Culture and Art of Konkan from Ancient to early

Mediaeval times.
Submitted In Partial Fulfillment of Requirements
For the Degree Of

Masters of Arts
(Ancient Indian History, Culture and Archaeology)
By

Harshada Rajendra Pednekar

Roll No: 32031821010
Guide

Dr. Pallavi Nalawde Jambhale

K. J. Somaiya Institute of Dharma Studies

Somaiya Vidyavihar University
Vidyavihar, Mumbai - 400 077
2021-2023

1
 Somaiya Vidyavihar University

K. J. Somaiya Institute of Dharma Studies

Certificate

This is to certify that the project report on dissertation entitled

Culture and Art of Konkan from Ancient to early Mediaeval times is

bonafide record of the dissertation work done by Harshada Rajendra Pednekar

in the year 2021 - 23 under the guidance of Dr. Pallavi Nalawde Jambhale

Department of Dharma Studies fulfillment of requirement for the Masters in Arts degree in

Somaiya Ancient Indian History, Culture and Archaeology of K. J. Somaiya Institute of

Dharma Studies, Vidyavihar University.

_________________ _____________________

Guide / Co-Guide Head of the Department/ACP

_________________

Principal/Director

Date: 27 May, 2023

Place: Mumbai-77

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 Somaiya Vidyavihar University

K. J. Somaiya Institute of Dharma Studies

Certificate of Approval of Examiners

This is to certify that the project report on dissertation entitled

Culture and Art of Konkan from Ancient to early Mediaeval times is

bonafide record of the dissertation work done by Harshada Rajendra Pednekar in

partial fulfillment of requirement for the degree in Ancient Indian History, Culture and

Archaeology of K. J. Somaiya Institute of Dharma Studies, Vidyavihar University.

_________________ _________________

External Examiner /Expert Internal Examiner/ Guide

Date:

Place: Mumbai-77

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 Somaiya Vidyavihar University

K. J. Somaiya Institute of Dharma Studies

DECLARATION

I declare that this written report submission represents the work done based on my and / or
others’ ideas with adequately cited and referenced the original source. I also declare that I
have adhered to all principles of academic honesty and integrity as I have not misinterpreted
or fabricated or falsified any idea/data/fact/source/original work/ matter in my submission.

I understand that any violation of the above will be cause for disciplinary action by the
college and may evoke the penal action from the sources which have not been properly cited
or from whom proper permission is not sought.

_______________________________

Signature of the Student

_______________________________

Name of the Student

_______________________________

Roll No.

Date: 27 May, 2023

Place: Mumbai-77

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Contents

Title page 1

Abstract 6

Acknowledgement 7

Aim and Objectives 8

Scope 9

Literature review 10-12

Methodology 13

Introduction 14-16

1. Prehistory of Konkan 17-30

• Petroglyphs of Konkan

• Ancient caves of Konkan

2. Architecture and Culture of Konkan Temples. 31-49

3. Conclusion 50

4. Analysis 51

5. Bibliography 52

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 ABSTRACT
Konkan, a stretch of land located along the western coast of Maharashtra upto Goa well
known for its ancient culture as well as pre historic rock art specially known as the Kokan
Petroglyphs or Kaatalshilp in local language. In the last few years, petroglyphs found in
different areas of the region have also helped it to attract a lot of attention and nearly a
thousand petroglyphs have been discovered along the Konkan coastline, the Ratnagiri and
Rajapur regions and according to the Department of Archaeology, these rock carvings are 10
to 40 thousand years old. It is believed that the discovery will open new avenues to
understanding the early history of this area. Moving forward this region also comprise of
many cultural activities which calso serve as their entertainment purpose. The temples are
also important from the cultural as well as architectural point of view, whose dating goes
back to many centuries. There are many myths and stories related to the building of these
temples.

In this dissertation I wish to explore this cultural and architectural heritage of the
place from where my roots belong and also research more on the different aspects of the
people in history and what have left for us. Konkan is not much explored from the
archaeological perspective as much it should have been, but the current findings indicate the
inhabitation of early human in and around this region.

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 ACKNOWLEDGEMENT

I am extremely grateful to my parents and grandma for their support and care during my
research and dedicate this research to them. I would like to express my gratitude towards my
research guide, Dr. Pallavi Nalawde Jambhale for her guidance throughout the research
process. I would greatly appreciate Mr. Vikas Saxena for guiding me in a very humble
manner and always help me for my slightest doubt. Special thanks to my dearest friend Ms.
Purvashri Bandekar and my fellow classmates Ms.Selista Mallikal, Ms. Simran Mehta, my
senior Ms. Anuja Kulkarni for providing me moral support and helping out with any
confusions. Thank you all for being so patient with me.

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 AIM

The primary vision of this dissertation is to collect and lay out different components of the art
and culture of the Konkan region and put more light on the topics which are not recognized as
much they should have been and considering the view, the topics have been particularly
classified in order to understand them in a better manner.

OBJECTIVES

• The main objective is to understand the historically less explored and very crucial
petroglyph sites of Konkan.

• To study evidence of prehistoric elements around the region.

• To learn about the anceint temples of this region and its significance to the people.

• To undertsand the culture practised in this region.

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 SCOPE

The dissertation covers overall perspective of the following topics provided with required
number of examples. It covers the History of the region right from the Stone age until the
early medieval times covering the culture and art. The study of these sites in depth, will open
different avenues in the further study of history of not only Maharashtra but of India as well.

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 LITERATURE REVIEW

Garge, T. (2019). 6. Tejas M. Garge, B.V. Kulkarni, Rhutvij R. Apte and Sudhir
Risbud. Purakala, RASI.
The following article gave the useful insights on the petroglyphs of konkan and the
recent findings related to them. According to these authors the petroglyphs were found as a
consequence of exploration of the area by local amateurs during the previous five years and
then by the Directorate of Archaeology and Museums, Maharashtra. The Mesolithic,
Neolithic, and Chalcolithic sites in the Konkan region are the subject of several
archaeological investigations by academics. The petroglyphs stretch in a straight line down
the coast for over 170 kilometres and are 25 km wide. Some of the petroglyphs are enormous,
magnificent in scale, and particular to this area. The current research primarily focuses on
three key aspects of Konkan petroglyphs, including historiography, recent finds, and the
preservation techniques used by the Department of Archaeology in Maharashtra.

Shilpa Hadap, P.P Joglekar, A study of cult images of konkan: Traditions,

Religious beliefs and Iconography. 2008-2009

The fundamental goal of this research work is to record local myths, tales, traditions,
and religious beliefs in order to understand how local deities are incorporated into the
pantheon of Hindu gods and goddesses. Village/local deities must undergo a protracted
assimilation process into mainstream religion, which is influenced by a number of intricate
social-historical and cultural elements. The myths and legends that surround a deity in a
particular area are frequently shifting and altering over time. The established image of a
particular Hindu god or goddess may be reflected in many of the iconic forms of a village or
local deity that we see today, but folklore and legends may provide insight into the growth of
that particular deity. By simply viewing the deity from an iconographic perspective, such
information would obviously be ignored. Hence it is aimed to understand the deity as a
product of the dynamic interaction between many cultural and historical causes and processes
beneath the devotion rather than as a static entity in a broader context of investigation.

