International Research Journal of Social Sciences_____________________________________ ISSN 2319–3565

Vol. 3(6), 62-67, June (2014) Int. Res. J. Social Sci.

Remembering a Pioneer in the Bicentenary, Sir Alexander Cunningham

and the Study of Indian Temple Art
Bhattacharya Aparajita
Hindu College, University of Delhi, New Delhi, INDIA
Available online at: www.isca.in, www.isca.me
Received 1st May 2014, revised 14th May 2014, accepted 9th June 2014
Abstract
Alexander Cunningham’s pioneering career as Surveyor General of India and subsequently as the first Director General of
the Archaeological Survey of India is a landmark epoch in defining the discipline of archaeology and its official
instutionalization in colonial India. His extensive and meticulous field reports published in twenty three volumes is still the
primary source of information for the study of Indian art and archaeology throwing an invaluable light on the history of
discovery and the method of documentation of various sites and their findings. His inclusive methodology of documentation
illustrates the possibilities of ethnographic explorations with keen attention to incorporate local traditions and individual
viewpoints. Cunningham became an institution in his life time by nurturing the talents of a generation of archaeologists
and epigraphists who started their careers under the guidance of Cunningham. That material remains of the past alone not
only grand monuments but also dilapidated structures and ruins can form an authentic source of reconstructing history
was established by Cunningham and his contemporary James Fergusson. Both the approaches received a firm foundation
in India in terms of their respective followers and their influence over the subsequent scholarship. Cunningham’s almost
evolutionary approach of tracing the development of the Indian temple architecture from the relatively simpler flat roof to
the more complex developments of superstructure and the temple building has set the tone of the subsequent scholarship.
The present article attempts to relook at the contribution of a pioneer in his bicentenary.

Keywords: Archaeology, Indian art, temple, site, ethnography, documentation.

Introduction created an audience for such depiction of exotic oriental

monuments past their primes, fallen into ruins or covered in
The institutional foundation of the study of the oriental thick vegetation. The volumes of the Oriental Scenery of the
languages, culture and religion was laid in 1784 with the Daniells summarize the epitome of ‘Picturesque’ fascination of
establishment of the Asiatic Society at Calcutta by Sir William the late 18th century3.
Jones. The focus of the Society was mainly concentrated on
studying and translating religious scriptures and literally works. At the beginning of 19th century institutional encouragement of
Sir William Jones, the founder of the Asiatic Society perceived systematic enquiry into the study and documentation of Indian
the architectural remains of India as ‘monuments of antiquity’ as architecture was not available and two different trends are
not as ‘specimens of art’. His interest in the Śilpa Śāstra texts or noticed propelled by individual enthusiasm. Regional surveys
indigenous artistic canons was motivated by fascination about conducted by individual surveyors like Colin Mackenzie, who
traditional handicrafts and manufacture and was not aimed at became the first surveyor – General of India are marked by the
understanding the artistic heritage of India in its own terms1. broad overview approach of documentation.
This prejudiced sentiment finds expression in James Mill’s The
History of British India (1817) where Mill devised a distinction The colonial intervention into the conceptualization of the
between ‘fine arts’ and ‘applied arts’ and credited Indian artists heritage of the colonized was started with the introduction of a
for achievements in the latter like textiles and handicrafts and new system of knowledge to be operated through ‘scientific’
not in the category of fine arts of architecture and sculpture. western academic disciplines like art historical study,
archaeology and museology. It is noteworthy, that while the
Another more popular European engagement with Indian study of India’s ancient past thrived on these disciplines; the
monuments and built heritage was a combination of artistic very question of the construction of that knowledge has been
observation and romantic imagination culminating into the neglected. A focus is necessary on the concepts, socio-political
‘Picturesque’ style of visual representation championed by the milieu of the development of these disciplines in juxtaposition
professional painters like William Hodges (1744-1787) and the to the intellectual position of the practitioners as these can serve
famous uncle nephew duo Thomas and William Daniell2. These as a fascinating entry point to study the very formation of
professional artists popularized a technique called ‘aquatint ‘of knowledge in a colonial context. Alexander Cunningham was
converting water colour sketches into print illustrations and the pioneer of field archaeology, although he heavily relied on

