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CONTENTS
PART I - CLINICAL CASES
1. HISTORY TAKING AND SYMPTOMATOLOGY
2. GENER AL EXAMINATION
1. Built 10 11. Skin and its Appendages 27
2. Body Proportions 14 12. Vertebral Column 31
3. Nutrition 14 13. Thickened nerves 32
4. Decubitus 15 14. Joints 32
5. Clubbing 15 15. Temperature 36
6. Cyanosis 16 16. Pulse 39
7. Jaundice 19 17. Jugular Venous Pulse (JVP) 43
8. Pallor 22 18. Blood pressure 46
9. Lymphadenopathy 23 19. Hypertension 48
10. Edema 25 20. Hypotension 53
3.ABDOMEN
4. RESPIRATORY SYSTEM
1. Proforma 122 10. Chronic Obstructive Pulmonary Disease
2. Examination 124 (COPD) (Emphysema and Chronic
Bronchitis) 168
3. Pleural Effusion 135
11. Pneumonia 172
4. Collapse / Atelectasis of Lung 143
12. Bronchiectasis 175
5. Pulmonary Fibrosis /
Interstitial Lung Diseases 145 13. Lung Abscess 178
5. CARDIOVASCULAR SYSTEM
1. Proforma 188 12. Cyanotic Congenital Heart Disease 243
2. Examination 189 13. Patent Ductus Arteriosis (PDA) 250
3. Rheumatic fever 203 14. Ventricular Septa! Defect (VSD) 252
4. Infective Endocarditis 205 15. Atrial Septa! Defect (ASD) 253
5. Ischemic Heart Disease 208 16. Coarctation of Aorta 255
6. Cardiac Failure 220 17. Aneurysm of Aorta 257
7. Mitra! Stenosis (MS) 225 18. Pericardia! Effusion 259
8. Mitral Regurgitation (MR) 232 19. Cardiomyopathy 260
9. Mitra! Valve Prolapse (MVP) 236 20. Fitness for surgery
10. Aortic Regurgitation (AR) 237 (Pre-operative Evaluation) 263
PART II-TABLE-WORK
7. MEDICAL EMERGENCIES
1. Cardiac Arrest 374 28. Acute Retention of Urine 395
2. Cardiac Failure 377 29. Acute Renal Failure (ARP) 395
3. Ischemic Heart Disease 377 30. Diabetic Ketoacidosis 396
4. Stokes Adams Syndrome 377 31. Hypoglycemia 397
5. Hypertensive Crisis 377 32. Respiratory Acidosis 398
6. Hypertensive Encephalopathy 378 33. Metabolic Acidosis 399
7. Shock 379 34. Respiratory Alkalosis 399
8. Anaphylactic Shock 380 35. Metabolic Alkalosis 399
9. Pulmonary Embolism and 36. Dehydration 400
Deep Vein Thrombosis 380 37. Hypernatremia 400
10. Hemoptysis 382 38. Hyponatremia 400
11. Bronchial Asthma 383 39. Hyperkalemia 401
12. Respiratory Failure 385 40. Hypokalemia 401
13. Tension Pneumothorax 386 41. Acute Hypercalcemia 401
14. Hematemesis 387 42. Amebic Dysentery 401
15. Acute Gastroenteritis / Food poisoning 388 43. Bacillary Dysentery 402
16. Acute Pancreatitis 389 44. Cholera 402
17. Hepatic Coma 389 45. Typhoid 403
18. Coma 390 46. Dengue 403
19. Meningitis 390 47. Leptospirosis 404
20. Cerebrovascular Diseases 391 48. Diphtheria 405
21. Subarachnoid Hemorrhage 391 49. Tetanus 405
22. Epilepsy 391 50. Rabies 406
23. Sickle Cell Crisis 393 51. Cerebral Malaria 406
24. Acute Hemolytic Crisis 393 52. Acute Poisonings 406
25. Aplastic Anemia 394 53. Organophosphorous Compound
26. Hemophilia 394 Poisoning 407
27. Renal Colic 394 54. Acute Alcoholic Intoxication 408
55. Barbiturate Poisoning 408 59. Snake Bite 410
56. Acute Salicylate Poisoning 409 60. Scorpion Bite 411
57. Carbon Monoxide Poisoning 409 61. Hyperpyrexia 413
58. Carbon Dioxide Narcosis 410 62. Drowning 413
8. ELECTROCARDIOGRAPHY
1. Introduction 415 6. Rhythm Disturbances 422
2. Normal ECG 415 7. Conduction Defects Atrioventricular
3. Waves and Complexes 416 Block (AV Block) 429
4. Myocardial Infarction 421 8. Effect of Drugs and Electrolytes 430
5. Ventricular Enlargement 421
9. RADIOLOGY
1. X-ray chest 432 5. Barium studies 443
2. X-ray Chest - Heart 437 6. X-ray of Bones 447
3. Plain X-ray Abdomen 438 7. X-ray Skull 452
4. Urogenital System 440
10. INSTRUMENTS
1. Endotracheal Tube 455 20. Urosac Bag 465
2. Tracheostomy Tube 456 21. Stomach Tube 466
3. Laryngoscope 457 22. Ryle's Tube (RT) or Nasogastric Tube 466
4. Oxygen Mask and Oxygen Cannula 23. Sengstaken Blakemore Tube (S.B. Tube) 467
(Nasal Prongs) 458 24. Infant Feeding Tube 468
5. Nebulizer Chamber 458 25. Record Syringe and Needle 469
6. Metered Dose Inhaler 458 26. B.D. Syringe and Needle 469
7. Spacehaler 459 27. Tuberculin Syringe 470
8. Rotahaler 459 28. Insulin Syringe 470
9. Nelson's Inhaler 459 29. Lumbar Puncture Needle 471
10. Ambu Bag (Self-inflating Ventillation Bag) 460 30. Cisternal Puncture Needle 471
11. Airway 460 31. Vim-Silverman's Needle 471
12. Mouth Gag 461 32. Menghini's Needle and Syringe 471
13. Tongue Depressor 462 33. Bone Marrow Aspiration Needle 471
14. Trocar and Cannula 462 34. Pleural Biopsy Needle 472
15. Asepto Syringe and Bulb 462 35. Trucut Needle 472
16. Simple Rubber Catheter 462 36. Southey's Tube and Needle 472
17. Foley's Self-retaining Catheter 463 37. Tourniquet 472
18. Malecot's Catheter 465 38. Venesection Needle 473
19. Condom Catheter 465 39. Scalp Vein Needle 473
40. Pleural or Ascitic Aspiration Needle 473 44. Clinical Thermometer 475
41. Intravenous Cannulas 45. Flatus Tube 476
(Venflow or Angiocath) 473 46. Proctoscope 476
42. Three Way 474 47. Stethoscope 477
43. I.V. Set 474 48. Central Venous Catheter 477
11. PROCEDURES
1. Transvenous Pacing 479 11. Ascitic Tapping 490
