K.L.N.

COLLEGE OF ENGINEERING, POTTAPALAYAM – 630 612

B.E./B.Tech. DEGREE EXAMINATIONS, NOVEMBER/DECEMBER 2019
Department of Mechanical Engineering
Third semester
ME 8451 - MANUFACTURING TECHNOLOGY - II
(Regulations 2017)
Answer Key
1.What is meant by tool life ?
Tool life is defined as the time elapsed between two consecutive tool resharpening. During this
period, the tool serves effectively and efficiently.

2.Enumerate the differences between orthogonal and oblique cutting.

Orthogonal cutting Oblique cutting
The cutting edge of the tool is perpendicular to The cutting edge is inclined at an acute angle with
the direction of cutting. the normal to the direction of cutting.
The chip flows over the tool face and the The chip flow's on the tool face making an angle
direction of chip flow velocity is normal to the with the normal on the cutting edge.
cutting edge.
The cutting edge is longer than the width of the The cutting edge may or may not be longer than
cut. the width of the cut.

Only two components of cutting forces act on Three components of the cutting forces act on the
the tool. They arc mutually perpendicular to cutting edge of the tool.
each other.
Tool life is less. Tool life is more.

3.How is turret lathe classified ?

Horizontal-Axis Turret;
Inclined-Axis (Tilted) Turret
Vertical-Axis Turret;

4. Write short notes on tool layout.

Turret and capstan lathes arc mainly used for machining workpieces at a rapid rate. Before
stalling the production, the following works arc carried out.
1.Selection of tools
2.Designing of special tools
3.Selection of speed
4.Selection of feed
5.Setting the required length of workpiece and tool travel length.
These planning of operation sequence and preparation of turret or capstan are termed as tool
layout. The accuracy and cost of the product arc largely dependent on an efficient tool layout.
The tool layout mainly consists of three stages.
1.Planning and scheduling stage: preparation of operation sheet with the order of operation.
2.Detailed sketching of various stages of machining operations in a sequence of operations.
3.Sketching the plan showing the various tools fitted into the hexagonal turret faces and on the
cross slides in a proper sequence.

5. What are the different methods of indexing?

 Direct or rapid indexing
 Plain or simple indexing
 Differential indexing
 Compound indexing
 Angular indexing.

6. Explain the principle of Quick return motion.

To convert the rotary motion of a motor into reciprocating motion of the tool, the various types
of drives are provided in the shaper because the metal is removed during forward stroke. But no
metal is cut during return stroke. Due to this, the time taken for the return stroke should be
reduced by making the return stroke faster than the cutting stroke. It is achieved by some quick
return mechanisms.

7. With the help of a neat figure explain a centerless grinders.

Centerless grinding differs from centred grinding operations in such a way that no spindle or
fixture is used to locate and secure the workpiece. The workpiece is secured between two rotary
grinding wheels and the speed of their rotation relative to each other determines the rate at which
the material is removed from the workpiece.

8. Draw a neat diagram of a broaching tool and label its important elements.

9. Brief on the term Numerical control.

Controlling a machine tool by means of a prepared program is known as Numerical Control or
NC.
10. What is NC part programming?
The part program is a set of instructions proposed to get the machined part starting with the
desired blank and NC machine tool. Part programming contains geometric data about the part
and motion information to move the cutting tool with respect to the workpiece.

11. a) Detail on the desirable properties of cutting fluids.