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text based sources like the travel accounts of Fa Xian (AD 404- Cunningham and the Beginning of Archaeological
14) and Xuan Zang (AD 630- 44). As the method implied Survey of India
Cunningham was primarily concerned with the archaeology of
Buddhism4. Besides Cunningham and James Fergusson, their Alexander Cunningham, the nineteen years old Englishman of
illustrious contemporary Rajendralal Mitra tried to project a Scottish descent who arrived at Calcutta in the year 1833 as a
comprehensive view of Indian architecture by incorporating art, lieutenant with the Bengal Engineers was destined to make a
archeological and textual studies, a method which was initiated legendary contribution towards the beginning and growth of
by the first architectural scholar Ram Raz, whose approach was archaeological research in India. Major Generel Alexander
largely ignored by western scholars5. It would not be irrelevant Cunningham’s memorandum submitted to Viceroy Lord
to point out here that Ananda .K. Coomaraswamy expounded Canning in November 1861 where he urged the British
the view of the symbolic meaning of architecture where it government to assume the responsibility to explore, document
ceased to remain an art monument but to a devotional eye the and conserve monumental heritage of India materialized in the
reflection of cosmos. Coomaraswamy’s approach was based on birth of Archaeological Survey of India and the appointment of
a painstaking study of the Sanskrit and the vernacular sources in Cunnigham as the Archaeological Surveyor and subsequently its
order to comprehend the inner meaning of art. This line of first Director General.
argument is alien to the western understanding as they
conceptualized a monument like Hindu temple as an art This memorandum reads as following: During the one hundred
monument without paying attention to the symbolic content of it years of British dominion in India the Government has done
which is defined by the iconographic arrangement of the deities little or nothing towards the preservation of its ancient
and the ritual performance of the devotees. monuments, which in the almost total absence of any written
history, form the only reliable sources of information as to the
It appears that the western scholarship has always differentiated early condition of the country. Some of these monuments have
between aesthetic and functional which becomes more apparent already endured for ages, and are likely to last for ages still to
in the case of conservation policy of the 19th and 20th century come; but there are many others which are daily suffering from
where the ethos was quite evident that archaeological heritage the effects of time, and which must soon disappear altogether,
should be separated from the monument of worship. The art and unless preserved by the accurate drawings and faithful
archaeological research in the 19th century was grounded in a descriptions of the archaeologist6.
colonial context and henceforth the interplay of prevailing
Orientalist perceptions cannot be ignored. But it needs to be Cunningham outlined a blue print about how he wants to
pointed out that colonial perception is not a monolithic category proceed to materialize his plan: I would attach to the description
and belief of racial superiority which manifested itself in the of each place a general survey of the site, showing clearly the
form racist presupposition coexisted with the admiration for the positions of all existing remains, with a ground plan of every
cultural achievement of the ‘other’ and sincere attempts to study building or ruin of special note, accompanied by drawings and
the art heritage of Orient in a balanced way. It is therefore sections of all objects of interest. It would be desirable also to
necessary to reevaluate this rather unproblematic category of have sculpture; but to obtain these it would be necessary to have
colonial gaze and to conceptualize the complexities of the the services of a photographer. Careful facsimiles of all
research characterized by diverse strands and contradictory inscriptions would of course be made, ancient coins would also
impulses. It is interesting to note that the most of the western be collected on each site, and all the local traditions would be
scholars who contributed significantly to the study of the history noted down and compared. The description of each place with
of architecture of early India were not academic experts of the its accompanying drawings and illustrations would be complete
field. A brief sketch of the writings of two Englishmen James in itself, and the whole, when finished, would furnish a detailed
Fergusson (1808-1886), his contemporary Sir Alexander and accurate account of the archaeological remains of Upper
Cunningham (1814-1893) along with the foremost India7.
representative of Indian scholarship in the field and the first
‘native’ director of the Asiatic Society of Bengal Rajendralal This memorandum received an enthusiastic response from the
Mitra (1824-1891) represents three different methodological viceroy Lord Canning as it was well tuned with the necessity of
concerns governing the thinking process of three more or less the post 1857 British regime in India to project an image of
contemporary scholars. With due risk of drawing up a simplified benevolent authority8. Cunningham in his distinguished career
picture, the views of these three scholars can be loosely first as the Archaeological Surveyor to the Government of India
categorized as art-architectural, archaeological and religio- from 1861 to 1866 and then as the first Director General of the
philosophical respectively. Of the three though only Archaeological Survey of India from 1871 to 1885 produced an
Cunningham devoted substantial attention to trace the growth astonishingly vast twenty three volumes of Archaeological
and maturation of the temple structure in north India with Survey reports. The first two volumes of this series published in
particular focus on the emergence of what he termed as, ‘Gupta 1871 contain the four reports of the surveys made by
temples’. Cunningham between 1861 and 1865 when he was entrusted
with the charge of Archaeological Surveyor. The introduction of