2. Cardioversion 479 12. Gastric Analysis 491
3. Lumbar Puncture 480 13. Glucose Tolerance Test (G.T.T.) 492
4. Cisternal Puncture 484 14. Intravenous Therapy 493
5. Liver Biopsy 484 15. Subcutaneous Infusions 495
6. Kidney Biopsy 486 16. Tracheostomy 495
7. Bone- marrow Aspiration 487 17. Oxygen Therapy 496
8. Pleural Fluid Aspiration 488 18. Enema 497
9. Aspiration ofPneumothorax Cavity 489 19. Parenteral Hyperalimentation 499
10. Pericardia! Aspiration 490
12. HEMATOLOGY
1. Blood Collection 501 11. Electronic Cell Counters 514
2. Preparation ofBlood 502 12. Red Cell Indices 514
3. Hemoglobin Estimation 505 13. Red Cell Morphology 515
4. Packed Cell Volume (PCV ) 507 14. Anemias 517
5. Erythrocyte Sedimentation Rate (E.S.R.) 507 15. Differential Leucocyte Count 522
6. Reticulocyte Count 509 16. Leukemias 525
7. Osmotic Fragility ofRBCs 510 17. Parasites in Blood 525
8. Total Red Cell Count 510 18. Multiple Myeloma 526
9. Total White Cell Count 511 19. Coagulation studies 526
10. Platelet Count 513 20. Normal Hematological Values 613
L_
15. DRUGS
1. Cardiovascular Drugs 557 5. Antibacterial Agents 585
a) Inotropic Drugs 557 a) Sulfonamides 585
b) Anti-arrhythmic Drugs 558 b) Quinolones 586
c) Anti-angina! Agents 560 c) Beta-lactams 586
d) Anti-hypertensive Agents 561 d) Macrolides 588
e) Anti-thrombotic Agents 566 e) Aminoglycosides 589
e) Heparins/Aprotinin 566 f) Tetracyclines 589
f) Diuretics 567 g) Chloramphenicol 590
2. Autonomic Nervous System 568 6. Anti-tuberculous Drugs 590
a) Catecholamines 568 7. Anti-leprosy Drugs 591
b) Cholinergic and Anti-cholinergic Agents 569
8. Anti-amoebic Drugs 592
3. Drugs in Respiratory Diseases 570
9. Drugs for Kala- azar 593
a) Anti-asthma Agents 570
b) Agents for Cough and Expectoration 572 10. Anti-malarial Drugs 593
c) Anti-allergic Drugs 572 11. Anti-helminthic Agents 594
d) Serotoninergic Agents 573 12. Anti-fungal Agents 597
4. Drugs in Central Nervous System 13. Anti-viral Agents 598
Diseases 573
a) Opioids 573 14. Anti-retroviral Agents for HIV Infection 599
b) Analgesics and Anti-inflammatory Drugs 574 15. Alcohol 601
c) Drugs in Migraine 576 16. Anti-malignancy Agents 601
d) Drugs in Gout and Arthritis 576
17. Hemopoietic Drugs 603
e) Anti-epileptic Drugs 577
f) Muscles Relaxants 579 18. Chelating Agents 604
g) Anti-psychotic Drugs 579 19. Drugs in Endocrine Disorders 605
h) Sedatives / Hypnotics 580 20. Drugs for Diabetes 607
i) Anti-depressants 582
21. Lipid Lowering Agents 608
j) Anti-parkinsonism Drugs 583
k) Drugs in Stroke 584 22. Gastro-intestinal Drugs 609
I) Drugs in Degenerative Brain Disorders 584 23. Electrolytes 611
25. Plasma Expanders 612
Dr. Hardik Shah Dr. Sunita Iyer Dr. Nikesh Jain Dr. Rajiv Shah
H
istory taking is an art, which a doctor learns with their time ofoccurrence, duration and results
over the years by repeated practice and ex should be noted. Childhood illnesses (eruptive
perience. History is the record of medical fevers, per tussis, influenza), tuberculosis,
events that have already taken place in the patient. diabetes, hyp ertesnion, asthma, heart disease,
Since every disease has a pattern of behavior, a good jaundice, joint swelling, etc. must be inquired into.
history combined with a sound knowledge of medicine Past injuries, accidents, operations or hospital
would help the doctor to judge the likely cause(s) that stay and blood transfusion history must also be
may be responsible for the patient's problems. In over noted in details.
80% cases the most likely diagnosis can be reached 5. Personal history: Patient's appetite, food habits,
by a proper history. On clinical examination, the type of diet, bowel and micturition habits, sleep
clinical state of the patient is determined at that given and addictions like alcohol, smoking, tobacco
time. However, nothing is usually known of the past chewing, charas, ganja, marijuana etc., must
problems. Hence, without an appropriate history, an be inquired into. Loss of appetite and weight
incorrect interpretation of the physical findings may may suggest an active disease process. Similarly
be made. E.g. a person has brisk reflexes and extensor improper sleep due to other symptoms would
plantar: a recent history of transient ischemic attack suggest that those symptoms require urgent
would suggest recent stroke, whereas an old history attention. Alcohol, tobacco, smoking and other
of stroke a few years ago would suggest residual effect intoxicants can adversely affect many systems
of a past stroke. in the body and the role of these substances in
A good history must record the following information the patient's problems can be easily judged by
in a systematic order. the history. E.g. alcohol may be responsible for
1. Biodataofthe patient: This should include name, liver cell failure and cirrhosis as well as acute
age, sex, address, occupation, religion and marital gastritis. Heavy smoking may be responsible
status of the person. for precipitating coronary artery disease or
hypertension in the young.