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Sonam Ambe: Transformations of Konkani Khele.
Khele is one of the various performance art genres that originate from the Konkan
region of western India, which runs along Maharashtra. Khele, means both play and dramatic
performance,it is a three-hour night performance told by the Kunbi people of central Konkan
in Ratnagiri region. It tells mythical tales from the Puranas, Ramayana, and Mahabharata.
The Kunbis cultivate their land for rice until July, after which time the farm no longer needs
active labour and the farmers are at leisure until Diwali. Post-harvest is another time when
farmers don't have to work as hard. During this time, they practise and perform khele as well
as play jhakadi in their verandas.The history of khel, its organisational structure, and its
pattern of progression are all covered further.

Dokras, U. (2021). Goan Hindu temples.

The article talks about the architecture and the cultural significance of the temples of
Goa which are very common throughout south konkan. It explained about the Gods and
Goddesses present in most of the Konkani templesand the about the temple being a centre of
social and cultutal activities in the village. The architecture which we see now it mostly of
wood calles as Kashtashilp in local language being one of the speciality. There are very few
ancient temple sites spread throughout, and ,any ancient temples are now rebuilt. The
original temples were made of sedimentary rocks, stones, wood and limestone. Black stone
built in Kadamba and Hemadpanti style were very rare. The present day goan temples are of
Nagara architecture with some alterations, this kind of architecture is unique in India.
Features with the temple complex have been explained along with examples.

Vinayak Narayan Shenvi Dhume, Devabhoomi Gomantak

The book named Devabhoomi Gomantak by Vinayak Shenvi Dhume gives indepth
information about the various temples and the culture practiced in those temples from Goa.
Most of the temples are Kuldaivta temples. Even after many persecutions and temple
destructions faced by out ancestors, they have preseved the culture well and this shows their
commitment towards the Dharma. These temples are not just a place of worship but a social
institution according to the author. Regardless the size of any temple, they conatin a pantheon
of images of Hindu Gods and Goddesses. Lord Shiva is the most venerated god throughout

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the Konkan region. The temple architecture, different iconographies, festivals of the temple
etc have been beautifully mentiones in this book.

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 METHODOLOGY

The present study specifically covers a broader perspective related to the Art and Culture of
the Konkan region. The discovery of Petroglyphs in this region has given a lot of attention
from the academic and research point of view. Numerous proof of prehistoric occurrences
connected to the culture and way of life of the people of Konkan. The presence of ancient
temples, different gods and goddess, their iconography and importance. This shows the
cultural and artistic historicity of this region. For my research, I have collected the data from
few books, scholarly articles and research papers. I have divided the chapters into art and
culture giving adequate information on the respective topics using the Qualitative research
method. The collection of historical data is accomplished through methodical and
comprehensive research in primary and secondary sources. The present study specifically
covers a broader perspective related to the Art and Culture of the Konkan region. The overall
research follows a general pattern of providing data over existing surviving evidences. Lastly,
I have concluded and analysed the dissertation, by giving an overall understanding of its art
and culture.

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 INTRODUCTION

The konkan region lies on the western part of the country comprising of Maharashtra, Goa
and Karnataka. This section particularly focusing upon Maharashtra lies between the Arabian
sea and the Western ghats or the Sahyadri region. There is a vast coastline of more than 700
kms in length. The districts of Mumbai, Thane, Raigad, Ratnagiri and Sindhudurg come
under the Konkan region. Rainfall is abundant in this region and there are many seasonal
rivers. The soil found here is laterite type and and only about one – third land is cultivable as
the rest of the surface is covered with rock. The population on the northern konkan region
that is Mumbai city is technologically and industrially much developed than the southern part
which is very fertile and major occupation here is Agriculture.

The Konkan region, which includes the coastlines of the Indian states of Maharashtra, Goa,
and Karnataka, is home to the Konkan art form in large part. The rugged Western Ghats to the
east and the Arabian Sea to the west are separated by the slender Konkan Coast. Hindu
mythology credits Lord Parashurama (the sixth avatar of Lord Vishnu), who gave land to his
followers along the west coast by lowering his axe to the earth, which caused the oceans to
roll back and reveal land for them to live on, with the construction of this coastal strip.
According to historians and anthropologists, the axe may be a reference to the manufactured
implements employed during the Iron Age. These tools may have been used to clear the dense
woods that descended the Western Ghats, opening up space for the agrarian people that would
have existed there. The raised plateaus to the east of the Western Ghats have a different
culture than the Konkan Coastal Landscape, which is distinctive in its own right. It sustains a
sizable agrarian population, whose crops are irrigated by rivers that rise in the Western Ghats
and flow towards the Arabian Sea to the west. There is also a sizable population of fishermen
who have relied on the Arabian Sea as their principal source of food for many years. Every
cultural landscape has a natural tendency to change over time and express particular aspects
of its culture through material arts like music, dance, art, folklore, cuisine, etc.

The Konkan has only partially shed its early-day appearance as a sparsely populated
woodland, according to historians. The North Konkan; in contrast, the South has a population
that is disproportionately dense to its arable land. However, it is possible to say with certainty
that the area was until a relatively recent time a place "where beasts with man divided empire
claimed." The population has always been Maratha, but there is a significant disparity

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between the people who live in the northern and southern halves. Castes are scarce and
clearly defined in the latter, where the population is exclusively Maratha; yet, in the north,
there are.

Even though the Konkan can hardly be described as historically famous, its long coastline,
accessible harbours, and relative proximity to the Arabian coast made it known to the first
travellers, and in later times, its natural strength and the character of its people gave it much
greater importance than its wealth or size would have justified. The Buddhists, and then the
Bráhmans, chose Sálsette for one of their most important monastic centres. The cave temples
in other areas of the Konkan are very impressive. There are still a sizable number of Pársis
Jews, Abyssinians, and perhaps Arab immigrants today. The Portuguese first settled in India
on the coast of the North Konkan, which the Musalmans had two or three famous markets on.
The Portuguese also established factories in the South Konkan at the beginning of the
seventeenth century, along with the English, Dutch, and French. Later, the great Maratha
founder decided to make a Konkan hill-fort his capital. And when the pure Maratha dynasty
lost power after two or three generations, the Konkani Bráhmans, also known as Konkanasths
or Chitpavans, inherited it and expanded the Maratha conquests across the majority of India.
The Konkan hence has many well-known connections despite never having been more than a
province of any inland monarchy. And if the island of Bombay is included in it, as it is
geographically, the Konkan can also be claimed to be one of the largest modern commercial
hubs. However, the focus of this memoir does not include Bombay's history, so it must be
acknowledged that the Konkan has lost the majority of its importance during the past 100
years and, if not for its proximity to Bombay, would be considerably less so than it actually
is. In fact, the Thána district has benefited from both the trains that end in Bombay and the
roads that cut through practically all of it. But the construction of wheeled vehicle-compatible
roads has only recently begun in any of the districts south of Bombay, and many areas of the
south, as well as the entirety of the Jawhár and Janjira states, still lack cart roads. Only eight
cart roads run the length of these mountains from the Dakhan to the coast, and of those, the
two main ones have been somewhat supplanted by the railways that run close by. The Gháts
act as a wall separating the Konkan from the vast plains of the Dakhan. In reality, the Konkan
has not been impacted by any of the factors that have brought riches to the rest of the
Presidency in recent years, with the exception of a relatively tiny portion of the northern half.
Therefore, the country's interest must depend on the natural beauty of its surroundings, its

15
historical significance, and the character of its citizens; in these regards, it need not fear
comparison with the more favoured and celebrated provinces of India.