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the volumes of 1871 is of crucial importance as it is here that to set the mood of the future scholarship in this field. Dynastic
Cunningham discussed the contributions of his predecessors and and chronological labelling became interchangeable when
contemporaries in the field of the understanding of India’s Cunningham designated some temple structures as Gupta
ancient past. temple or Gupta period temples and it needs to be remembered
in this context that his rendering of the Gupta Era has also
The first two volumes of this series published in 1871 contain proved erroneous.
the four reports of the surveys made by Cunningham between
1861 and 1865 when he was entrusted with the charge of Cunningham’s extensive and meticulous field reports are still
Archaeological Surveyor. The introduction of the volumes of the primary source of information for the study of ‘Gupta
1871 is of crucial importance as it is here that Cunningham temples’ and throw an invaluable light on the history of
discussed the contributions of his predecessors and discovery and the method of documentation of various sites and
contemporaries in the field of the understanding of India’s their findings10. Cunningham has been criticized for certain
ancient past. There is a marked difference between Cunningham drawbacks in his approach for example his over reliance on
and his contemporary Fergusson as the former was much more inscriptional and numismatic evidences and his evolutionary
open and liberal when it comes to acknowledging and hypothesis of tracing developments of temple architecture from
appreciating the works of merit, be it of Europeans or Indians. flat roofed to the one with a spire or sikhara. But it cannot be
While discussing the researches of his predecessors and denied that his inclusive methodology of documentation
contemporaries starting from Sir William Jones, to James illustrates the possibilities of ethnographic explorations.
Princep and Francis Buchman and extending further on the likes Cunningham gave a broad outline of the development of the
of James Fergusson, Markham Kittoe etc Cunningham includes Indian Temple architecture almost in an evolutionary process
the name of an Indian Dr. Bhau Daji into the list. Not only here, progressing from a relatively simpler to a gradually complex
but there are quite a few instances when he was indeed forth form
coming in his positive opinion and recognition of the Indian
scholarship. Following the usual practice of the European The characteristic features of the Gupta Temples as identified
scholars of the age Cunningham took help of the Sanskrit by Cunningham are: i. Flat roof, without spire of any kind as in
‘Pundits’ well versed in traditional knowledge while translating the case of cave temples. ii. Prolongation of the head of the
and understanding the inscriptions. He also took the help of the doorway beyond the jambs as in Egyptian temples. iii. Statues
new generation of Western educated Indian scholars who had a of the rivers Ganges and Jumna guarding the entrance door. iv.
blending of western training and traditional knowledge such as Pillars, with massive square capitals, ornamented with two lions
Rajendralala Mitra, Bhagwanlal Indraji P.C.Ghosh and Deva back to back, with a tree between them. v. Bosses on the
Sastri. Cunningham gave due credit to his friend Raja Shiva capitals and friezes of a very peculiar form like Buddhist
Prasad for drawing his attention to the ancient remains which Stupas, or beehives with projecting horns. vi. Continuation of
ultimately resulted in his explorations in the sites of Bhita, the architrave of the portico as a moulding all around the
Bhitargaon and Gadhwa. Jamna Shankar Bhatt, the draftsman of building. vii. Deviation in plan from the cardinal points11.
Cunningham was mentioned for his individual discoveries.
Cunningham underlined these essential features of the temple
All these are a few instances which reflect the basic honesty of art of the Gupta period on the basis of the Gupta period temple
Cunningham whose vision was not so overwhelmingly coloured at Tigawa of the Katni district of Madhya Pradesh.
by the racial prejudices like Fergusson who tried to minimize Cunningham’s over emphasis on inscriptions induces him to
and ridicule the attempts of the audacious ‘natives’ as ‘Babu’ skip the documentation of the temples which seemed
Rajendralal Mitra . In spite of having difference of opinions on unimportant to his scheme of priorities because they lacked in
several issues with Rajendralal Mitra, when asked for his inscriptional evidence. The classic example of this myopic
opinion Cunningham strongly supported the prospects of the vision of Cunningham was his overlooking the temple at Marhia
publication of Mitra’s Antiquities of Orissa on subsidized rate because it does not have any inscriptional records although he
by the government of India. As Upinder Singh puts it, “What is knew about the existence of a temple structure. Much after
also notable in Cunningham’s Introduction is the tone of warm Cunningham scholars like Pramod Chandra and Michael W.
and generous recognition of work by others, even those with Meister have surveyed the Gupta period temple at Marhia and
whom he had differences of approach and opinion9.” discussed its features12. The evolutionary framework devised by
Cunningham in order to conceptualize the development of the
Sir Alexander Cunningham, the founder of the Indian structural temples and the exclusivity of the flat roof structure in
Archaeological Survey on the basis his extensive survey had the Gupta period induced him to assign the Pataini Devi temple
delineated some hard and first criterion of the style of the of 11th century to the Gupta Period which appeared to him flat
development of the Indian temple architecture in general and the roofed although traces of a fallen sikhara is discovered.
features of structures of the Gupta period among them in
particular. But his labelling of a certain stage of Indian temple Alexander Cunningham noted the presence of the female figures
architecture not by a chronological but a dynastic bracket seems occurring in pairs on the temple doorways which was initially