2. Complaintsofthepresentillness: The complaints
with which the patient has come should be 6. Family history: Any illness in the family must
recorded in chronological order and the duration be recorded. The state of health of parents, peers
should be noted. and children should be noted. If any member is
deceased, the cause of death should be noted.
3. Origin, duration and progress: Details of each
Some genetically transmitted diseases are:
symptom must be recorded separately. The mode
of onset, whether sudden or gradual, the duration a. X-linked recessive diseases (e.g. Duchenne
of each symptom and its progress and finally the muscular dystrophy, hemophilia, G6PD
present status of the symptom must be noted. deficiency, ichthyosis). Women are carriers
Associated symptoms must also be inquired into and do not suffer from the disease, whereas
and recorded. males suffer from the disease. Hence, in such
illnesses, the family history would suggest
4. History of past illness: Similar illness in the past
similar illnesses in the patient's brothers,
PRACTICAL MEDICINE
3 > Anorexia
in the parents since they may be heterozygous
and hence only carriers. However, history
of consanguineous marriage in the parents 1. Viral hepatitis including anicteric hepatitis
(marriage between cousins or brother and
2. Tuberculosis
sister or uncle and niece) may be present and
may be responsible for the homozygous state 3. Carcinoma of stomach and other malignancies
in the patient and thus the manifestation of 4. Endocrine diseases: Addison's disease,
the disease. panhypopituitarism
7. Menstrual and obstetric history: In females, 5. Chronic wasting diseases: Uremia, cirrhosis of
the date of onset of menstruation, date of last liver, chronic alcoholism, chronic smoking etc.
menstruation and the amount of blood flow, 6. Drugs: Digitalis, quinine, metronidazole, etc.
regularity and pain during menstruation should
be noted. In a woman who has conceived, details
of past abortions, premature births and normal 4 Fever
or abnormal deliveries should be noted.
(Refer Pg. 36: Temperature)
Some of the common symptoms which the patients
present with and their causes are given below:
5 > Chest Pain
1
- -
Weight
- Loss 1. Cardiac: Ischemic heart disease, pericarditis,
1. Caloric malnutrition: Fasting, inappropriate diet infective endocarditis, cardiomyopathy, valvular
heart disease, dissecting aneurysm of aorta, etc.
2. Infections (chronic): Infective endocarditis,
tuberculosis, amebic liver abscess, fungal 2. Respiratory: Pleurisy, pneumothorax, pulmonary
infections, H.I.V. infection, etc. embolism, pulmonary hypertension, malignancy
3. Acute infections: Viral hepatitis, typhoid, 3. Musculoskeletal: Rib fracture, vertebral collapse,
septicemia costochondritis, myositis of pectoral muscle, etc.
4. Malignancy 4. Functional
5. Malabsorption syndrome 5. Miscellaneous: Herpes zoster of intercostal
6. Endocrine diseases: Diabetes m ellitus, nerves, esophagitis, pancreatitis, peptic ulcer,
thyrotoxicosis, panhyp opituitarism, Addison's cholecystitis, splenic flexure syndrome, etc.
disease, etc.
7. Anorexia nervosa
2
( 1 > History Taking and Symptomatology
9 > Palpitations
2. Respiratory: Airway obstruction, bronchial
asthma, chronic obstructive lung disease,
pulmonary infections, pulmonary edema, 1. Physiological: Exercise, emotional or sexual
pulmonary embolism, bronchogenic carcinoma, excitement, etc.
pleural effusion, pneumothorax, etc.
2. Excessive tea, coffee, tobacco, alcohol
3. Cardiac: Acute myocardial infarction, valvular consumption
heart disease, left ventricular failure, congenital
3. Anxiety state
cyanotic heart disease, etc.
4. High output state: Anemia, beriberi,
4. Metabolic: Diabetes, uremia, hypokalemia
thyrotoxicosis, A-V fistula, Paget's disease, etc.
5. Neurological: Respiratory center depression as
5. Cardiac arrhythmia: Extrasystoles, paroxysmal
in syringobulbia, motor neuron disease, Guillain
tachycardia, atrial fibrillation, heart block, etc.
Barre syndrome, bulbar polio, myasthenia gravis
6. Drugs: Sympathomimetic agents, nitrates,
6. Psychogenic
overdose of digoxin or insulin
(For ATS Dyspnea Scale: Refer pg. 125)
7. M i s ce l l a n e o u s : P h e o c h r o m o c y to m a ,
(For NYHA Classification: Refer pg. 211) hypoglycemia, etc.
7>Coug�
-
h �-
- - -
� 1 O > si_n_co__.p_e___
1. Respiratory: 1. Vasovagal syncope
a. Laryngeal and pharyngeal infections and 2. Postural hypotension
neoplasms
3. Cardiac arrhythmia: Stokes Adam's syndrome
b. Tracheobronchial: Tracheobronchitis, bronchial
4. Stenotic lesions of the heart: Aortic stenosis,
asthma, bronchiectasis, bronchogenic
hypertrophic subaortic stenosis, pulmonary and
carcinoma, pressure over the trachea and
mitral stenosis, Fallot's tetrad, ball valve thrombus
bronchus from outside, aspiration, etc.
in left atrium.
c. Lung: Pneumonia, tuberculosis, lung abscess,
5. Cerebrovascular insufficiency: Vertebrobasilar
tropical eosinophilia, pulmonary edema and
insufficiency, carotid sinus syncope, etc.
infarction, interstitial fibrosis, etc.
6. Miscellaneous: Massive myocardial infarction,
d. Pleural: Pleural effusion, pneumothorax, etc.
pericardial tamponade, left atrial myxoma,
2. Cardiac: Left ventricular failure, mitral stenosis, micturition syncope, cough syncope, internal
aneurysm of aorta, etc. bleeding, etc.