A cutting fluid should have the following properties
It should have good lubricating properties to reduce frictional forces and to decrease the power
consumption.
 It should have a high heat absorbing capacity.
 It should have a high specific heat, high heat conductivity and high film coefficient.
 It should have a high flash point.
 It should be odourless.
 It should be non-corrosive to work and tool.
 It should have low viscosity to permit free flow of liquid.
 It should be harmless to operators and the bearings.
 It should be stable so that it should not get oxidized or decomposed when left in the air.
 It should be transparent so that tire cutting action of the tool may be observed. It is
especially desirable in precision work.
 It should not stain or leave residues on the workpiece surface.
 It should be economical to use
(or)
b. Define Machinability. What are the Factors influencing Machinability of cutting tool.
Machining may be easier in some materials whereas it may be difficult in other. This difference
may be attributed to the machinability of various materials. Machinability is defined as the ease
with which a material can be satisfactorily machined. It can also be measured by the following
factors.
 The life of tool before tool failure or resharpening.
 The quality of the machined surface.
 The power consumption per unit volume of material removed.
In general, a good machinability is associated with the removal of material with moderate forces.
The action of proper chips does not cause excessive tool wear and it produces a good surface
finish. Generally, high hardness gives poor machinability because of high temperature, more
power consumption and high tool wear.
Variables Affecting Machinability
1. Work variables:
 Mechanical properties such as ductility, toughness, brittleness etc.
 Physical properties of workpiece material
 Method of production of the work material.
2. Tool variables:
The various tool variables affecting machinability are:
 The geometry and tool material
  Nature of engagement of tool with the work
 Rigidity of tool.
3. Machine variables:
The machine variables arc:
 Rigidity of the machine
 Power and accuracy of the machine tool.
The machine should be rigid and it has sufficient power to withstand the induced cutting forces
and to minimize deflections.
4. Cutting conditions:
Cutting speed has the greatest influence on tool life. The surface finish is improved by increasing
the cutting speed. Dimensions of cut also have an influence on tool life.
The following are the criteria suggested for evaluating machinability:
 Tool life per grind
 Rate of metal removal per tool grind
 Magnitude of cutting forces and power consumption
 Surface finish
 Dimensional stability of the finished work
 Heat generated during cutting
 Ease of chip disposal
 Chip hardness
 Shape and size of chip.

12. a) Explain in detail thread cutting operation on a Lathe

Thread cutting is the operation of producing a helical groove on the cylindrical
workpiece. When the job rotates, the tool is automatically fed in the longitudinal direction by
using locknut and lead screw arrangements.
The longitudinal feed should be equal to the pitch of the thread to be cut per revolution of
the work. The lead screw has a definite pitch. A definite ratio between the rotation of headstock
spindle with the workpiece and longitudinal feed is found out so that the screw of the desired
pitch can be obtained. The lead screw and spindle are connected by a number of gears which arc
called charge gear. The operation of thread cutting is shown in Figure.
The lead screw is connected to the carriage by engaging the half nut with a lead screw.
So, the lead screw will rotate at the same speed and the pitch of work will be equal to the pitch of
the lead screw when the spindle rotates. Hence, the speed of the lead screw should be changed by
fixing the proper change gears between headstock spindle and lead screw for obtaining different
 pitches on the work. The number of teeth on various change gears may be calculated as follows

= Pitch to be cut on work

Pitch of the lead screw
For example, if the pitch of the lead screw is 6 mm and the pitch of the work is 2mm
Driver teeth = Pitch to be cut on work
Driven teeth Pitch of the lead screw
= =
Therefore, the spindle must rotate 3 times more than the speed of the lead screw. After
finding above gear ratio, the numerator and denominator should be multiplied by the same
number for obtaining the number of teeth of change gears. The lathe is supplied with a set of
gears from 20 to 120 teeth in steps of 5 and one gear with 127 teeth.
Therefore, when multiplying a fraction, a number is chosen in such a way that the
numbers arc within the above range.
Number of teeth on spindle gear = × =
Number of teeth on lead screw gear
Usually, there are two types of gear trains employed.
(a) Simple gear train
(b) Compound gear train.

Figures illustrate the two types of gear trains used for producing right hand and left hand
threads. For cutting right hand threads, the lead screw is rotated in the clockwise direction i.e.
same direction of the lathe spindle. The carriage moves towards the headstock. For cutting left
hand threads, the lead screw rotates in the anticlockwise direction and the carriage moves
towards the tailstock. Usually to cut left hand threads, an idler gear is used to only change the
direction of rotation the driven gear
The Procedure for External thread cutting:
1. The job is mounted between centres or in a chuck.
2. The workpiece is turned to the required diameter i.e. maximum diameter.
3. The gear ratio and the number of teeth required on change gears are calculated.
4. The current size of gears in the change gear train is fixed.
5. The rotation of spindle should be sent one fourth of the speed required for turning. It is for
the purpose of getting a good surface finish on threads.
6. The appropriate tool is selected which is accurately shaped and ground. The form and setting
the tool are checked with the help of a thread template or centre gauge.
7. The cutting tool height is set which is equal to the centre of the workpiece and it is normal to
the axis of work.
8. The cross slide hand wheel is rotated till the tool touches the workpiece. Now, the
micrometer meter dial provided in the cross slide is adjusted to zero and the carriage is
moved away from the workpiece.
9. The tool is fed towards the centre to a distance equal to the depth of cut per pass.
10. The half nut is engaged when any one marking on the dial coincides with a reference mark
on chasing dial. Now, the tool will move in the helical path on the workpiece to form thread.
11. After one pass, the half nut is disengaged and the tool is simultaneously withdrawn. Then, the
carriage is brought to the starting position.
12. The tool is adjusted to the required depth of cut and the half nut is re-engaged for the second
pass. The same procedure repeated till the required depth is obtained.
13. Before re-engaging the half nut for the second pass, it is necessary to ensure that the tool will
follow the same path. It travels in the previous cut. It is called thread catching or picking up
the thread carriage moves towards the

