receiving antenna.
4 Adefinition of radar cross-section on electromagnetic scattering is given
as
Power reflected toward source / unit solid angle

Incident power density / 4n
G= 4rR²|E,|2
where, R is the range to the target.
Eis the electric field strength incident of the echo signal back at the
radar.
5 The radar cross-section is said to be an area that intercepts a part of the
power incident at the target which is uniformly scattered in all directions,
produces an echo power which is equal to the real target at radar.
6. Radar croZs-section depends on the dimensions of the object compared
tothe radar wavelength.
7. When the wavelength is large compared to the objects dimension
scattering is to be in the Rayleigh region.
8 When the wavelength is small compared to the objects dimension,
scattering is in the optical region.
9 In between these two regions there is a region where radar wavelength
is comparable to the objects dimension known as resonance region.
10. The factors that govern the relation between radar cross-section of a
target and its true cross-section are :
i Reflectivity of the target at polarisation of radar's receiver antenna.
Antenna like a gain of the target.
PART-6
MTI Radar.
Questions-Answers
Que 5.7. Explain MTI radar with suitable block diagram. Also
give its applications.
Answer
A MTI radar:
1 The block diagram of MTIradar is shown in Fig. 5.7.1. Here the MTI
radar is employing a power amplifier as the transmitter.
Introduction to Radar Systems
5-10 E (EC-Sem-7)
Pulse modulator
f, +f, Power
Duplexer amplifier
Mixer Stalo i, Mixer
IF amplifier Coho Iç
Phase detector Reference signal
fa
T
delay line canceler
Fig. 5.7.1. Block diagram of an MTI radar.
receiver is
2. In this, the local oscillator of MTIradar's superheterodyne
more stable than the local oscillator.
the local oscillator of an MTI
3. To recognize the need for high stability oscillator. The IF
receiver is called the stalo, which stands for stable local
amplifier is designed as a matched filter.
which is
4 Instead of an amplitude detector, there is a phase detector
the received
following the IF stage. It is a mixer like device that combines
produce the
signal (at IF) and the reference signal from the echo to
difference between the received signal and the reference signal
frequencies. This is the Doppler frequency.
it is a
5. The name coho stands for coherent oscillator to signify that
reference signal that has the phase of the transmitter signal.
6
The sum of the stalo and coho signals as the input signal to the power
amplifier gives the coherency.
7 The transmitter frequency is the sum of the stalo frequency f, and coho
frequency ).
The combination of the stalo and coho is called the receiver exciter
8.
portion of the MTI radar.
9 The power amplifier is a good transmitter for MTI radar since it has high
stability and is capable ofhigh power.
10. The pulse modulator turns the amplifier on and off to generate radar
pulse.
B. Applications of MTI Radar :
1 It is used for both land-based and airborne MTI applications.
5-11 E EC-Sem-7)
side-looking
It has been used to detect moving ground vehicles with a
airborne radar.
PART-7
CW Radar.
Questions-Answers
Que 5.8. Draw the block diagram and explain the operation of
CW radar using zero intermediate frequency in the receiver.
Answer
A CW radar:
1. ACW radar simply works on the principle of the Doppler frequency shift
todetect the moving targets.
much
2. The weak CW echo sugal would not be detected in presence of
stronger signal without the Doppler shift.
3. ACW radar transmits while it receives. Filtering is done to separate
the
weak echo signal from the strong transmitter signal.
CW
transmitter
EchoTransmitter
signal leakage
| Detector (mixer) Doppler flterf
(a
Response
Frequency
(b)
Fig.5.8.1. (a) Simple CW radar block diagram and
(b) Filter characteristic.
i. Transmitter :
which is
1. It generates a continuous sinusoidal oscillation at frequency f.
then radiated by the antenna. The transmitted signal is shifted by Doppler
effect i.e., +fr
2. The plus sign indicates when the distance between radar and target is
decreasing, which implies that the echo signal has a larger frequency
than that was transmitted.
3 The minus sign indicates when the distance is increasing. From the
Doppler frequency shift the received echo signal has afrequency different
from that was transmitted.
i. Detector: The detector or mixer multiplies the echo signal at a frequency
f,+f, with the transmitter leakage signal f,
B. Doppler filter:
1. It allows the difference frequency from the detector to pass and rejects
the higher frequencies.
Tx antenna
CW
Transmitter
Local
Transmitter Oscillator
Mixer
Rx antenna
IF Detector
Receiver
Amplifier
mixer
f
Doppler
filter
Display
Fig. 5.8.2. CW Doppler radar with IF amplification.