3. Mediastinum: Enlarged lymph nodes, mediastinal
11 > Poli�u.:...:
tumors, etc.
4. Psychogenic ri-=- a____ _
_
5. Reflex: Wax or foreign body in the ear, subphrenic 1. Transient: Excessive water drinking, diuretic
or liver abscess, etc. therapy, cold weather, stress
2. Persistent:
a. Diabetes mellitus
3
PRACTICAL MEDICINE
13 > Frequency of
stones, tumors, tuberculosis, interstitial
nephritis, papillary necrosis, polycystic
Micturition and kidneys, etc.
Nocturia 2. Ureteric: Trauma, tuberculosis, stones, neoplasms
3. Bladder: Trauma, tuberculosis, stones, neoplasms,
1. Bladder: Cystitis, small contracted bladder,
cystitis, following cyclo-phosphamide therapy
tumors, vesicular calculus, cystocele
4. Urethral: Trauma, stones, foreign body, urethritis
2. Bladder neck: Incomplete evacuation due
to enlarged prostate or stricture of urethra, 5. Prostatic: Prostitis, neoplasms
incompetent internal urethral sphincter, ectopic 6. Systemic diseases: Diabetes, amyloidosis,
ureter collagen disease, DIC, etc.
3. Urethra: Urethritis, neoplasms, balanitis, stricture
17 > Anuria
of urethra, pinhole meatus, phimosis
4. Miscellaneous: Polyuria, psychogenic, pregnancy,
pressure from surrounding structures 1. Renal: Glomerulonephritis, pyelonephritis,
polycystic kidney, chronic renal failure,
23 > Eructation
or ovary.
8. Metabolic: Diabetes, uremia, porphyria, lead
poisoning, Henoch Schonlein purpura 1. Faulty dietary habits: Aerated water, chewing
9. Neurogenic: Herpes zoster, tabes dorsalis, etc. gum, mouth breathing, etc.
10. Functional 2. Addiction: Smoking, alcohol, betel nut, pan, etc.
3. Gastrointestinal: Gas tritis, peptic ulcer,
20 > Dysphag ia
hiatus hernia, cholecystitis, stones, irritable bowel
syndrome
1. Esophageal: Inflammation, webs, strictures, 4. Psychogenic: Anxiety, depression, etc.
tumors, achalasia cardia, spasm, hiatus hernia,
5
PRACTICAL MEDICINE
29 > Diarrhea
disease, motion sickness, radiation, etc.
4. Metabolic: Diabetes, alcohol, pregnancy,
hypercalcemia, Addison's disease 1. Osmotic: Laxative abuse, maldigestion of food
5. Toxic: Febrile illnesses (viral hepatitis), cholera, 2. Infections: Typhoid, cholera, amebiasis,
drugs (salicylates), corrosive poisons giardiasis, helminthiasis, H.I.V. infection, etc.
6. Functional 3 Endocrine diseases: Thyrotoxicosis, diabetes,
Addison's disease, etc.
26 > Hematemesis
4. Drugs: Thyroxine, prostigmin, ampicillin,
_ phenolphthalein, etc.
5. Anxiety: Irritable bowel syndrome, etc.
(Refer Pg. 387)
6. Miscellaneous: Malignant carcinoid syndrome.
27 > Consti
30 > Bleeding Per Rectum
1. Acute:
1. Anal: Fissure, fistula, foreign body, etc.
a. In t e s t i n a l o b s t r u c t i o n : Vo l v u! u s ,
intussusception, hernia, etc. 2. Rectal: Piles, proctitis, foreign body, neoplasms
3. Colonic: Bacillary and amebic dysenter y,
b. Acute abdomen: Appendicitis, salpingitis,
ulcerative colitis, carcinoma, polyps, diverticula,
perforation, colic, etc.
ischemia, irritant drugs, etc.
c. General: Septicemia
4. Hematological: Blood dyscrasias, anti-coagulant
2. Chronic: therapy, uremia, etc.
a. Faulty habits: Laxative abuse, prolonged travel,
> Jaundice
insufficient dietary roughage, etc.
b. Painful anal conditions: Piles, fissures, etc. 31
c. Organic obstruction: Carcinoma, diverticulum, (Refer Pg. 19)
strictures, etc.
32 > Epistaxi_s_
d. Adynamic bowel: Scleroderma, myopathies,
myotonia, etc.
e. Metabolic: Hypothyroidism, hypokalemia, 1. Hematological:
hypercalcemia, porphyria, lead poisoning a. Thrombocytopenia: ITP, leukemia, aplastic
f. Drugs: Atropine group, opium group, tricyclic anemia, etc.
antidepressants, coffee, etc.
6
( 1 ) History Taking and Symptomatology
35 Itching_
a. Infective fevers: Typhoid, malaria, measles,
viral infections, etc.
b. Hypertension 1. Skin disease: Scabies, candidiasis, psonas1s,
c. High altitude urticaria, pediculosis, allergic dermatitis, dry skin
d. Collagen disease: Pseudoxanthoma elasticum, 2. Systemic diseases:
Ehlers' Danlos syndrome, etc. a. Drug reaction
b. Senile purpura
33 > Bleeding'---
Gums
-
- -------
c. Infections: Enterobius vermicularis, hook
worm, tinea infections, hydatid cyst, etc.