b) Name the important and widely used tool holding devices used in a turret lathe.
1. Straight cutter tool holder
2. Adjustable angle cutter tool holder
3. Multiple cutter holders
4. Offset cutter holder
5. Sliding tool holder
6. Knee tool holder
7. Flange tool holder
8. Collet steady box tool holder
9. Combination tool holder
10. Self-opening type die holder
11. Knurling tool holder
12. Collapsible taps
13. Tap holder.
(1) Straight cutter tool holder:
Only one tool is held in this type of hole. It is also called simple tool holder. The shank
of the tool holder is mounted on the turret face.
Usually, the tool is held perpendicular to the shank axis. The holder is tightened with the tool bit
by three setscrews to perform various operations. It may be fitted in multiple turning lead and
knee tool holder.
Adjustable angle cutter tool holder
It is similar to a straight tool holder but having an angular slot as shown in Figure.The tool is
fitted in this slot by means of setscrews. It helps in turning or boring operations which close the
chuck jaws or to the shoulder of the workpiece.
Multiple Cutter holder
Two or more cutting tools can be held at a time in this type of tool holders as shown in
Figure. Due to this, two or more operations can simultaneously be performed. It lowers the times
of machining. Turning and chamfering tools can be fitted and used at the same time.
Sliding tool holder
This type of tool holder is used for boring, recessing, grooving, facing etc. A slide is provided to
adjust the holder up and down. The vertical adjustment is accurately done by a hand wheel
having a micrometer dial as shown in Figure.
The holder has two holes. The lower hole is aligned with the lathe axis for holding the boring
tool, drilling tool and reaming tool. The upper hole is used for holding a turning tool. The down
feed of the slide can be controlled by adjustable stops.
Offset Cutter Holder
The holder body is offset with the shank axis as shown in Figure 2.11. By this offset,
larger diameter works can be turned or bored.

13. a) With the help of a neat sketch explain a Vertical Milling Machine.
A vertical milling machine can be distinguished from a horizontal milling machine by the
position of its spindle which is vertical or perpendicular to (he worktable. It carries a vertical
column on its heavy base. The spindle head which is clamped to the vertical column may be
swivelled at an angle permitting to work on angular surfaces. The over arm in this machine is
made integral with the column and it carries a housing at its front. The machine is used for
machining grooves, slots and flat surfaces. Generally, the vertical milling machine is used to
perform end milling and face milling operations. Figure illustrates the vertical milling machine.
 The knee carries an enclosed screw jack by means of which it is moved up and down
along the parallel vertical guide ways provided on the front side of the column. The saddle is
mounted on the knee and it can be moved along the horizontal guide ways provided on the knee
towards or away from the column. It enables the table to move in the cross direction. The table is
mounted on guide ways provided on the saddle which is in a direction normal to the direction of
the guide ways on the knee. By means of a lead screw provided under the table, the table can be
moved in the longitudinal direction. Thus, the work gets up and down movement by the knee,
cross movement by the saddle and longitudinal movement by the table. Bower feeds can be
employed to both the saddle and the table. Mostly, the face milling cutters and shell-end type
cutters are used on these machines.

(OR)

b) Describe a gear hobbing machine with a neat sketch.