In Ancient times since the stone age, and after it was a trade centre with the greeks, persia,
egypt. Huge ships laden with materials like carpets, horses and precious metals not available
were brought in India. Starting from the Mauryan dynasty found its way to Konkan after they
incorparated the western coast of Maharashtra. The earliest evidence related to the Mauryas
is of the Girnar rockcut edicts of the great Mauryan emperor Ashoka of Pataliputra (Patna)
refer to the people of the Konkan, and their rules as the Bhojas who were the vassals of the
Maurya empire. The Western Maurya Kingdom comprised the Lata or South Gujarat, coastal
Maharashtra, Goa, and approximately half of the North Kanara district. After the Maurya
Empire had passed its meridian in the 2nd century BC its satrap in Aparanta made himself
independent. A scion of the imperial Mauryas, founded a dynasty that ruled over the west
coast for nearly four centuries from its capital Shurparaka or modern Sopara. This dynasty
was known as the Konkan Mauryas. Goa was called Sunaparant by the Mauryas. During this
era, Buddhism was introduced in this region. Then consecutively between the 2nd century CE
to 6th centuey CE, Konkan was ruled by Satvahanas, the Abhiras, the Kalachuris, the
Traikutakas, the Chalukyas, the Kadambas of Goa the Rashtrakutas, the Shilahars, and Yadav
dynasties. (Maharashtra Gazetteers)

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 PREHISTORY OF KONKAN

• Petroglyphs of Konkan

In prehistoric art the term petroglyphs (derived from the Greek word "petra" meaning stone,
and "glyphein" meaning to carve) is used to describe any image created on a rock surface by
scouring, scratching, engraving, chiseling, carving or any similar method (Cork). Rock
engravings are by far the most ubiquitous type of Stone Age art, having been found in all
parts of the prehistoric world. They have been discovered on their atop hillocks in the
Konkan region of western Maharashtra. Mostly discovered in the Ratnagiri and Rajapur
areas, a majority of the images etched on the rocky, flat hilltops remained unnoticed for
thousands of years. Compared to the rest of the nation, this region's historical relevance has
not been fully investigated, but in recent decades, significant archaeological finds have been
made that place this area's historical significance in antiquity. Petroglyphics have opened a
doorway into this konkan's ancient world and provided us with a wealth of astounding
inventiveness. Archaeologists have unearthed more than 1,500 exquisite rock sculptures,
which they estimate to be 10,000–20,000 years old and to date from the Mesolithic age. Their
primary subjects are animals, birds, aquatic creatures, human figures, geometrical patterns,
and abstract designs. They are carved into the flat, open surface of laterite rock. Numerous
petroglyphs remain unidentified for a variety of reasons, although research into them is still
ongoing. As there is no indication of writing, agriculture, economic activity, living
arrangements, or settlements—all necessary components of a civilization—in this area, the
petroglyphs are not yet proof of a civilization. Before about 3,000 BCE, when the first
mention of painted pots and clay figurines is found, there is no indication of any art being
practised in Maharashtra's cultural archives. For a deeper understanding of the history of this
area and its artistic traditions, this is why these petroglyphs are a significant discovery. If this
theory is confirmed, then evidence from places like Bhimbetka, where artwork has been
dated from ancient times all the way up to the mediaeval period, may indicate that this area
has been continuously inhabited for thousands of years, maybe by different nomadic tribes.
The first of these sites was discovered in 2012, but the locals were already aware of some of
the petroglyphs as cultural artefacts left by their ancestors. These Konkan petroglyphs have
now been added to the list of potential UNESCO World Heritage Sites. (Tejas M. Garge)

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Barsu Sada

The Barsu sada is a plateau region located in the Barsu village of the Rajapur district and also
close to the coastal region. This site is comprised of more than 62 petroglyphs which is one
among the largest number of petroglyphs. A more prominent petroglyph which we find here
is of the Master of Animals or Tarawacha sada in the local language. The image is of a human
appearing to hold two animals by the neck/throat or legs, the animals themselves appear to be
possibly tigers. Complex geometric designs have been carved inside these two large animals
with fishes also carved around the image of the person. The human image also seems to have
potentially two heads, neither quite to scale in comparison to the body. (Tejas M. Garge)

This particular iconography is known as "Master of Animals" and can be found in many
ancient civilizations. Apart from India, Mesopotamia, Egypt, and the Achaemenid Empire
also used this subject extensively in their art. Although the motif used in the works may vary
depending on the culture, the figure could be either a man or a woman. One of the earliest
examples can be found on the 3250 BC or earlier Gebel el-Arak knife from Egypt's past.
Another Egyptian example from the same time period was discovered in Tomb 100 at
Hierakonpolis. Moving closer to India, these images can be found on Indus Valley seals that
date between 2500 and 1900 BC. (Arnold)

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 The Master of Animal petroglyph at Barsu Sada.

The next petroglyph from this region is of a human with fish, aquatic mammals, and a bird. It
is visible that a man is holding something upon his head prabably a fish. It has fishes on both
the sides which look like swimming towards the figure. On the left side leg of the figure is a
bird image which does not goes well with the overall image. (Tejas M. Garge)

Figure with fishes, aquatic animals and a bird

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Devache Gothane

A petroglyph with an intriguing strong magnetic anomaly can be seen at a village in the
Rajapur district. It is a human figure around 8 feet tall, with a bulge above its head that makes
it significantly larger than average. Although it might have been detailed in the past, the head
is not detailed presently. This site, found in 2015, is shrouded in mystery. The magnet fully
deviates from its normal polarity when compasses are placed on various spots on the human
torso. The cause of this phenomena, which only appears on this site, is still unknown. (Tejas
M. Garge)

Petroglyph at Devache Gothane

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Magnetic compass deviation

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Devihasol

A stunning village called Devihasol can be found in Ratanagiri district's Rajapur taluka
beside the Muchkundi River. Near a temple dedicated to the goddess Aryadurga, there is a
petroglyph that has been meticulously and profoundly engraved. It is an abstract square-
shaped pattern with zigzag edges that resemble wavy snakes. A smaller square with
comparable irregular patterns in perfect grids is included within it. Strangely, there is a stone
in the centre of the petroglyph, and according to the villagers, the devi sits there for 10 days
during the durga festival without being disturbed. Additionally, the zigzag exterior guards are
designed to keep people outside. It's also thought that the Pandavas constructed this. (Garge

T. (., 2019)

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Kudopi

Situated in the Malwan tehsil of Sindhudurg district, the petroglyphs found here are more
than 80 and spread across in 3 clusters. There is a variety in terms of the designs and the
Petroglyphs found here are two human figurines, circles, fish (two of them swimming in a
row in a water body) probable bird paws, Mother Goddess with an infant, an Eagle and
perfect geometrical images more in a free hand style and it could also be possibly associated
with shamanism. The Mother Goddess found here is having an baby in her hand which is not
so clear and the ‘V’ shown indicates her vagina this is seen in many other cultures as well. It
is the only site with the depiction of concentric circles or rings and cup marks. These
geoglyphs are etched. (Lalit)

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Kasheli

The largest collection of rock engravings in the entire Indian subcontinent may be found in
Kasheli village in Ratnagiri, out of all the petroglyphs that have been discovered so far. The
centrepiece is a huge elephant, within of which are several different carved animals, including
aquatic, terrestrial, wild, and a few abstract images. The elephant's trunk extends all the way
to its feet. Even outside of the elephant engraving, there are a few carvings of deer, rhinos,
stingrays, birds, etc. There is no other known Indian context site with such a substantial and
intricate composition of etched art. Within a 20 m radius of the elephant sculpture are
microliths made of quartz and quartzite. These images might not have been carved with them
because doing so would have required relatively large and powerful tools. To see the
complete elephant engraving, an overhead shot is required. (Tejas M. Garge)