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identified by him as a queen paying a visit to a temple – a fancy needs to be emphasized that temples are not conceptualized as
of the artistic imagination repeated as architectural custom13. monument of art which as the basic thrust of the official
But Cunningham revised this opinion during his survey to the approach of the art historical studies in the late 19th and early
Central Provinces in 1873-74. In his tour report of that year he 20th century tend us to believe. On the contrary temples have a
identified the female figures on the doorway of the modest symbolic purpose to invoke an image of divine in the eyes of the
shrine of the Tigowa village (Katni Dist, Madhya Pradesh) as devotees who perform ritual functions at the temple on certain
the river goddesses Ganga and Yamuna guarding the entrance of auspicious occasions. The essential function of temples is not
the temple riding on their distinct aquatic vehicles (vahanas), aesthetic but ritual “to web individuals and communities into a
Ganga on crocodile (Makara) and Yamuna on turtle (Kurma). complicated and inconsistent social fabric through time16.” The
Moreover Cunningham included the positioning of the river symbolic meaning which a temple structure was conceived to
goddesses on the entrance among the seven ‘characteristic connote is not static or inherent but shows its adaptability to a
features’ of what he designated as ‘Gupta temples’14. vibrant dynamism of change and the interaction with multiple
audiences requires flexibility to adjust and relocate itself .A shift
Though representation of river goddesses became standardized is much needed from the stereotypical issues of legitimization
on the entrance of the temples in the 5th century CE, the and state formation and a focus is awaited on the reasons for the
beginning of the river goddess symbolism can certainly be sustenance of particular temple or religious centre over a period
traced much earlier in time rooted in the Buddhist context of the of time. As a logical progression comes the necessity of
worship of the yakshas and yakshis. The cult of the yakshas and problematizing the very label ‘Gupta’ based on a dynastic
yakhiis was conceived as auspicious diverse anthropomorphic parameter and its applicability in conceptualizing art idioms.
images of magical deities who bestow protection, fertility and The correlation between political climate and the development
benevolence to the visitor and devotee15. Both the approach of of art awaits a critical focus along with a serious reconsideration
Cunningham and Fergusson received a firm foundation in India of the assumption that dynasty directly conditions the works of
in terms of their respective followers and their influence over art.
the subsequent scholarship. With due respect to the laudable
tusk they have accomplished with scattered and scanty materials Cunningham’s enthusiasm for epigraphic and numismatic
available then, it should be pointed out that they never research is well known. Besides suggesting the name of a five
attempted to understand a religious architecture like temple as volume compilation of Indian inscriptions and editing the first
religious. Their concern was mainly confined to trace the origin volume of the Corpus Inscriptionum Indicarum, his lasting