The process of generating a gear by means of a multipoint rotating cutter called hob is
called Known as hobbing. The hob has helical threads. It looks similar to a worm gear having a
number of straight flutes all around its periphery parallel to its axis. Cutter having grooves is
made with proper rake angle and clearance angle. The hobs may be either a single threaded or a
multi-threaded part.
In gear hobbing operation the gear blanks mounted on a vertical arbor, the hob s rotated
at a suitable rpm, and simultaneously fed to the gear blank. The gear blank is also kept as
revolving. Both hob and blank are made to rotate similar to a worm and worm gear in a mesh.
The rotating hob at suitable cutting speed is fed against the blank. The motion of both gear blank
and hob are maintained continuously and steady. One rotation of the hob makes one tooth on the
gear blank. The process of gear hobbing is illustrated in Figure.
Three important parameters are to be controlled in the process of gear hobbing such as indexing
movement, feed rate and the angle between the axis of gear blank and gear hob. A schematic
diagram of the setup of a gear hobbing machine is illustrated in Figure.
 The axis of the hob is set at an inclination equal to the helix angle of the hob with the
vertical axis of the blank. If a helical gear is to be cut, the hob axis is set at an inclination equal to
the sum of the helix angle of the hob and the helix angle of the helical gear. A proper gear
arrangement is used to maintain the rpm ratio of gear blank and hob. To cut parallel teeth, the
hob axis is tilted through the hob lead angle α.
Here, α = 90° - α1
where α1 - helix angle of the hob thread.
For cutting helical gears, the axis of the hob should be inclined to horizontal by α.If the helix of
hob and the helix of the gear to be cut are different,
Lead angle, α = Ɵ + (90° - α1)
If the helix of bob and the helix of gear to be cut are both right-handed or both left- handed,
Lead angle, α = Ɵ - (90° - α1)
where Ɵ - Helix angle of the helical gear to be formed
α1 - Helix angle of the hob.
Applications:
Hobbing is used for generating spur, helical and worm gears.
Advantages:
 Using a single hob. any number of teeth of the same module can be produced.
 Spur arid helical gears can be producer! using the same hob.
 Several gear blanks mounted on the same arbor can be processed simultaneously.
 It can be used in mass production.
 Perfect tooth profile can be obtained.
 It is a fast and continuous process. Therefore, it is an economical process as compared to
other gear generation processes.
 Lower production cycle time, i.e. faster production rate, ft. The process is automatic
which reduces the cost of labour.
Limitations:
 Internal gears cannot be generated.
 Hobbing process cannot be applied very near to shoulders.

14. a) Explain the applications of various type of abrasives.

Grinding wheels are made up of small abrasive particles held together by bonding
materials. Thus, it forms a multi-edge cutter.
Grinding Wheel Abrasives
 Abrasive is a hard material. It is used to cut or wear away other materials. Small sizes of
abrasive particles are used in grinding wheels. They are called abrasive grains. Abrasives may be
classified into the following two types.
(i) Natural abrasives
(ii) Artificial abrasives.
1. Natural abrasives:
These are produced by uncontrolled forces of nature. These are obtained from mines. The
following are the natural abrasives.
a) Sandstone or solid quartz.
b) Emery (50 to 60% crystalline Al203 + Iron oxide).
c) Corundum (75 to 90% crystalline Al203 + Iron oxide)
d) Diamond.
Natural abrasives lack the uniformity of properties and the reliability has largely been replaced
by manufactured or artificial abrasives.
2. Artificial abrasives:
These are manufactured under controlled conditions in closed electric furnace in order to avoid
the introduction of impurities and to achieve the necessary temperature for the chemical reaction
to take place. These abrasives have better cutting properties and higher efficiency than natural
abrasives. The various manufactured abrasives are:
 Aluminium oxide
 Silicon carbide
 Artificial diamond
 Boron carbide
 Cubic boron nitride.
(a) Aluminium Oxide (Al203):
It is the crystalline form of aluminium oxide. This abrasive carries very hard and tough grains
having sharp cutting edges. It is manufactured by fusing mineral Bauxide in an electric arc
furnace mixed with coke and iron scrap. Here, iron scrap acts as a flux. After fusing, it is
crushed, washed and treated with alkalis. Again, it is washed and finally ground.
Aluminium oxide is tough and less brittle. It is used for grinding materials of high tensile
strength such as high speed steel, malleable iron, wrought iron etc.
The common trade name for this abrasive is ‘Alundunr, ‘Aluminium Oxide, ‘Aloxide’ and
‘Borolon . Aluminium oxide is represented by a letter A.
(b) Silicon carbide:
It is made from silicon dioxide, coke, sawdust and salt. The ingredients are thoroughly mixed
and heated in an electric furnace about 2000°C for 34 hrs. The mass under the action of intense
heat fuses and the following chemical reaction takes place.
Si02 + 3C = SiC + 2CO
The silicon carbide mass is crushed, washed and treated with alkalis. It is again washed and
finely ground into small particles. Silicon carbide is hard and brittle. It is used for grinding
materials of low tensile strength such as grey cast iron, brass, copper, aluminium etc. The
common trade name for this abrasive is ‘Silicon carbide’, Carborundum’, ‘Crystolon and
‘Electron’ etc. It is represented by a letter C.
In general, the physical properties of aluminium oxide are compared with silicon carbide as
follows:
 Silicon carbide is harder than aluminium oxide.
 Aluminium oxide can withstand greater stresses than silicon carbide.
 Aluminium oxide is tougher than silicon carbide.
(c) Artificial diamond:
Artificial diamond is a form of pure carbon which is mainly used for truing and dressing other
grinding wheels for sharpening carbide tools, and for processing glass, ceramics and stone.
(d) Boron carbide (B4C):
It is harder than silicon carbide but not as hard as diamond. It is produced from coke and boric
acid at tremendously high temperatures in an electric furnace. Boron carbide is mainly used for
grinding and lapping very hard metals, hard alloys, glass and jewels.
(e) Cubic boron nitride:
It is another synthetic abrasive that is harder than either aluminium oxide or silicon oxide. It is a
combination of boron and nitrogen. Boron nitride is the second hardest substance ever developed
by man or nature. It is used for grinding HSS cutters, grinding tool-steel, punch-press dies,
grinding some hardenable stainless steels and for internal' grinding of all ferrous metals.
(OR)