Various animals engraved inside and outside the elephant

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Rundhe Tali

The petroglyph site discovered in 2016 near Rajapur gives us an ashtonishing experience as it
has an intricately carved geometric design which is also symmetrical and has a human in the
centre holding two staffs. The name tali comes from ‘tal’ which means a lake and this site is
also few cm deeper than most of the sites. The geometric pattern is square in shape, but has
three other figures on the three sides being a jellyfish, a tiger and a pair of legs. (Garge T. (.,
2019)

Petroglyph in Geometric pattern

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Niwali

The first collection of petroglyphs to be uncovered in Konkan was unearthed at Niwali, a

village in Ratnagiri, in the 1980s. It is located on a roadside. Mr. Sudhir Risbud, a renowned
konkani petroglyph researcher, came across this site while riding his bicycle alongside the
road. This sparked his interest in looking for more petroglyphs. The petroglyph is vast and
may only be seen partially presently. Very skillfully and meticulously carved, the designs lack
any pattern—or at least we haven't found it yet—but there are a few rows and columns and a
little bit of symmetry in some places. By erecting a temporary barrier, this has been protected,
yet beyond it, mining activity is still visible. A few metres distant from this location, one that
is similar can be seen. An elaborate design with a central cross, an S-shaped border, and a
rectangle or square panel frame the design. A surrounding wall made of laterite bricks has
partially shielded the site. The image below demonstrates how near these mining activities
were. A jellyfish, sea cucumber, sea turtle, and another set of carved legs are all located close
to the main panel. (Garge T. (., 2019)

Geometric pattern Half pair of legs

Abstract turtle Sea cucumber

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 • Ancient caves of Konkan

Following the petroglyphs found in konkan, the existence of few prehistoric caves can also be
seen. Since the last two decades, researchers from Maharashtra are trying to unfold the
prehistory of Konkan from the discoveries they are uncoiling. These caves in Konkan area of
Maharashtra are believed to hold clues to the creators of petroglyphs, prehistoric forms of
communication and engraved art, found on laterite rocks in the region. Along with the caves,
there has also been unearthing of numerous stone tools which differ in the period when they
were made and also in size and shapes.

The Acheulian human cave found at Susrondi - Palshet in Guhagar taluka of Ratnagiri district
was discovered in 2001 by Prof. Ashok Marathe from the Deccan College, Pune. It is said to
be the first manmade cave discovered from this region and must atleast be ninety thousand
years old. The cave is located in a purple rock near the source of the ‘Sundar’ river in the
Susrondi area. The cave is next to a waterfallabout four and half metres high in the same river
bed. At a depth of 7 meters, fifty-four archaic tools such as hand axe, chopping axe, farsi,
taswa were found. (Marathe)

Palshet Cave

27
 Stone tools found at Palshet cave

The remarkable discovery of cave from Koloshi village, taluka Kankavli is also expected to
shed light on the early human life in the Konkan region. The cave, which is situated in a
secluded forest in Sindhudurg, was discovered by researchers who were studying rock
carvings in nearby areas. Excavation work was conducted in two rounds, during which
archaeologists dug two trenches inside the cave. Several big and small stone tools dating back
to the Mesolithic period have been found. Over 800 stone tools, including tiny blades, used
by humans. The unearthed stone tools and tips, called microliths, are of different sizes.
Hundreds of artefacts in the batch are from the Mesolithic period and some from the lower
and upper Palaeolithic periods. The microliths, or the small stone tools, date back to around
10,000 years, whereas the larger tools could be around 20,000 years old. The tools which
includes ringstones, spades, blades, core and hammer stones, all between 2cm and 15cm in
size, has survived against all odds. Microlithic components are dispersed over the floor of the
Koloshi cave and the slope leading up to the cave (stone tools). Moreover, objects composed
of fine-grained quartzite that are terminal-Palaeolithic-like or typologically older, such as
tanged points, choppers, hammerstones, anvils, cores, flake scrapers, and other artefacts
including tiny cores, have also been discovered. The researchers discovered that the use of
such fine-grained quartzite is uncommon at most Indian Mesolithic sites, and exact dating of
the site will show the true age of human habitation episodes here. Despite the fact that no
animal remains have been found, the presence of quartzite tends to indicate that small- to
medium-sized mammals may have been known to hunt and may have been hunted. In the
Konkan region, however, there is relatively little evidence of ancient occupation and related
sedimentary accumulations of cultural artefacts. Yet, the Konkan region's contemporary

28
environmental analogues imply that the cave may have been used seasonally during the
monsoon season. (Tejas M. Garge B. K., 2018)

The work at Koloshi possibly addresses an important time in human evolution: the
Palaeolithic to microlithic transition and replacement of various populations over time
including the prominent presence of prehistoric Homo sapiens,” “Plus it is important to study
the prehistoric period and disseminate information about our heritage to the local
communities,” (Chauhan, 2019)

Koloshi Caves

Stone tools at Koloshi

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Microliths at Koloshi

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 Architecture and Culture of Konkan Temples.

The majority of those who take the Bhaktiyoga (Path of Devotion) to God-realization start off
by adoring a Deity. Puja (Ritualistic worship) requires a temple as a minimum. The Devghar
is made without much consideration for its scientific component and is instead designed for
convenience or as a showpiece. In spirituality, each act is performed in a particular way
because of certain scientific principles. The Temple's placement, colour, shape, aesthetics,
and placement of Deities within it in accordance with Spirituality. In the marathi language, a
temple is referred to as a deul or sansthan. The social, cultural, and economic hubs of
Konkan's villages, cities, and other settlements used to be these temples. These were referred
to in Konkani as gramasansths. (Dokras)

In the past, a temple in Konkan was (and in some cases still is) the focal point of a hamlet,
and people's lives were entwined with these temples and their festivals. According to a set of
guidelines, the villagers split up the communal property. The temple's patrons, known as
Mahajana, are mostly members of Brahmin communities with a small number belonging to
Kshatriya communities. The maintenance of the temple was previously handled by this
Mahajani method. Most temples are solely dedicated to the veneration of Panchyatan, an Adi
Shankara creation. A Panchayatana is of the following deities:

• Devi ( e.g. Shantadurga, Bhagavati, Navadurga, Mahalakshmi, etc. )

• Rudra or Ishwara ( e.g.Manguesh, Nagesh, Shivnath, Damodar, Gananatha )
• Ganesh ( e.g. Mahaganapati )
• Keshava ( e.g. Lakshmi Narayana )
• Aaditya ( e.g. Surya Narayana )
In addition to these deities following deities are also worshipped.
• Kulpurush - Family Ancestor
• Ravalnath
• Bhutnath
• Gram Purush
• Kshetrapal

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The cult images of dieties from Konkan.

The term "cult" refers to a system of religious devotion to a certain person or thing by a group
of people who have similar religious or spiritual views, particularly when that figure or thing
is viewed as having an anthropomorphic, zoomorphic, or amophic form.
In Konkan, there are still many folk deities that are worshipped that have a much longer
history than the Vedic deities and are more well-known than common deities like Siva and
Vişnu. There are numerous Yonipithas and Linga stones distributed throughout Konkanese
communities. In Konkan, the yaksa puja is still in use. These deities are now worshipped in a
variety of ways. Although they do the rites differently, the essence of worship remains the
same. This custom is passed down from generation to generation, and the ancient ideas are
still held dear by the populace.