and development of stylistic variations of monuments without contribution in the field of epigraphy lies in his enthusiastic
paying enough focus on the fact they were not conceived as art perseverance which resulted in the appointment of John Faithful
objects but has a religious purpose for the communities who Fleet as the epigraphist to the Government of India. The third
worship in the monument. Cunningham’s almost evolutionary volume of the Corpus Inscriptionum Indicarum edited by Fleet
approach of tracing the development of the Indian temple containing the text and the translation of the inscriptions of the
architecture from the relatively simpler flat roof to the more imperial Guptas and their contemporaries first appeared in 1887
complex developments of superstructure and the temple and is till date an authentic source material for the study of the
building has set the tone of the subsequent scholarship where history of the period. History writing at this crucial juncture of
basic parameters of Cunningham’s assumption has percolated in power dynamics was obviously involves a scheme of
to the deep. The ‘image’ of temple architecture in India of propaganda. Like every colonized nation in India as well it was
which the Gupta period (4th -6th centuries AD) provides the the British antiquarians and agencies who as the ruling authority
earliest edifices should be looked into the way these structures or patrons decided the criteria of selection, classification,
were discovered and documented in the 19th century with an preservation and exhibition of antiquities and monuments on
emphasis on the ‘politics’ of discovery in order to comprehend their own terms17.
and delineate the perceptions which went into the generation of
certain stereotypes. So far the Temples are studied from the Cunningham was fascinated by the idea of the identification of
angle of pure art historical consideration where it has been the places, particularly Buddhist remains rigorously following
perceived as a monument of art. But the complexities of the the description of the routes underlined by Chinese pilgrims Fa
dynamism of temples cannot be conceptualized if the essential Xian (AD 404-14) and Xuan Zang (AD 630- 44).
assumption is strictly aesthetic. Temples as religious places are Cunningham’s emphasis on archaeological explorations,
primarily symbolic embodiment. This symbolic quality of survey and documentation of sites proved beneficial for the
religious enclosure is not only inherent but dynamic as well, study of the geographical location of a large number of ancient
depending on the horizontal and vertical structural expansion of sites. Curiously enough Cunningham’s argument for
the temple complex, the performance of rituals on daily basis undertaking such a kind of tusk unveils an echo of imperialist
and on certain important occasions, the additions and alterations thought. Cunningham believed that such an attempt will not
into the iconographic programme in a complex or in reference to only demonstrate the lack of political unity of India as it was
a particular deity in a complex, arrangement of images and always divided into ‘numerous petty chiefships’ but will also
inscriptions and their overall distribution in a temple site. It disapprove the myth of the unchanging orthodoxy of Indian