1. Hematological: d. Endocr ine diseases: Diabetes mellitus,
a. Thromboc ytopenia: Leukemias, aplastic hyp othyroidism, hepatic diseases, obstructive
anemia, ITP, etc. jaundice, primary biliary cirrhosis, etc.
b. Qualitative platelet defect: Glanzmann's e. Renal diseases: Chronic renal failure, etc.
thrombasthenia, von Willebrand's disease, f. Blood diseases: Polycythemia vera, malignancy,
giant platelet syndrome, etc. Hodgkin's disease, myeloma, etc.
c. Coagulation disorders: Hemophilia, Christmas 3. Pregnancy
disease, vitamin K deficiency, afibrinogenemia,
36 > Hirsutism
anticoagulants, etc.
d. Miscellaneous: Hypersplenism, vitamin
B 12 deficiency, disseminated intravascular I. With virilization: Arrhenoblastoma, malignant
coagulation, etc.
adrenal tumors, congenital adrenal hyp erplasia,
2. Gum diseases: Gingivitis, periodontitis, herpes, testicular tumors, etc.
Vincent's infection
3. Systemic disease:
a. Scurvy
b. Drugs: Phenytoin therapy
c. Diabetes mellitus, Cushing's syndrome
d. Pregnancy
e. Henoch-Schonlein purpura
f. Connective tissue disease: Ehlers' Danlos
syndrome, etc.
7
PRACTICAL MEDICINE
37 > _&�necomastia_
8. Referred pain: Pancreatitis, retroperitoneal
tumors, cholecystitis, diverticulitis, retroverted
1. Physiological: During infancy and at puberty uterus, uterine prolapse, etc.
2. Refeeding: Recovery from wasting diseases 9. Spinal deformities: Kyphosis, scoliosis and
3. Testicular: Agenesis, orchitis, tumour, Klinefelter's lordosis
syndrome, etc.
4. Endocrine: Acromegaly, adrenal tumors, ectopic
hormone production, etc.
39 > Hiccoug<.:_h_____
5. Drugs: Digitalis, spironolactone, phenothiazine, 1. Metabolic: Uremia, diabetes
metoclopramide, cimetidine, etc. 2. Toxemia: Septicemia, high fever
6. Miscellaneous: Cirrhosis of liver, rheumatoid 3. Abdominal: Liver abscess, peritonitis, subphrenic
arthritis, leprosy, etc. abscess, etc.
4. Thoracic: Aortic aneurysm, mediastinal glands,
substernal goitre, etc.
5. Neurological: Encephalitis, meningitis, brain
tumour, etc.
6. Psychogenic: Hysterical, neurosis
7. Epidemic hiccoughs
40 > Headache
1. Intracranial:
a. Meningeal: Meningitis
b. Vascular: Intracranial aneurysm, malignant
hyp ertension, subarachnoid hemorrhage
c. Skeletal: Metastasis, Paget's disease, etc.
d. Space occupying lesion: Subdural hematoma,
tumors, granulomas, abscess
38 > Backache 2.
e. Post lumbar puncture
Extracranial
1. Physiological: Faulty posture, asthenic a. Vascular: Migraine, cluster headache, temporal
individuals, pregnancy arteritis, etc.
2. Trauma: Prolapsed intervertebral disc, b. Skeletal: Paget's disease, torticollis, etc.
lumbosacral strain
8
( 1 ) History Taking and Symptomatology
44 > Intermittent
a. External ear: Wax, polyp, foreign body, etc.
b. Middle ear inflammation
c. Internal ear: Meniere's disease, labyrinthitis,
Claudication
acoustic neuroma 1. Arterial: Atheroma, embolism, Buerger's disease
2. Systemic: Migraine, barotrauma, anemia, aortic 2. Systemic: Diabetes mellitus, syp hilis, anemia,
regurgitation, salicylates, quinine, etc. McArdle's disease, overexertion
43 > Cram�s
tube blockage
- --- ------ 5. Miscellaneous: Migraine, aura of epilepsy,
1. Idiopathic anemia, hypotension, head injury, etc.
2. Elect rolyte distur bances: Hyponatremia,
hyp ocalcemia, hypomagnesemia
For details refer to P.J. Mehta's "Common Medical Symptoms" 6th Edition, 2013
9
T
he general examination of the patient must 4. Metabolic: Marfan's syndrome, homocystinuria
be done systematically, noting the following: 5. Miscellaneous: Cerebral gigantism, etc.
Differential Diagnosis
1. Built 11. Skin, hair and nails
1. Constitutional: Usually in constitutional tall
2. Body proportions 12. Vertebral column
stature the parents are also tall. In all children
3. Nutrition 13. Thickened nerves whose parents or grand parents are also tall, a
4. Decubitus 14. Joints suspicion of a pathological disorder must be
5. Clubbing 15. Temperature raised. The child is otherwise normal. In boys
usually no treatment is required. In girls long
6. Cyanosis 16. Pulse
term estrogen could be used to suppress further
7. Jaundice 17. Jugular venous growth. However, because of its side-effects,
8. Pallor pulse & pressure usually it is avoided unless the predicted adult
9. Lymphadenopathy 18. Blood pressure height is more than 183 ems.
10. Edema 19. Respiration 2. Gigantism (Acromegaly!Hyperpituitarism): In
gigantism the patient is very tall but with normal
body proportions. However, the features are
1 > Built coarse with increased heel pad thickness. There
may be evidence of raised intracranial tension
Built is the skeletal structure in relation to age and and bitemporal hemianopia. Pituitary tumors
sex of the individual as compared to a normal person. need surgery.
Tall Stature 3. CerebralGigantism(Soto'ssyndrome): Children
with cerebral gigantism have a large elongated
A child is considered to be tall when the height is head, prominent forehead, large ears and jaws,
greater than 2 standard deviations above the mean elongated chin, antimongoloid slant to the eyes
for the age. Gigantism is the term applied when the and coarse facial features. They have subnormal
patient's height is greatly in excess of the normal for intelligence and impaired coordination. The cause
his age before fusion of epiphysis. There is no fixed is not known.
height to constitute a giant, but in adults, it is applied 4. Sexual Precocity and virilizing disorders: In
for individuals with a height of more than 6� ft. these children, acceleration of linear growth
Causes occurs simultaneously with signs of premature
sexual development or inappropriate virilization.
1. Simple or primary gigantism: Racial, familial or This disorder may be due to congenital adrenal
constitutional hyperplasia, adrenal tumor, gonadal tumor or
2. Endocrine: Hyp erpituitarism, hyp ogonadism premature secretion of gonadotropic hormones.
3. Genetic: Klinefelter's syndrome The bone age is usually advanced so that the adult
stature may be diminished.