Since ancient times, the culture has continued to evolve with various developments. This
culture has cult pictures of the Konkan. This research will give an overview of some
significant facets of Konkani folk culture.

In the past, fertility was considered to be the most significant part of life. Linga puja and Yoni
puja consequently became significant cultural rites. People's memories of this devotion are
still filled with its tradition. The ancient Naga tribe, where one of the Naga lineages by the
name of Kunkan took control and governed for a while, had a significant influence on the
culture and beliefs. That may be the cause of the peculiar folklore and customs seen in a few
of these places. For instance, the inhabitants here still believe in ghosts and are afraid of
venerable ghosts like Vetal, Jakin, etc. A distinctive aspect of the local culture in this area is a
folk drama known as Dashavatari Khel that is weaved around mythological stories and
develops on the spot.The following are few iconographical examples of the gods and goddess
from small villages of Konkan:

1) Brāhman Dev

This is depicted as two Sivalingas. The deity in an example from temple situated in the heart
of Tervan village is known as Gägodeva. Also, other deities called, Gāgo Mhārkyā. Rākşak,

Mhāpuruş, Gāgo Vithalāi, Sipai, Gāgobā, are installed on the plinth in this small temple.

Gago Mharkyā is an abstract (Avvakta) deity and local people call it Gāgo Mhārkyā. This

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stone does not have any particular shape.

2) Khem

Khem may be the corrupt version of Ksem. Kşem means welfare, well-being, and happiness,
In Pali and Prakru lt Ksem are converted in Kha. Changes of this kind offen occur in local
languages. The story goes that this deity (Kşem) used to travel/ move to small Villages
around Karde. Earlier the idol of Khem was taken in procession from one village to another
on the circumference of the village Karde at the time of festivals. Once when the god was on
this round, a deity caled Nāntekarīn from a nearby village followed him and migratedfrom
her original village to Karde. After this incidence, the ancestors of the víllagers decided not to
take the procession out of village Karde. The Nantekarin was installed outside the temple. It
shows that the villagers had not accepted her (perhaps socially), and did not give her a place
in the temple. Symbolically, the episode expresses a social, moral aspect of the society.
Nãntekarīn's migration was not acceptable, and thus teaches a lesson. If any villager has a
keep or a concubine, the society will not accept her. It indicates a taboo on this kind of liaison
in villages. We can conclude that small villages and societies give their moral lessons,
through the myth, attached with village deity. The image of Khem has a face with moustache
and has an appearance of a Mukhalinga.

3) Chavhātā / Muňjā

People believe that, there are two kinds of Bhūts (ghosts) malignant and friendly. Muňjā is a
malignant spirit in Konkan. It is believed that when a boy, dies without undergoing the sacred
thread ceremony (an initiation rite) turns into a Muňjä.

4) Linga

This linga is not a symtbolic shape, but an actual depiction of a human phallus. This linga is
found in a recess of the rampart of Mahākāli temple at Adivare. Now people do not worship
the linga in its origial form, but Worship their symbolic substitutes. In ancient times,
Sivalingas were depicted as a perfect copy of the human phallus, after erection Then later this
form was converted, first in to a beautiful pillar and still later into a square, polygonal or

33
cylindrical pillar. Thus, it became a totally different form from the original form of the human
phallus. All thesechanges took a long time (from the 2nd century B.C. to the 12th century
C.E) (Joshi, 1979). Probably, the date of Adivare Sivalinga may go back to at least 12th
century A.D. or it may be a later version of the ancient tradition, and an exarmple of
continuity of tradition.

5) Ravalnäth

A protector god known as Kshetrapala, Ravalnath guards the area against natural calamities,
witchcraft, and snakebites. In most villages in Goa and Sindhudurg, Maharashtra, Ravalnath,
Santeri, Bhumika, Bhutnath, and Betal are worshipped as Gramadevatas (village gods). This
deity is housed in a separate temple in the Mahākäli temple complex in Adivare village.
There are five deities in this temple complexand Ravalnäth is one of them.

6) Nagareswara

Nagareśwaru is a village deity. In the Siva temple, there is very big ant-hill. Now this ant-hill
has grown to a height of more than that of the temple roof. Villagers believe that during the
monsoon season. not a single drop of water goes inside this ant-hill. To them this seems to be
is an important aspect of the power of Nagareswara.

7) Mankarī

Five stones are combined into a deity called Mänkari. Villagers believe that they are five
recipients of honour. They choose five gods from a total of twelve villages, It means that they
are five recipient of honour from twelve villages.

8) Bhüt

The bodyguard / surity guards of Jäkädevī of Kasheli village are depicted in the form of
stones as symbol of ghosts.

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9) Bhairavanāth

Bhairavanāth is an important deity of villages of Konkan. Villagers ask for an oracle (Kaul)
from this deity. For that, they use only the flowers/ buds of a tree named as Devhārī. This
ritual is done on 'Simagā'. On Närali Paurnimã, before Gokul Aştami, the villagers dance in
front of this deity. At that time, they sing a song - Sabole Dada'.Only the Marāthã Kunbi and
Bahujan Samāj worship this deity. Villagers ask for oracle from 'Devāchā Tandalā' twice in a
year. There are two wivesof the Bhairavanāth. One is Jogeśwari and the other is Käleśwarĩ.

10) Vyāghreśwara (Vaghobā)

The temple of Vyāghreśwara at Asud is approximately 800 years old. lt is said that, in ancient
times, many tigers lived in this area, and so, people called this deity Vyäghreśwara. Earlier
the deity was called as āghobā and then the name was coVerted into Vyāghreśwara clearly
indicating an attempt to uplift the status to an ancient local deity. Vyāghreśwara means god
Siva as the eontroller of tigers and IS depicted as Sivalinga.

11) Kälbhairava

Kālbhairava is another very important deity, He is depicted as riding on a horse. The image
has four hands, He holds Triśula, Damaru, Nāg and sword (khadga). In the upper right hand
he holds the bridle of the horse.

12) Jugadevi

This is another village deity with the image having four hands. She holds a vessel shield,
sword and khanjir (a dagger). A small head of a man is depicted near the lower left hand. She
wears a very long garland - Malā /necklace may be the narmundmala, a garland of human
heads. The deity Is seated on a Square Seat. Left foot rests on the right leg. The right leg is
slightly lifted. This deity is worshipped by Lingayat people.

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13) Jakadevi

This deity is a minor goddess of village Kasheli. The idol is in a standing position and has
four hands, In two of the hands she holds a Trisula and a Damaru and the other two hands are
in broken condition. Bhuts are the protectors of this deity. Jākā is the corrupt form of the
word Yakşi. In Päli and Prākrut 'ya is converted into ja and kş are converted into kha.
Samartha Ramdas swami has given the names of the local deitics of Maharashtra in his work
Dasbodha', where in he mentions Jākhmata (Yakşanatā), Jakhin, Zoting, Vetal, Mänayinī. etc.
Today Yakşa puja has become obsolete, but in several villages it still exists in the form of
Lokopäsanā (worship by rural folk). The Yakşâ cult still cxists in people's mind To date, the
villagers worship Yaksa images in Konkan. Now the name is denounced in its corrupt form
and rituals are different, but the main core still exists here. There is one myth related to
Jākādevi. Pujārī of this deity, Jayavant Gunaji told in an interview that, "Kalika from vetye
came to Kasheli to attend her sister's mariage. Her sister Jakadevi wanted to marry Kanäditya
of Kasheli and Kalikä had come there to give away her sister in marriage, She, however,
married Kanaditya herself and Jäkadevi remained unmarried.