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religions, particularly Brahmanism indicating the possibility of Burgess not only ignored the approach of Raz but also
Christianity to succeed in Indian soil18. But probably such a disapproved its attempted adaptation by his assistant Henry
comment was purely accidental as it needs to be remembered Cousens. Fergusson was a tireless exponent of the architectural
in this context that behind writing such a letter Cunningham’s documentation and cataloguing of monuments scattered
motive was to persuade the East India Company to aid and throughout India by involving modern techniques like
finance the publication of his research work19. Cunningham photography. It is needless to say that Fergusson’s emphasis on
was flexible enough to change his views with the passage of photography is one point whose importance was realized by
time and with the coming up of new readings and both his follower Burgess and a contemporary like Cunningham
understandings. Interestingly, indeed Cunningham who who pursued a different approach altogether from Fergusson.
blatantly brushed aside the credibility of the Puranic corpuses Fergusson believed in the derivative nature of Indian
to understand the early history of India and forcefully argued architecture. According to him, Indians learnt the process of
for archaeological investigation, mellowed down with time stone architecture from their contacts with the Greeks at the
and acknowledge the contribution of literally and textual time of the Macedonian invasion. Cunningham although refuses
studies. Cunningham wrote in 1948 , “The discovery and this view of Fergusson and expressed the existence of the stone
publication of all the existing remains of architecture and architecture before the contact with the Greeks, however
sculpture ,with coins and inscriptions ,would throw more light expresses indebtedness of the Indians to Greeks in terms of the
on the ancient history of India, both public and domestic, than art of sculpturing. Fergusson’s point derivative nature Indian
the printing of all the rubbish contained in the eighteen architecture from of Graeo-Roman idioms was vehemently
Puranas20.” James Burgess (1832-1916) who succeeded opposed by Rajendralal Mitra which made him to face the wrath
Cunningham to the chair of the Director General of the of Fergusson’s bitter criticism on his credibility as a scholar.
Archaeological Survey of India was curiously not a disciple of Mitra’s views can hardly be taken as a manifestation of his
him either in terms of method or philosophy. Burgess carried nationalist sentiment as we often try to visualize the Indian critic
the mantle of Fergusson’s scholarship and throughout his of western assumption. Mitra tried to contextualize the temple in
career exhibited a phenomenal loyalty to his mentor its social milieu to gauge the dynamic nature of a religious site.
Fergusson. In comparison to Cunningham’s fourteen years
long tenure as the Director General, Burgess occupied the post Fergusson and Cunningham in spite of having mutual
only for a period of three years from 1886 to 1889. But the differences operated within the greater currents of the 19th
definitive shift is noticeable during his Director Generalship century western thought structuring the Orient. Both of them
was the alteration of the focus of the Survey from accepted the process of linear development of architecture from
archaeological documentation to architectural studies. It was that of Buddhist to Hindu and in terms of religious formulations
through his initiative to guarantee a quick publication of the also this framework of linear development was extended. Both
newly discovered inscriptions that the idea of publishing a the approach of Cunningham and Fergusson received a firm
journal like Epigraphia Indica has taken shape, the first foundation in India in terms of their respective followers and
volume of which was published in 1892. their influence over the subsequent scholarship. With due
respect to the laudable tusk they have accomplished with
Conclusion scattered and scanty materials available then, it should be
pointed out that they never attempted to understand a religious
From the previous discussion of the writings of the European architecture like temple as religious. Their concern was mainly
scholars like Fergusson, Cunningham and Burgess, it becomes confined to trace the origin and development of stylistic
clear that none of them bothered to pursue the line of thought variations of monuments without paying enough focus on the
initiated by Ram Raz, though they all know about the fact they were not conceived as art objects but has a religious
existence of Raz’s work. Fergusson’s explicit bias regarding purpose for the communities who worship in the monument.
the quality and reliability of the ‘native’ scholarships played a
dominant role in marginalizing the approach initiated by Raz. With the official efforts to study and preserve the architectural
Fergusson’s pivotal reputation as an architectural historian heritage of India the princely states also demonstrated enough
resulted in his framework of study having a well accepted and interest in documentation and conservation of the monuments
politically correct viewpoint for studying the art of India. As lying in their domain. This endeavour on the part of the Princely
an ardent follower of Fergusson, Burgess strictly adhered to states was particularly noticeable from the late 19th century
the stand of Fergusson and never tried to attempt the method onwards. This trend is more marked in the 20th century when
of consulting the artist communities practicing their age old several states took active interest in conservation and almost
custom of building art and incorporating their insight in form a parallel agency to the official body like the
understanding the architecture. At least for once Burgess had a Archaeological Survey of India. Princely states like Bhopal,
scope of following this approach of Ram Raz when he worked Gwalior, Mysore, Hyderabad, Travancore, Baroda, Jaipur and
on the architecture of Satrunjaya, which was famous for its Kashmir have established their own state archaeological
community of traditional architects. department to study and conserve the monuments falling within
their jurisdiction.