b) With the help of a block diagram describe a Vertical Spindle rotary-table grinder.
This machine has all parts similar to a horizontal type machine except that the grinding wheel
rotates about a vertical axis as shown in Figure. The grinding spindle is vertically mounted on
the Face of a column and rotates in a fixed position.

The vertical spindle carries a CUP type grinding wheel. The grinding wheel is lowered for
giving the depth of cut. The rotary table rotates along with the workpiece. The workpiece is
clamped on the table using a magnetic chuck. This grinding machine is used to grinding a large
quantity of small workpieces.

15.a) Explain the architecture of NC system

 Numerical control (NC) refers to a form of programmable automation in which the
mechanical actions of a machine tool or other equipment are controlled by a program containing
coded alphanumeric data encoded on a storage medium. NC machine tools arc the machine tools
operated by programmed commands in contrast to the manual control through hand wheels or
levers, or mechanically automated through cams alone.
Controlling a machine tool by means of a prepared program is known as Numerical
Control or NC. A system in which actions are controlled by the direct insertion of numerical data
at some point is known as NC system. In other words, it is defined as a form of software
controlled automation in which the process is controlled by alphanumeric characters or symbols.
The system must automatically interpret at least some portion of these data.

A general configuration of NC machine tool system is shown in Figure. A NC machine

tool consists of Machine Control Unit (MCU) and the machine tool as shown in Figure. The
machine tool has various drives such as X-axis, Y-axis and Z-axis drives which are driven by the
servomotors. The feedback device or feedback control is used to integrate the MCU and the
machine tool.

The MCU consists of two main units such as data processing unit (DPU) and control
loops unit (CLU) as shown in Figure. The coded information received from a tape reader passes
through decoding circuits of the DPU and send the data to the CLU. These data are used to
control various axes of the machine tool.

The basic elements of a typical NC machine data input, data processing and data output.
For data input, the numerical information is stored in the tape reader, floppy discs or in the
computer memory in the form of programmed codes. For data processing, the programs are read
by Machine Control Unit (MCU) for processing. For data output, this information is translated
into commands in the form of pulsed signals to the motor. The motor moves the table on which
the workpiece is placed in specified positions through linear or rotary movements by motors,
lead screw, ball screw and others devices. A NC machine can be controlled through two types of
feedback controls such as open loop and closed loop systems. It is also classified on the basis of
control systems in numerical control into two types such as point-to-point and contouring.
 In NC systems, the numerical data which are required for producing a part is maintained
on a punched tape is called part program. The part program is arranged in the form of blocks of
information. The block contains the required numerical data to produce one segment of the
workpiece. The punched tape is moved forward by one block each time to complete the cutting
of a segment. The block contains all the information needed for processing a segment of the
workpiece such as segment length, cutting speed, feed etc. in the coded form. The dimensional
information is taken from the engineering drawing called part drawing. The dimensions are
separately given for each axis of motion (X, Y and Z).