14 ) Kaleswari

Kālešwarī is another very powerful goddess of the Murud village and its surroundngs. This
deity is said to be the first wife of Bhairavanātha. Tlhe myth is ihat in a of anger, she went to
live in Khotachi Vadi the upper class residential area. The image has four hands. She holds a
sword and a shield The lower right hand may be in Varadahasta mudra, and in the lower lelt
hand she hods some unidentifiable object she wears a crown of a special/distinct type of
design. This design is called Mukut Bandhan, It is important that she is not depicted wearing
clothes, but is covered from her breasts to her ankle by one big leaf.

15) Kalkai

This deity of Asud village is supposed to be the goddess of the married women. The moment
the bridegroom or his family members do any injustice to the bride, the goddess is said to
come to her rescue and solve all her problems. Because the goddess is so alert and prompt to

36
help the marricd women, people are a little afraid of her and have turned over the idol. The
jurisdiction of the goddess is supposed to be limited only to Asud. The villagers do not light
lamp every day in front of this deity: neither do they worship her every day. They worship her
only on Hanumān Jayanti. (Shilpa Hadap)

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Architecture of temples of Konkan
The Portuguese destroyed the majority of the ancient temples in Konkan, and all of the
worshippers moved along with the god idols to new locations. Stones, limestone, timber, and
sedimentary rocks were used to construct the earliest temples. Black stone structures in the
Kadamba and Hemadpanti styles were quite uncommon. The modern temples have certain
modifications to the Nagara style of building, which is distinctive to India. When viewed
from a variety of angles, the temple might be seen as a mosque, church, or even just a palace.
We do have a lot of ancient temple ruins, although they are few in number. The main
entryway of the temple typically has a water tank called a Tali or Tallay. Goan temples are
easily recognised by their expansive Praveshdwar, often known as the main entryway, which
includes a Nagar Khana. The temple is incomplete without a Deepa stambha. Associated
structures with the temple include:
• Agrashala
• Bhojanshala
• Yagnya-shala
• Vahanshala
• Related offices
• Nagarkhana
The temples are usually painted in white or other light colours, and usually are covered with
clay tiles. A Golden Kalasha is also seen.
The parts of the temple:
• Sabhamandapa
• Antarala
• Chowk
• Garbhagruha ( Garbhakud in Konkani )
• Sarvalli ( Pradakshina marga )

The Ramayana and Mahabharata are represented in wooden sculptures found in the temples.
The Garbhagruha's primary idol is typically built of black stone, however it can also
occasionally be made of shaligra. Two murtis are represented in Goan Konkani temples: the
Utsava Murti, which is on display inside the temple, and the ancient Mula Murti, to which
alankar (adornment) is typically applied. The Utsava murtis are crafted from gold, silver, or
occasionally alloys. There is also a Prasad Murti made of metal. The Chowk pillars are often
made of wood and have detailed carvings. Additionally, there are paintings and chandeliers
adorning the roof. Large bells are hanging at the Chowk's entrance. This location is highly
revered. The Dravidian dynasty's Habu Brahmins are said to have built the temple, which has
exquisite wood and silver carvings. The six pillars in the mantapa or assembly hall display
some of the best artwork that has survived. The oracle pillar at the temple is one of the

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wooden pillars of the mandapa. The Puranas and the Mahabharat are shown in the elaborate
carvings on these pillars. The doorkeepers, or dwarpal, are depicted in exquisitely carved
silhouettes on either side of the doors leading into the inner sanctum.
The temple at home should ideally be made of teakwood or sandalwood. Sandalwood is
pricey and might not be practical for the average person. Teakwood is more affordable and
more able to absorb and emit sattvik (Sattva-predominant) waves in comparison. In the end, it
is the bhav towards God that draws the Divine waves to the top of the temple, where they are
then distributed throughout the home as needed. Although it's currently fashionable to paint
your home's temple a variety of colours for decoration, it's best to keep the wood's natural
shade of pale brown. The Sagu Principle and the Nirgun Principle are the two principles
through which God operates.The colour pale brown represents the boundary between the
sagu and the nirgun, or the stage of the voyage from the sagu to the nirg.Unified. The
formless God belongs to the nirgu group, while humans with the Panchatattvs (Five Cosmic
Principles) as their components belong to the sagu category. Since doing ritualistic acts of
worship for a Deity counts as spiritual practise, it aids a person in transitioning from the
condition of sagu to nirgun, or from dualism to non-duality.
The dome's purpose is to draw in and release Chaitanya's waves into the atmosphere from all
directions. The average person does not have a high amount of bhakti (devotion) and bhav
(spiritual passion). Therefore, it is appropriate for a temple at home to lack a dome so that
any small amount of Chaitanya that is generated as a result of worshipping the Deity does not
spread widely through the temple's dome and the worshipper reaps its benefits. Individuals
with spiritual levels above 50% exhibit high levels of bhakti and bhav, and as a result, the
amount of Chaitanya produced as a result of their worship of the Deity is also high. If such
people have a lofty dome for their temple, the Chaitanya spreads widely through the medium
of this dome, helping not just others but also greatly purifying the surroundings. In this
instance, the greater benefit of society is sought in addition to personal advantages. The
direction of the temple must always be east-west. When a temple faces east, the kriyashakti
(energy of action) that has accumulated in the hollow in the east activates the waves that the
deity emits. This facilitates the transformation of the Deity's nirgun (non-materialized) waves
into sagu (materialised) waves.When the waves emitted by the Deity cause the kriya-shakti
from the universe associated with the east-west direction to manifest, its direction is primarily
upwards. In comparison to downhill mobile waves, upward mobile waves have a
considerably more lasting impact on the environment. Therefore, the direction of the temple
at home should be east-west for the effect of the sattvik waves emitted by the Deity to last
longer. On the other hand, ichha-shakti, which has gathered in a north-south orientation,
flows downward when it is aroused. This flow causes the Raja-Tama waves, which are
known to cause distress, to become active. When compared to the first arrangement, the
benefit received by the individual is less because of this obstruction to the sattvikta emanating
from the Deity.
Indian art utilises a wide variety of woodworking techniques. The study of wood carving
alone has the potential to produce a language of decorative art, and it is a known fact that
carvers of both wood and stone come from the same caste. This can be viewed as another
proof that the two were gradually produced, and at a quite recent period, too. The 'Wood' has
been embellished using a variety of methods, including carving, inlaying, veneering,
lacquering, etc. The type of wood used has a significant impact on the art of wood carving;

39
this is achievable with woods like teak, red wood, walnut, low relief Sheesham and Deodar,
and incised ebony designs. (Dr Uday Dokras)
Following are the few examples of Acient temples of Konkan:

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Tambdi Surla Temple (Shiva temple)
Mahadev Temple, which can be seen in Tambi Surla in Mollem, is the oldest temple in all of
Goa.In the twelfth century, the temple was constructed in the Jain style. There are numerous
intriguing aspects regarding the building itself, which have sparked discussions concerning
the temple's true ancestry. The temple was constructed in a remote area that was far from the
main settlements of the era.Considered to be the only example of Kadamba-Yadava
architecture in basalt stone that has been preserved and is accessible in Goa, the modest,
exquisitely carved, and perfectly proportioned black basalt temple is dedicated to Lord Shiva.