{ 2 ) General Examination
Table 2.1 : Differential Diagnosis of Gigantism when Upper Segment = Lower Segment
Constitutional Hyperpituitarism Cerebral gigantism
1. Family history +
2. Obesity + +
3. Mental retardation +
4. Otherfeatures OfGigantism Macrocrania, large hands andfeet
5. Marjan 's syndrome: These patients are tall Short Stature (Dwarfism)
with long limbs, narrow hands, long slender
Dwarfism is the term applied when the patient's
fingers (arachnodactyly), hyperextensible joints,
height is 2standard deviations less than that for
dislocation of the lens, high arched palate,
his/her age and sex. Mid-parental height usually de
kyphoscoliosis, arm span greater than the height
termines the final height.
and the lower segmetnt more than the upper
segment. Causes
6. Homocystinuria: This condition resembles
1. Hereditary/Genetic
Marfan's syndrome. The differences are mentioned
in the table. 2. Chromosomal: Turner's syndrome (45XO),
Down's syndrome, Noonan's syndrome, etc.
7. Klinefelter's syndrome:
3. Constitutional growth delay
a. Lower segment more than the upper segment
4. Delayed puberty
b. Gynecomastia
5. Nutritional: Malnutrition, malabsorption, rickets
c. Small, firm testes, azoospermia
6. Endocrine: Growth hormone deficiency,
d. Chromatin (Barr) body usually present
hypopituitarism, hypothyroidism, excessive
(47XXY). Some may be chromatin negative.
androgens, Cushings syndrome, congenital
e. Mental retardation may be associated. adrenal hyperplasia
f. Associated with mongolism and leukemia. 7. Skeletal: Achondroplasia, spinal deformities,
g. Chronic pulmonary disease, varicose veins skeletal dysplasias
and diabetes are more common 8. Systemicdiseases: Renal tubular acidosis, uremia,
11
PRACTICAL MEDICINE
congenital cyanotic heart disease, cirrhosis of low hairline, square and shield-like chest, cubitus
liver, etc. valgus and mental retardation. Although short,
they grow at the rate of less than 4 cm each year
Differential Diagnosis with normal bone age and dental age but absent
1. Hereditary: In hereditary short stature there is pubertal growth spurt, so that during adolescence,
no endocrine abnormality. The bone age and the the skeletal age is delayed due to the absence of
dental age are normal. Although they are short, sex hormones (streak ovaries).
they grow at a constant rate of 4-5 ems a year and Giving them oxandrolone 0.15 mg/kg/day with
they have normal body proportions for age. This growth hormone from early adolescence till
may be either genetic (if there is a family history of puberty can increase the height. After the age of
short stature) or primordial (if there is no family 15 years cyclical estrogen replacement therapy
history of short stature). The latter may be due to in physiological doses is given for life. Growth
intrauterine growth failure or postnatal growth hormone replacement is recommended before
retardation. These children require no endocrine epiphyseal fusion.
treatment. 4. Hypopituitarism (including Growth Hormone
2. Constitutional growth delayand delayed puberty: deficiency): These children have the skeletal age
This disorder is common among adolescent boys. and the dental age delayed by more than 2 years.
There is no true endocrine deficiency. They grow The growth rate is less than 4 cm/year. The ratio
at a constant rate of about 4 cm a year but their of the upper segment and the lower segment is
bone age and dental age is delayed by about 2 normal. They have genetic defects (prop- I, pit
years. Often there is a history of delay in growth I gene deficiency). MRI shows hypoplastic or
and pubertal development in the father and other aplastic pitutaries. Growth hormone replacement
male relatives. is necessary.
If puberty does not occur spontaneously by 15 years 5. Hypothyroidism: These children have mental,
of age, it can be induced by testosterone enanthate dental and skeletal retardation since birth. There
250 mg IM once a month for 3 months. would be coarse dry skin and constipation. Their
3. Turner's syndrome (SHOX gene deficiency): body proportion is infantile i.e. upper segment
These children are girls who have agenesis of is more than lower segment. Lifelong thyroxine
their ovaries. The chromosomal pattern is 45XO. replacement is required.
They have a characteristically short webbed neck, 6. Achondroplasia: Achondroplastic dwarfs have
short limbs resulting in short stature. Hence,
Table 2.3 : Differential Diagnosis of Short Stature (Dwarfism)
Constitutional Hereditary Hypopituitarism Hypothyroidism Turner's syndrome
1. Family history + +
2. Birth wt. and height N ,I. N N ,I.
3. Pattern of growth Slow from birth Slow from birth Slow few months Slow from birth Slow from birth
4. Features Immature but Mature Immature Infantile Characteristic
later normal features
5. Bone age Slight delay N Progressive Marked N
retardation retardation
6. Dentition N N Delayed Delayed N
7. Mental status N N N Retarded Retarded/N
8. Puberty Later but normal N Delayed Marked delay Absent
eventually
12
( 2 ) General Examination
1. Vitamin A Carrot, Spinach, sweet Night Blindness, Bitot's spots 500 IU/kg/day I.M.
(5000 IU, 80001U potatoes, milk, liver and Xerophthalmia, Keratomalacia, Toxic effects: Painful bone
in pregnancy) fish liver oils Imperfect enamel formation. Exostosis, premature epiphyseal
Follicular hyperkeratosis of fusion. Pruritus, intracranial
skin hypertension, anorexia,
irritability, dry itchy skin, sparse
hair
2. VitaminD Milk butter, yeast, fish, Tetany and rickets in children 5001U/day
(4001U) liver oil, egg yolk, Synthesis Osteomalacia in adults Toxic effect: Anorexia,
in skin when it is irradiated vomiting, diarrhea, lassitude,
thirst, sweating and headache
5. Vitamin81 Whole grain, cereals, yeast, Anorexia and nausea, Dry & 100mg orally or IM
(Thiamine) beans, liver, meat, egg yolk wet beriberi, Wernicke's
(1-2mg/day) encephalopathy. Korsakoff's
psychosis
7. Nicotinic acid Rice, liver, brain, eggs, Erythema, Pigmentation, 500 mg orally.
(15-2 0mg) meat and yeast hyperkeratosis of skin, Toxic effects: itching,
seborrhea around the nose, flushing, amblyopia, liver
raw red tongue, diarrhea, dysfunction and hyperuricemia
dementia and paraplegia.