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References 11. Cunnigham, Alexander, Report of a Tour in the central

Provinces in 1873-74 and 1874-75, IX, 43 (1879, reprint
1. Sir William Jones, The Third Anniversary Discourse of the 2000) (2000)
Hindus , Delivered on 2 February,1786 in The Works of 12. Chandra, Pramod, A Vamana Temple at Mahira and Some
Sir William Jones, vol –I, Rbinson and Evans, London, Reflections on Gupta Architecture”, Artibus Asiae, 34(4),
1799.pp 19-34 cited in Winfred .P. Lehmann A Reader in 125-145 (1972) and also Meister, Michael.W; - “ A Note
the Nineteenth Century Historical Indo-European on the Superstructure of the Mahira Temple” in Artibus
Linguistics, Indiana University Press, pp 7-20 Asiae, 36(1/2), 81-88 (1974)
http://www.utexas.edu/cola/centers/lrc/books/read01.html.
(20/02/2014) 13. Cunningham, Alexander, Four Reports Made During the
Years 1862-63-64-65.Vol I and II, Archaeological Survey
2. Mitter, Partha, Much Maligned Monasters: A History of of India, New Delhi, 99 (1871/2000 reprint)
European Reactions to Indian Art, Clarendon Press,
Oxford, 123-127 (1977) 14. Cunningham, Alexander. Report of a Tour in the Central
Provinces in 1873-74 and 1874-75, Archaeological Survey
3. Tillotson G.H.R., ‘Farangi and Babu, Two Early Theories of India, New Delhi, IX, 42-43 (1879/2000 reprint)
of Indian Architecture’ in India International Centre
Quarterly, 20(1/2), 209-224 (1993) 15. Coomaraswamy, Ananda and Kentish, Yakshas, Essays in
Water Cosmology (edited by Paul Schroeder and
4. Imam Abu., Sir Alexander Cunningham (1814-1893): The forwarded by Kapila Vatsyayan), Indira Gandhi National
First Phase of Indian Archaeology in Journal of the Royal Centre for the Arts and Oxford University Press, New
Asiatic Society of Great Britain and Ireland, 3/4, 194-207 Delhi, 70-71 (1993)
(1963)
16. Meister Michael. W., Ethnography and Personhood: Notes
5. Desai Madhuri, Interpreting an Architectural Past: Ram from the Field, Rawat Publications, New Delhi, 24, (2000)
Raz and the Treatise in South Asia, in Journal of the
Society of Architectural Historians, 71(4), 462-487 (2012) 17. Cohn, Bernard S., The Transformation of Objects into
Artifacts, Antiquities and Art in Nineteenth Century India”
6. Cunningham, Alexander, Four Reports Made During the in Barbara. Stoler Miller, ed, The Power of Art, Patronage
Years 1862-63-64-65. Archaeological Survey of India. I , in Indian Culture, Oxford University Press, New Delhi,
preface, (1871.Reprint 2000) (2000) 302 (1992)
7. Cunnigham, Alexander, Four Reports Made During the 18. Cunningham in a letter written to the Director of the East
Years 1862-63-64-65, Archaeological Survey of India I, India Company which was subsequently published in the
vii, (1871 Reprint 2000) (2000) Journal of the Royal Asiatic Society in 1843 made the
8. Cunningham, Alexander, Four Reports Made During the above comment. See Singh, Upinder; The Discovery of
Years 1862-63-64-65, Archaeological Survey of India, I, Ancient India, Early Archaeologists and the Beginning of
preface (1871 Reprint 2000) (2000) Archaeology, 38 (2004)
9. Singh, Upinder, The Discovery of Ancient India, Early 19. Apparently this kind of comment “may look like proof of
Archaeologists and the Beginning of Archaeology, hidden political and evangelical agendas behind
Permanent Black, New Delhi, 134 (2004) Cunningham’s archaeological investigation, the revelations
of an unguarded moment by a young man in the course of
10. Singh, Upinder, Cunningham’s, “was a vision that
personal correspondence.” Cunningham’s voluminous
included much and excluded little, and its wide scope can
writings of the later years never exhibit such a kind of bias
be connected to the fact that Cunningham was never an
which has dominated the writings of his contemporary like
armchair scholar. His archaeological inquires involved
Fergusson. See Singh, Upinder; The Discovery of Ancient
extensive travel and intensive contact with the people and
India, Early Archaeologists and the Beginning of
places of India” in The Discovery of Ancient India, Early
Archaeology, 38 (2004)
Archaeologists and the Beginning of Archaeology, 346
(2004) 20. Cunningham A., Proposed Archaeological Investigation in
Journal of the Asiatic Society of Bengal 17, 1848. pp 535-
536. Quoted in Chakrabarti, Dilip. K, A History of Indian
Archaeology from the Beginning to 1947, 52 (1988)

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