The deity will receive early morning sunlight thanks to the temple's eastward orientation. On
panels along the sides of the temple, bas-relief representations of Lord Shiva, Lord Vishnu,
and Lord Brahma with their respective consorts may be seen. Unexpectedly, the mandap has
a roof made of sloping, plain-gray slabs.There are several nearby stone steps that lead down
to the Surla River. The mandap's centrepiece is a headless Nandi (bull, Shiva's chariot), which
is encircled by four identical columns. On the base of one of the columns is a carving
depicting an elephant stomping a horse, which served as the Kadamba kingdom's
emblem.The inner sanctuary contains a linga (a representation of Lord Shiva) erected on a
pedestal, and according to local lore, a giant King Cobra lives there permanently.The locals
from the nearby villages gather at the temple to celebrate the Mahashivratri festival with
fervour and joy. (Kanitkar)

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Narayandev temple

The remains of an old Narayandev temple, most likely belonging to the 11th century, can be
seen in the little village of Vichundrem in the Sanguem taluka, deep in Goa's hinterland.
Researchers have differing opinions about this website. It is widely believed that it was a
Narayandev temple during the Kadamba era. However, some claim that the statue is of
Padmanabha and that the temple dates from the Chalukyan period, which would place it at
least two centuries earlier, in the 9th century. Despite the fact that Narayan and Padmanabha
are both depictions of Vishnu, there are distinctions in their iconography. (Parrikar, n.d.)

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Kunkeshwar Temple

Ancient Shiva Temple Kunkeshwar is located in Kunkeshwar village, 14 kilometres from

Devgad town. Its attractiveness is enhanced by the immaculate beach that surrounds it, which
has a long stretch of white sand beach. This temple was established in 1100 A.D. by the
Yadav Kings and boasts beautiful architecture that is evocative of South Indian temple
architecture. Chhatrapati Shivaji Maharaj was a frequent visitor and restored this shrine
numerous times. Devotees visit it during the Mahashivratri festival and refer to it as the Kashi
of South Konkan. Everyone who submits to the Shiva deity's feet receives benefits from the
watchful Shiva deity.

Every temple has a special origin tale, and Kunkeshwar is no exception. It tells of how an
Iranian sailor travelled the seas in search of trade. The moment the sailor got within sight of
the Kunkeshwar beach, chaos broke out. The Muslim sailor then pledged to construct a
temple provided the destruction on the sea halted. Sadly, despite keeping his word, he killed
himself out of concern that he wouldn't be accepted by those who practised his religion.
There are Pandav-era caverns with exquisitely carved man and female soldiers in black
granite on the temple's eastern side. Every visitor should visit the temple since it has a
Ganesh idol, a Shiv-linga, and a Nandi in the middle. (Sindhudurg Tourism, n.d.)

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Karneshwar Temple

In the Ratnagiri district, Sangameshwar is a revered religious site that is located where the
Alaknanda, Varuna, and Shastri rivers converge. In Sahyadri Khanda, this area is referred to
as Ramkshetra. The Chalukya king Karna established his capital at Sangameshwar from
Karveer, Kolhapur, in the seventh century. The village was thereafter strengthened and
temples and palaces were built. There are magnificent sculptures in the Karneshwar temple.
Sangameshwara Mahatmya, a Sanskrit pothi composed by Seshakavi from Srikarana
Sudhanidhi book based on poems from Sahyadri volume, contains information about this
temple. building of the Karneshwar temple, etc. Between 1075 and 1095, King Karnadev of
Gujarat's Chalukya clan is thought to have carried it out. The philosophers of the Ratnagiri
district have suggested that this Karna king might have been from Kolhapur.

This temple is designed in the Bhoomi Nagar style and faces east. The temple is located on
Tarakapeeth, with entrances in the west and north in addition to an east-facing main gate. The
temple has numerous sculptures etched into it. Its Bhoomi style Mandapam, Mahamandapam,
Antarala, and Sanctum Sanctorum are all perfectly constructed. The temple is decorated both
inside and out with a variety of embellishments, including dashavatars of Vishnu, rows of
lotus vines, and idols of several gods and goddesses, including Mahishasuramardini,
Nrisimha, Ganapati, Saraswati, Kirtimukha, and Sursundari. They all captivate us with their
black stone artistry. Although the temple is made of black stone, the top of it is covered in
bricks, stone-soil, and a glaze made of jaggery and lime. The founder of the Karneshwar
temple received 10,000 gold coins. An inscription indicating the Dramma and Gadyana
currencies can be found at the main temple's eastern entrance. A donkey is also present. Even
the writing, which includes some foul language, is tattered. There are carvings of Lord
Brahma, Sheshdhari Vishnu, and a sitting Vardalakshmi inside the shrine. There is an idol of
Parvati and a pindi of Karneshwar in the temple's sanctum sanctorum. Within the grounds of
the temple is a Suryanarayana and Ganapati temple. The 12 zodiac signs are marked in the
idol's temple, where Suryamurti is depicted standing atop a chariot drawn by seven horses.
(Sindhudurg Tourism, n.d.)

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45
Roopnarayan Temple.

In Maharashtra's Konkan area, Rupnarayan or Roopnarayan Temple is situated close to

Diveagar Beach. It is a very old mandir or temple that was constructed during the Shilahar
Dynasty's rule in the 13th century. The original temple is in ruins, and nearby is a new temple
constructed of red laterite stone, also known as Chira stone and used extensively in the
Raigad Ratnagiri district of Konkan. The temple is exquisite and has a stone step well on one
side, giving it a Rajasthani appearance. The temple complex is small, but it is located in a
stunning area with lots of nearby trees and the sea. The complex of temples includes two
large temples, an old temple in ruins, a step well, and a pillar for diya illumination. The Lord
Vishnu deity resides at the temple. Black sangamravari rock or black marble was used to
sculpt the idol. Vishnu is seen on the intricately carved rock holding a flower, a chakra, a
sword, and a shell containing a dashavatar (10 avatars). The Swarna Ganesh Mandir (Golden
Ganesh Temple) and Rupnarayan Mandir are next to one another. Portuguese were going to
take the lovely idol, but the people of Diveagar fought back and were able to save the idol.
(Khetwal, n.d.)

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Cultural perfomances.

Khele is one of the various performance art genres that originate from the Konkan region of
western India, which runs along Maharashtra. Khele, which derives from the term khel,
which meaning both play and dramatic performance, is a three-hour night performance told
by the Kunbi people of central Konkan in Ratnagiri region. It tells mythical tales from the
Puranas, Ramayana, and Mahabharata. (Gudekar, n.d.)

It is interesting to note that the Natya Shastra, an old Sanskrit manual on performance arts
that was created to guide court performances and has subsequently permeated folk and local
performances all throughout the subcontinent, is still used to guide the expressions, rasas, and
tone of the khele performance. Characters in khele are referred to as rupa or songa
(representations of the character), and they express their feelings through gestures and words.
Although the play Khele does not explicitly reference the Natya Shastra, there are significant
similarities between the characters Rupaka and the play as a whole as an imitation game.

Khele performances do an excellent job of capturing the nava rasas, which are nine aesthetic
elements that Natya Shastra describes as fundamental to classical Indian arts. You can witness
srungaram (erotic love, romantic love, or as attraction or beauty) rasa in the gavalans'
movements, demeanour, and physical appearance. The character of Vakdya, who alters his
face, bends his body, and walks with a limp to emphasise his peculiarity, is the main example
of the hasyam (humour) rasa in the gavalanicha bhag. His quips and comebacks affect the
audience's mood. While veeram (heroism) rasa may be present in some scenes, such as the
vagh, where the protagonist triumphs in battle or saves his daughter from the clutches of the
antagonist, raudram (anger and destruction) rasa can be observed during fight scenes between
the gods and demons or the protagonists and antagonists. When asuras join the stage, the play
of makeup, costumes, and lighting might be seen as bhayankam (fear) rasa. However, the
rasas karunyam (empathy and kindness), bibhatsam (disgust), and adbhutam (wonder) are not
usually utilised. The Natya Shastra is in harmony with the physical manifestations of
emotions, such as the head bowed to signify shame, the overconfidence, and the timidity.