(OR)

Explain in detail Machining Centre and its applications

A machining centre is a highly automated machine tool capable of performing multiple
machining operations under computer numerical control in one setup and it can work on more
than one face of a component with minimal human attention. Workers are needed to load and
unload component which usually takes considerable less time than the machine cycle time, so
one worker may be able to tend more than one machine. Machining centres are among the most
popular types of CNC machine tools these days.
The following operations can be carried out on a machining centre.
 Milling
 Drilling
 Reaming
 Boring
 Tapping.
CNC machining centers are usually designed with features to reduce non-productive time. These
features are as follows:
(i) Automatic tool changer:
The tools are contained in a storage unit that is integrated with the machine tool. When a cutter
needs to be changed, the tool drum rotates to the proper position and an automatic tool changer
(ATC) operating under program control, it exchanges the tool in the spindle for the tool in the
tool storage unit.
(ii) Automatic component positioner:
Many horizontal and vertical machining centres have the capability to orient the component
relative to the spindle. It is accomplished by means of a rotary table on which the component is
fixtured. The table can be oriented at any angle about a vertical axis to permit the cutting tool to
access almost the entire surface of the component in a single setup.
(iii) Automatic pallet changer:
Machining centres are often equipped with two or more separate pallets that can be presented to
the cutting tool using an automatic pallet changer. There arc machining centres with six, eight or
more pallets. Workpieces can be set up in all pallets and the machine can be programmed to
accept a new pallet when work on the previous pallet is completed. While machining is carried
out with one pallet in position at the machine, the other pallet is in a safe location away from the
spindle. In this location, the operator can unload the finished part and then fixture the raw work
part for next cycle.
(iv) Multiple operations in one setup:
Most components require more than one operation to completely machine the specified
geometry. Components having complex geometry may require many distinct machining
operations, each requiring its own machine tool, setup, and cutting tool. Machining centres are
capable of performing most or all of the operations at one location. Thus, it minimizes the setup
time and production lead time.
Classification of machining centres:
According to the spindle configuration, machining centres are classified as follows:
1.Horizontal spindle machining centre
2.Vertical spindle machining centre
3.Universal machining centre.
Horizontal Spindle Machining Centre
A horizontal spindle machining centre has the spindle oriented in the horizontal position. These
are generally single spindle machines with automatic tool changers. They are generally bed type
machines. A typical horizontal spindle machining centre configuration is shown in Figure.
I he table of most horizontal machining centres can rotate by cither an indexer or a rotary axis.
This feature helps in multiphase machining at different angles in a single setup. Many horizontal
machining centres manufactured today will also have an automatic pallet danger. It allows the
operator to be loading one workpiece while the machine is running another. Since the horizontal
machining centre allows access to any side of the workpiece, more machining operations can be
done per setup.

The axes of horizontal spindle machining centre are given below.

X axis => Table or column motion left to right as viewed from the spindle
Y axis => Spindle head motion up and down
Z axis Saddle / column / spindle head motion toward and away from the spindle.
Applications
Metal cutting industry for processes.
Milling, Drilling, Boring, Turning, Grinding, Sawing etc.
For production jobs where the
(i) Part geometry is complex.
(ii) Parts and processed frequently are in small lot size.
(iii) Many operations must be performed on the part in its processing.
(iv) Design changes are properly.
(v) Close tolerances are necessary.
(vi) Expensive part and a mistake would be costly.
In addition to metal cutting machines, CNC has also been applied to the following
(i) Welding machines
(ii) Press working machine tools
(iii) Inspection machines
(iv) Wire-wrap machines
Part C

16.) Explain in detail Orthogonal and Oblique Cutting.

Orthogonal Cutting Process
In orthogonal cutting, the cutting edge is straight, parallel to the original plane surface on the
workpiece and perpendicular to the direction of cutting. For example: Lathe cut-off operation,
straight milling, etc. Orthogonal cutting involves only two forces and it makes the analysis
simpler.