8. Pantothenic acid Whole grain, milk, eggs, Burning feet syndrome 4-10mg orally
(3-10mg) liver, kidney, meat
13
PRACTICAL MEDICINE
10. Inositol Green citrus fruits, grains, yeast. Not known in man. In animals
(not known) - alopecia, dermatitis and fatty
liver
14. Cyanocobala- Liver, Synthesized in colon Pernicious anemia, Glossitis, 100 mcg orally or IM
min but not useful to the host as Subacute combined degene
Vitamin 8 12 it is excreted and not ration of spinal cord.
(1 mcg) absorbed
3 > Nutrition
the lower segment is always less than the upper
segment. Their mental and dental ages are normal
and so are the endocrine functions. A normal person is well nourished as regards proteins,
7. Systemic diseases: Most chronic systemic diseases fats, carbohydrates, vitamins and minerals. Certain
can cause growth failure during childhood. These clinical signs help to diagnose deficiency of one or
illnesses can be recognized by their own specific more of these nutrients.
clinical features and growth failure is a secondary 1. Proteins: Hypoproteinemia causes rough skin
problem. and later edema of feet and brittle hair.
2. Fats: Fat malnutrition leads to cachexia with
ortions
hollowing of cheeks, loss of the shape of hips (due
to loss of fats), flat abdomen and absent fat over
Normally, in adults, the height of the person is equal the subcutaneous tissues of the elbows.
to the length of arm span. The upper segment (from 3. Carbohydrates: Carbohydrate malnutrition
vertex to the pubic symphysis) is equal to the lower is difficult to detect clinically because there is
segment (from pubic symphysis to the heel). gluconeogenesis from fats or proteins.
In infants, the upper segment is greater than the lower 4. Vitamins: These can be fat soluble (Vitamins A,
segment and the height is greater than the arm span. D, E, K) or water soluble (rest) and are discussed
This infantile type of body proportion persists in in the tables.
achondroplasia, cretinism and juvenile myxedema. 5. Minerals: Deficiency of two minerals can be
The reverse of infantile body proportion i.e. arm span diagnosed clinically. Iron deficiency causes
greater than height and lower segment greater than koilonychia and pallor whereas calcium deficiency
upper segment occurs in eunuchoidism, Marfan's causes tetany.
syndrome, homocystinuria, Klinefelter's syndrome
and Frohlich's syndrome.
14
< 2 > General Examination
5 > Clubbing
to chronic obstructive phlebitis
Grades
Definition I. Softening of nail bed
II. Obliteration of the angle of the nail bed
Clubbing is bulbous enlargement of soft parts of the
terminal phalanges with both transverse and longitu Ill. Swelling of the subcutaneous tissues over the base
dinal curving of the nails. The swelling of the terminal of the nail causing the overlying skin to become
phalanges occurs due to interstitial edema and dilation tense, shiny and wet and increasing the curvature
of the arterioles and capillaries. of the nail, resulting in parrot beak or drumstick
appearance (Figs. 2.1 & 2.2).
Causes IV. Swelling of the fingers in all dimensions associated
1. Pulmonary with hypertrophic pulmonary osteoarthropathy
causing pain and swelling of the hand, wrist etc.
a. Bronchogenic carcinoma, mesothelioma
and radiographic evidence of subperiosteal new
b. Lung abscess bone formation (commonly seen in bronchogenic
c. Bronchiectasis carcinoma, paraneoplastic syndromes).
d. Tuberculosis with secondary infection
Schamroth's Sign (Fig. 2.3)
e. Diffuse fibrosing alveolitis
Normally when two fingers are held together with
f. Empyema nails facing each other, a diamond-shaped space is
2. Cardiac seen at the level of proximal nail fold. This is lost in
a. Infective endocarditis case of clubbing
15
PRACTICAL MEDICINE
\
3. Platelet-derived growth factor causing
vasodilatation.
(a) Pseudoclubbing
___JI(��--=�:
In hyp erparathyroidism or leprosy excessive bone
resorption may result in disappearance of the ter
minal phalanges with telescoping of soft tissues and
a 'drumstick' appearance of the fingers resembling
clubbing. However, the curvature of the nail is not
(b) present.
: Fig 2.1 (a)& 2 1 (b) (a) Normal nail bed, Profile angle=
180°, (b). Severe clubbing- hypertrophy of soft tissues,
\
I_
__ Pr�file an_gle � � �0 _
°
---� 6 > �ianosis
DEFINITION: Cyanosis is a bluish discoloration ofthe
nails due to increased amount of reduced hemoglobin
(more than 5 mg%) in capillary blood.
Types
I. Central
II. Peripheral
III. Cyanosis due to abnormal pigments
No space
IV. Mixed
Space
Table 2.5 : Differences between Central
and Peripheral Cyanosis
Central Peripheral
16
....
N
'Y
"';:
c;".l
CYANOSIS
;:!
Warm extremities tongue Cold extremities, Only in upper limbs / Cold extremities 5·
and blue tongue ;:,
also cyanosed pink tongue lower limbs ::.
C;:
I�"" I Peripheral
Mixed
(See separate flow chart)
Cold Exposure Diarrhea Precordial pain, Local arterial Plethoric face I Acut!LVF I Mitral
I
Thrombophtebitis vomiting perspiration constriction
hemorrhage Stenosis
I
PDA with Transposition of PDA with reversal of
great arteries with reversal of shunt shunt
Preductal Coarctation
of Arteries
'""'
'-l
�
00
CENTRAL CYANOSIS
I
Abnormal Normal
globulin
I
globulin
�-�r
Hb-M Spectroscopy of Dry cough Hemoptysis Clubbing Following
disease Pleuritic Instrumentation
Fallot's Eisenmenger
chest pain
Tetrad Complex
Pul. Atresia Primary or
Secondary Pulmonary Pneumothorax Pulmonary Collapse
Right to Foreign Body
Band at Band at 618 Hypertension Embolism Stricture
Left Shunt
630mU mU
Methemoglobin Sulphemoglobin
Fibrosis Carcinoma m
0
R
zm
{ 2 ) General Examination
7 > Jaundice
D. Reynaud's phenomenon
III. Mixed
A. Acute left ventricular failure Definition
B. Mitral stenosis (leftatrial failure and peripheral Jaundice is a symptom complex which is characterized
vasoconstriction).