2. The filter characteristicis shown in Fig. 5.8.1 (b).
3. It has lower frequency cut-off to remove from the receiver output, the
transmitter leakage signal and clutter echoes.
4. The Doppler filter passes the signals with a Doppler frequency f:
5 When CW radar operates in low frequency range then noise generated
in crystal detectors or in the vacuum tubes is called as flicker noise.
6. To eliminate this noise in the superheterodyne receiver, IF (Intermediate

frequency) amplifier is used.
7. CW radar is capable for accurate measurements of relative velocities
using low transmitting power, simple circuitry, low power consumption
and smallequipment size.

Following questions are very important. These questions
Q.1. Derive radar range equation.

Ans. Refer Q. 5.2.
Q.2. Derive expression for probability of false-alarm. Distinguish

it from probability of miss.
Ans. Refer Q. 5.4.
Q.3. What do you mean by integration of radar pulses ?

Ans. Refer Q. 5.5.
Q.4. Define radar cross-section. Describe briefly some of the

factors governing the relation between the radar cross
section of a target and its true cross-section.
Ane. Refer Q. 5.6.
Q.5. Draw the block diagram and explain the operation of CW

radar using zero intermediate frequency in the receiver.
Ans. Refer Q. 5.8.

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1 UNIT

Part-2 : Reflection and Transmission 1-4E to 1-6E

Part-3 : Standing Wave, 1-6E to 1-7E

Part-4: Line Impedance and .1-7E to 1-9E

Part-5 : Introduction to Strip Lines 1-9E to 1-10E

Part-6 : Microstrip Transmission Line (TL) . . .1.-10E to 1-13E

Part-8: Circular Waveguides :. 1-23E to 1-29E

Part-9 : Wave Velocities 1-29E to 1-31E

Part-10 : Waveguide Cavities 1-31E to 1-34E

Transmission Line Equations and Solutions.

Que 1.1. Derive transmission line equations.

2. Change in voltage for PQ

=(R +joL) (G +joC)V

= (G+joC) (R +joL)I ...(1.1.6)

Que 1.2. What are characteristic and input impedances ?

Z,= V/l, = R+ joL

Given :R=6km, L=2.2 mh/km, C= 0.005 uF/km, G=0.05 umho/km

Long Answer Type and Medium Answer Type Questions

Que 1.4. What are reflection and transmission coefficients ?

Due to the presence of a reflected wave, the voltage reflection coefficient

T= Transmitted voltage or current V,

2. Fig. 1.4.1 shows the transmission of power along a transmission line

Fig. 1.4.1. Power transmission on a line.

Standing Wave, Standing Wave Ratio.

1+|r, le-2ad a0 ...(1.5.1)

or, S= 1+||. a=0 ...(1.5.2)

Que 1.6.A 60 ohm lossless line connects a signal of 100 kHz to a

Line Impedance and Admittance.

Que 1.7. Derive the expression for line impedance of a

Fig. 1.7.1. Diagram of a transmission line showing notations.

V,- Z, +Z,) ..(1.7.6)

V,= 2,-2,) ...(1.7.7)

Z= 2, (2, +Z,)e* +(Z, - Z,e

Que 1.8. Discuss line admittance in brief.

Then the normalized admitance can be written

Introduction to Strip Lines.

Long Answer Type and Medium Answer Type Questions

Que 1.9. Write a short note on strip lines.

2. cross-sectional view of strip line is shown in Fig. 1.9.1(a). It consists of

Que 1.10. Write short note on microstrip

< Ground plane

Que 1.11. Explain characteristie impedance of microstripline. Also

where, ¬ = 0.475 ¬, + 0.67 ...(1.11.2)

(a) Embedded microstrip (b)Inverted microstrip;

(c) Suspended microstrip (d) Slotted microstrip

Que 1.12. A microstrip line is made of a copper conduetor

Given :h = 0.20 mm, &, = 4.8,f= 10 GHz, t= 0.035 mm

E, +l + ,-1+ 12h /W)/2 + 0.04 (1- W/h]

27.3 27.3 = 16.99x 105

Quality factor, Q, =4780 h \fcH)

Waveguide : Rectangular Waveguide - Field Components

Que 1.13. What do you mean by rectangular waveguide ? Give the

Fig. 1.13.1. Rectangular co-ordinate system.

where, t= Jjon (o+ joe)

6. By method of separation of variables, the solution is assumed in the

8. Dividing both sides of eq. (1.13.8) by (XY), we get

Y= A sin (kx) +Bcos (k,r)l[C sin (k,y)

oH, oH, = joe E, ...(1.14.6)

7. For TE mode, substitute =-B,and B, =0 in eq. (1.14.3), eq. (1.14.4),

+ip, H,= joeE, ...(1.14.12)