Oblique Cutting Process

In oblique cutting, the cutting edge is inclined at an acute angle with cutting direction. The
analysis of the oblique cutting is more complex. In cutting operations such as turning, milling
etc. are oblique cutting.

Orthogonal cutting Oblique cutting

The cutting edge of the tool is perpendicular to The cutting edge is inclined at an acute angle with
the direction of cutting. the normal to the direction of cutting.
The chip flows over the tool face and the The chip flow's on the tool face making an angle
direction of chip flow velocity is normal to the with the normal on the cutting edge.
cutting edge.
The cutting edge is longer than the width of the The cutting edge may or may not be longer than
cut. the width of the cut.

The maximum chip thickness occurs at its The maximum chip thickness may not occur at the
middle. middle.
The tool is perfectly sharp and it contacts the Frequently, more than one cutting edge is in
chip on rake face only. action.
Only two components of cutting forces act on Three components of the cutting forces act on the
the tool. They arc mutually perpendicular to cutting edge of the tool.
each other.
Tool life is less. Tool life is more.

(OR)
b. Explain in detail Tool Wear and also factors influencing tool wear
During machining process, the tool is subjected to three important factors such as forces,
temperature and sliding action due to relative motion between tool and workpiece. In aforesaid
factors, the tool will be giving unsatisfactory performance after some time. It results the loss of
dimensional accuracy, increased surface roughness and increased power requirements etc. The
unsatisfactory performance results tool wear due to its continuous use. Therefore, the tool
requires a periodical reconditioning or replacement. It will result in the loss of production and
also the cost of replacing or reconditioning. Hence, the study of tool wear is important.
Attrition:
In low cutting speeds, the flow of metal from the cutting edge is irregular and less streamlined.
Sometimes, die built-up edge might be formed but the contact will not be continuous. In this
situation, the tool will start to tear from the tool surface. It is called attrition.

It occurs in continuous cutting but with interrupted cutting or due to lack of rigidity of the
machine tool which will generate enormous vibrations and uneven work surfaces. All these
reasons will lead the tool to destroy its cutting edges. Attrition could be minimized by increasing
the cutting speed or using carbide tips as cutting edges where the built-up edge forms.
Diffusion
Diffusion wear happens due to the diffusion of metal and carbon atoms from the tool
surface into the work material and chips. It is also due to high temperature and pressure `existing
at the surfaces in metal cutting and rapid flow of chips .It mainly depends on the metallurgical
properties of tool and work1.23.2. Classification of Tool Wear
The tool wear is generally classified as follows.
(i) Flank wear
(ii) Face wear or crater wear
(iii) Nose wear.

Flank wear
This is also called “edge wear". Friction, abrasion and adhesions are the main causes for
this type of wear. Flank wear is a Hat worn out portion behind the cutting edge. The worn out
region of the flank is known as wear land. This wear takes place when machining the brittle
material such as cast iron. It also occurs when the feed is less than 0.15 /nw/revolution. When the
wear land increases, the frictional heat will cause the excessive temperature of the tool at the
cutting edge thereby decreasing its hardness rapidly and hence, the catastrophic failure of the
tool will occur. Flank wear results in a rough machined surface.
Crater wear:
The face of the tool is always contacted with the chip. The chip slides over the face of the tool.
Due to the pressure of the sliding chip, the tool face gradually wears out. A cavity is formed on
the tool face. The cavity is called crater. This type of wear is known as crater wear. The major
tendency of this type of wear is abrasion between chip and face of the tool. When the cratering
becomes excessive, the cutting edge may break from the tool.
Cratering is commonly occurred while machining a ductile material which produces continuous
chips. Diffusion of metal may be one of the causes of this type of wear. Maximum depth of the
crater is usually a measure of the amount of the crater wear. The tool life due to crater wear can
be determined by fixing the ratio of the width of the crater to depth.
Nose wear:
It is similar to flank wear in certain operations. The wear occurs on the nose radius of tool. When
the nose of the tool is rough, abrasion and friction between tool and workpiece will be high. Due
to this type of wear, more heat will be generated. Also, more cutting forces acts on the tool. This
type of wear is more prominent than flank wear.