19
PRACTICAL MEDICINE
I. HISTORY:
1. Abdominal pain Absent Present Present in crisis
2. Pruritus Transient Marked Absent
3. Past history a) Contact with a) Pain (Stones) a) Of crisis
jaundice patient b) Weight loss (Neoplasm) b) Drugs, blood
b) Drugs c) Surgery (Stricture) transfusion etc.
II. EXAMINATION:
1. Tender liver May be present Absent Absent
2. Spleen May be present Absent Present
3. Gall bladder Not palpable Palpable if due to neoplasm Not palpable
4. Pallor Absent Present Present
II. INVESTIGATIONS:
1. Urine:
Bilirubin Present Present Absent
Urobilinogen Present Absent Present
2. Stools:
Sterocobilinogen Present Absent Present
3. Peripheral smear Leucopenia in Normal Reticulocytosis
infective hepatitis Spherocytosis
4. L.F.T.
a) Bilirubin ++ ++ +
b)Alkaline phosphate Raised Markedly raised Normal
c)SGO T Markedly raised Raised Normal
s. Barium meal and cholangiography Normal May reveal pancreatic growth Normal
6. RBC survival Normal Normal Decreased
20
< 2 > General Examination
RBC
0
�'>8oRES
1. Breakdown
phase
1
Free bilirubin
2. Conjugation
phase
"'--
Urobilinogen
4. Renal
excretion
phase
Stercobilinogen
Bilirubin Metabolism
s
1. Breakdown phase: Hemoglobin released
by breakdown of aged cells is broken
down into globin and heme in the
spleen. The heme is further broken into �
iron and bilirubin. Bilirubin attaches to
serum albumin and is transported to
the liver where it is taken up. Bilirubin
(unconjugated) bound to albumin cannot
be excreted by kidneys. 1l] .s
-t-� ...�
.!
Conjugation phase: In the liver, bilirubin t .a �
� bl) ...0
:=
.t
2. -
u.l
C.
O .D 1:1:l <
is separated from albumin and conjugated :=
to glucuronide by glucuronyl transferase. ...
C
"'... � ... ...
e' .gp:�
0 (U
.D "' � (U
u uZ
The conjugated bilirubin is water-soluble
"'
;,!: "'>
and can be excreted by kidneys. z U)
0
.. "'...."'
re-excreted (enterohepatic circulation).
ii "'
Unabsorbed sterco-bilinogen gives � ;a
brown color to the feces. ·a... ·s..
0
:9
(U
4. Excret i o n p h a s e : Ci r c u l a t i n g
2:l u.l
..s c:s :a
urobilinogen is carried to the kidneys
for excretion in the urine as urobilinogen.
21
PRACTICAL MEDICINE
2. Hemoglobinopathies:Sicklecellanemia, C. Cirrhosis
homozygous beta thalassemia, sickle 1. Portal
thalassemia, HbE thalassemia
2. Biliary
3. Enzyme deficiency (E6PD, pyruvate
3. Hemochromatosis
kinase).
IV. Obstructive (Surgical Jaundice- Post
4. Paroxysmal nocturnal hemoglobinuria
hepatic):
(PNH)
A. Extra-Hepatic:
B. Extra-Corpuscular Defects:
1. Inflammatory: Stone, stricture, parasites,
1. Infections: Malaria, Clostridium welchii
acute cholecystitis
2. Drugs: L. Methyl dopa, quinine,
2. Neoplastic: Carcinoma of the head of
phenacetin, sulfonamides
the pancreas; neoplasm of bile ducts,
3. Physical agents: Burns, Irradiation gall bladder and ampulla ofVater
4. Poisons: SnakeVenom, Favism 3. Congenital: Biliary atresia
5. Immunological: Mismatched blood B. Intra-Hepatic:
t r a n s fu s i o n , p a r o x y s m a l c o l d
1. Cholestatic phase of infective
hemoglobinuria, lymphoma, CLL, SLE.
hepatitis
6. Miscellaneous: Uremia, cirrhosis ofliver
2. Drugs: Steroids, chlorpromazine,
II. Congenital Hyperbilirubinemia PAS, sulfonamides, chlorpropamide
A. Unconjugated: tolbutamide, methyl testosterone,
1. Disturbance of bilirubin transport: erythromycin.
Gilbert's syndrome. 3. Pregnancy with cholestasis.
2. Disturbance of bilirubin conjugation:
Crigler Najjar syndrome.
B. Conjugated: Disturbance in excretion of
8 > Pallor
bilirubin: Dubin Johnson syndrome and Pallor is paleness ofskin and mucous membrane either
Rotor's syndrome. as a result of diminished circulating red blood cells or
III. Hepatocellular (Medical Jaundice-Hepatic) diminished blood supply.
A. Infections Causes
1. Viral hepatitis
I. Anemia
2. Weil's disease (Leptospirosis)
A. Hemorrhagic
3. Septicemia
B. Hemolytic
4. Malaria, Typhoid
C. Dyshemopoietic
B. Toxic
1. Deficiency ofiron, folic acid orVitamin
1. Anesthetic agents: Halothane, B 12
chloroform
2. Aplastic anemia
2. Anticoagulants: Phenindione
3. Systemic and infiltrative diseases
3. Anti-tuberculous drugs: Rifampicin,
4. Chronic infection
P.A.S., I.N.H., Thiacetazone
5. Pregnancy
4. Metals: Arsenic, mercury, gold, bismuth
6. Malignancies
5. Chemicals: D.D.T.
6. X-ray irradiations
22
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