The Natya Shastra serves as a model for the stage and direction as well. The segmentation of
the stage into kaksha/vibhagan has been skillfully accomplished. In villages, the khele is
performed in the sahan. A section of the hall is designated as the stage, and it is draped in
numerous layers of curtains that also serve as backgrounds. There is no distinct platform for

47
the performance. Near the rear of the stage is a nepatya (green room). As advised by Natya
Shastra, props are brought onto the stage from the right side and removed from the left after
the scene. The horse exits from the left and enters Kansa's court from the right, even when
characters change scenes, as when the young Krishna rides a horse to Kansa's palace.
Distances are represented by dividing the stage into sections. The gavalan and maushi stand
close to a river during the gavalanicha bhag, but the three villagers are actually supposed to
be standing apart from them. The size of the stage, however, forces them to stand close
together while still indicating the distance by using gestures like pointing fingers, squinting,
and eye shade. It is intriguing to observe that despite all the recent changes to the art forms,
the ancient Natya Shastra is still used to showcase the art. (Ambe, 2021)

In the Konkan region, a farming group known as the Kunbis mostly cultivates rice during the
monsoon season and, depending on water availability, various legumes and vegetables during
the winter and summer. The Kunbis' leisure pursuits are collectively referred to as naman aani
nach (reverence and dance); naman is another name for khele and nach is another name for
jhakadi (song-based battle); both terms are closely related to the harvesting timetables. Up
until July, when the farm no longer requires active labour and the farmers are free until
Diwali, the Kunbis cultivate their land for rice. Post-harvest is another rather undemanding
time for farmers. They practise and perform khele during these periods, as well as play
jhakadi in their verandas. (Chapke, 2001)

Young males dress up to play the parts of good and evil, monsters and birds, as well as ladies,
in the performance art genre known as khele, which is predominately male. In the Konkan
region, the performances enhance momentous occasions like marriages and naming rituals as
well as the full moon nights of Holi Purnima. Khele has expanded to include social themes
and current affairs, when historically it was only used to narrate mythological tales and
Konkani folk tales. After dinner, the performance starts late in the evening and continues into
the early hours of the morning with more rasa, rang, and raag.

Thap is the name of the first performance of the year. The monsoon season marks the start of
the Kunbis' calendar year, which is closely related to their work on the farms. After Diwali,
any auspicious day might be chosen for the first performance according to the Hindu
calendar. Several villages decide to hold their first khele performance on holidays like Dev
Diwali, Dutta Jayanti, Makar Sankranti, and others. Khele may last all night in some tribes
while being a brief ritual performed for the gods in others. The performers all agree, however,

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that bad things happen to them and their families if they miss the thap. The thap is a
representation of their adoration for the village god, to whom they dedicate the first
performance or a portion of it. A half-hour prior to the show, some actors don costumes and
visit the hamlet deity's temple. They offer prayers to the god or goddess, engage in a bhajan,
and then depart from the sahan with blessings (the community hall where the act is
performed).

Khele's aesthetic value and practicality as a means of support for its performers go hand in
hand. A new employment in Maharashtra is offered or accepted in exchange for supari (betel
nut). This custom is also used for khele performances, in which audiences pay troupes supari
to play at home-hosted weddings or naming celebrations. The costumes and characters used
in these performances are frequently altered to suit the audience's needs, even when it comes
to stereotyped Marathi in-laws like navarya chi attu (the bride's aunt).

Khele, however, is well recognised for its connection to shigma, or Holi celebrations. In the
Konkan, Holi is just as festive as Diwali is in the Ganges ghats. In many areas, Holi Purnima
is celebrated twice a month rather than just once. Holi festivities start on the fifth day of
Phalgun (around March). Little bonfires are set in various wadis (village neighbourhoods)
every evening. A long, straight mango trunk is chosen from the jungle on the thirteenth day
and cut down for the major Holi blaze. After the palki (palanquin with deities) is lifted and
danced with, the Holi fire is kindled in the afternoon.

The central Konkanese are known for their art, or khele. It provides them with both
enjoyment and income. Since the art is a commodity on the market, it has undergone
adjustments to fit current trends. The screenplay now uses the standard Marathi dialect rather
than the regional dialect, and the show has grown more colourful and flashy. The costumes
and cosmetics are also louder. The place of khele in the hearts of the peasants hasn't altered,
but neither have the stories, bhajans, or characters. (Ambe, 2021)

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 CONCLUSION

The evidence we find in India and around the world makes me wonder like a child how the
ancient humans could have been able to build such magnificent works of art without much
technology. Ancient architecture includes tools, rock arts, caves, stupas, temples, etc.

Even early medieval and ancient temples have varying origin and construction tales, which
are typically heard from the locals who hold a similar view. Their preservation and promotion
has to be bought into notice so that people are more aware of its significance. With the
prehistoric artefacts, engravings, and architecture found there, the narratives of Ancient
Konkan might provide a fantastic study topic.

There is still much work to be done in this vast area, but since 2012, efforts have been made
to try to grasp the traits and dating that would open a new chapter in the history of
Maharashtra and eventually of India as a whole. The locals have an idea about these
engravings as well, however they base their theories primarily on mythological tales and
figures. The study and research that could help us understand the inspiration behind the
construction of these monuments throughout those times is highly valued by experts from
diverse fields of research.

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 ANALYSIS

To learning about the various facets of the individuals in history and what they have left for
us, I have included the cultural and architectural heritage of the region where my ancestors
are from. Although Konkan has not been as thoroughly studied from an archaeological
standpoint as it should have been, recent discoveries show that early humans lived in and
around this area. The petroglyphs found here are unique from historic as well as geographic
point of view, they are much more intricately carved than many other civilizations. An
indepth research into these artistic representations will provide a thorough account of
prehistoric times and the culture of how people survived. Many of the animals depicted in the
petroglyphs are no longer extant in this area. This shows that konkan might have been a
rainforest during the ancient times for these animals to exist. So a lot of work is yet to be
done for opening new avenues of historic facts based on research and evidences.

Sorrounded by natural beauty, its temples also play a major significance from the cultural
point of view. The majority of temples here are Shaivite and also dofferent forms belonging
to the Shiva pantheon. The Kokani people are by nature a open, amiable, and joyful people.
Their culture has a strong emphasis on festivity, which is expressed via the several festivals
that are observed throughout the year. In essence, the Konkani culture is a coastal culture.
They primarily rely on farming and fishing for their livelihood, while some now also rely on
the expanding tourism industry in the area as it is considered a heaven on earth for its natural
beauty. But along with the promotion of tourism showcasing its art and culture, special care
must be taken to protect all the sites or places of worship from vandalism or any illicit
behaviour.

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 BIBLIOGRAPHY

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Chapke, R. (2001). ‘Traditional Folk Media in Rural Maharashtra.

Chauhan, D. P. (2019). Stone tools found in cave.

Cork, V. A. Petroglyphs.

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Dr Uday Dokras, S. D. (n.d.).

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