Plastic deformation of

metals

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Elements of the theory of Plasticity
The theory of plasticity deals with the behaviour of
materials at strains where Hook’s law is no longer valid
A number of aspects of plastic deformation make the
mathematical formulation of a theory of plasticity more
difficult than theory of elasticity
Plastic deformation is not a reversible process like
elastic deformation
Elastic deformation depends only on the initial and final
states of stress and strain, while the plastic strain
depends on the loading path by which the final state is
achieved
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Elements of the theory of Plasticity…
Moreover, in plastic deformation there is no easily
measured constant relating stress to strain as with
Young's modulus for elastic deformation.
The phenomenon of strain hardening is difficult to
accommodate within the theory of plasticity without
introducing considerable mathematical complexity
Also, several aspects of real material behavior, such as
plastic anisotropy, elastic hysteresis, and the
Bauschinger effect cannot be treated easily by plasticity
theory.

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Elements of the theory of Plasticity…
Plasticity is concerned with predicting the maximum
load which can be applied to a body without causing
excessive yielding
The yielding must be expressed in terms of stress in
such a way that it is valid for all states of stress

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The purpose of theory of Plasticity
The purpose of applying the plasticity theory in metal
forming is to investigate the mechanics of plastic
deformation in metal forming processes.
Such investigation allows the analysis and prediction of
a) metal flow (velocities, strain rates, and strains),
b) temperatures and heat transfer,
c) local variation in material strength or flow stress,
d) stresses, forming load, pressure, and energy.
Thus, the mechanics of deformation provide the means for
determining how the metal flows, how the desired geometry
can be obtained, and the expected mechanical properties of
the part 5
Assumptions in theory of Plasticity
Elastic deformations are neglected. However, when
necessary, elastic recovery (for example, in the case of
springback in bending) and elastic deflection of the
tooling (in the case of precision forming to very close
tolerances) must be considered.
The deforming material is considered to be in
continuum (metallurgical aspects such as grains, grain
boundaries, and dislocations are not considered)
Uniaxial tensile or compression test data are correlated
with flow stress in multiaxial deformation conditions

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Assumptions in theory of Plasticity…
Anisotropy and Bauschinger effects (assume that the
yield stress in tension and compression are the same)
are neglected
Volume remains constant during plastic deformation.
Friction is expressed by a simplified expression such as
Coulomb’s law or by a constant shear stress

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Typical true stress-strain curve for a
ductile metal
Hooke’s law is followed
up to yield stress σ0
Beyond σ0 , the metal
deforms plastically
Unlike the situation in the
elastic region, the stress
and strain are not related
by any simple constant of
proportionality

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Typical true stress-strain curve for a
ductile metal…
If the metal is strained to
point A, when the load is
released the total strain
will immediately decrease
from ε1 to ε2 by an amount
σ/E
The strain decrease ε1 – ε2
is the recoverable elastic
strain

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Typical true stress-strain curve for a
ductile metal…
Depending upon the metal
and the temperature a
small amount of the
plastic strain ε2 – ε3 will
disappear with time
This is known as anelastic
behaviour
Generally the anelastic
strain is neglected in
mathematical theories of
plasticity 10
State of Stress
In a deforming object, different states of stress would exist
depending on the loading conditions and boundary
constraints

Stress acting on an element. (a) Cylinder upsetting process.

(b) Forces acting on an element. (c) Stress components acting on an
element 11
State of Stress
The local state of stress in the deforming cylinder can be
visualized by discretizing the object into small elements
Consider a general case, where each face of a cube is
subjected to the three forces F1, F2, and F3.
Each of these forces can be resolved into the three
components along the three coordinate axes.
In order to determine the stresses along these axes, the force
components are divided by the area of the face upon which
they act
Thus giving a total of nine stress components, which define
the total state of stress on this cuboidal element
This collection of stresses is referred to as the stress tensor
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Stress Tensor

A normal stress is indicated by two identical subscripts, e.g.,

σxx, while a differing pair indicates a shear stress.
This notation can be simplified by denoting the normal
stresses by a single subscript and shear stresses by the
symbol τ.
Thus one will have σxx = σx and σxy = τ xy

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Stress Tensor…
Stresses acting normal to the faces of the elemental cube are
identified by the subscript which also identifies the direction
in which the stress acts; that is σx is the normal stress acting
in the x direction
Since it is a normal stress, it must act on the plane
perpendicular to the x direction
By convection, the values of normal stresses greater than
zero denote tension; values less than zero indicates
compression
All the stresses shown in figure are tensile

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Stress Tensor…
Two subscripts are needed for describing shear stresses
The first subscript indicates the plane in which the stress
acts and the second the direction in which the stress acts
Since a plane is most easily defined by its normal, the first
subscript refers to this normal
For example, τxy is the shear stress on the plane
perpendicular to the x axis in the direction of the y axis
A shear stress is positive if it points in the positive direction
on the positive face of a cube
It is also positive if it points in the negative direction on the
negative face of a unit cube
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Stress Tensor…

Sign convention for shear stress

(a) Positive (b) Negative
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Stress Tensor…
The total stress can be divided into hydrostatic or
mean stress tensor (which involves only pure tension
or compression) and a deviator stress tensor
(represents the shear stresses in the total state of stress
The hydrostatic component of stress tensor produces
only elastic volume changes and does not cause plastic
deformation
Experiment shows that the yield stress of metals is
independent of hydrostatic stress, although the fracture
strain is strongly influenced by hydrostatic stress
Because the stress deviator involves the shearing
stresses, it is important in causing plastic deformation 17
Properties of the Stress Tensor
For a general stress state, there is a set of coordinate axes (1,
2, and 3) along which the shear stresses vanish.
The normal stresses along these axes, viz. σ1, σ2, and σ3, are
called the principal stresses.
The magnitudes of the principal stresses are determined
from the following cubic equation derived from a series of
force equilibrium equations

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Properties of the Stress Tensor

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Properties of the Stress Tensor
The coefficients I1, I2, and I3 are independent of the
coordinate system chosen and are hence called invariants.
Consequently, the principal stresses for a given stress state
are unique.
The three principal stresses can only be determined by
finding the three roots of the cubic equation.

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Properties of the Stress Tensor
The invariants can also be expressed in terms of principal
stresses.

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Yield Criteria
The mathematical relationship for predicting the condition
at which plastic yielding begins is an important
consideration in the field of plasticity
In uniaxial loading, as in a tension test, macroscopic plastic
flow begins at σ0
It is expected that yielding under a situation of combined
stress can be related to some particular combination of
principal stresses
There is at present no theoretical way of calculating the
relationship between the stress components to correlate
yielding for a three-dimensional state of stress with yielding
in the uniaxial tension test
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Yield Criteria…
The yielding criteria are essentially empirical relationships
However, a yield criteria must be consistent with a number
of experimental observations
The important observation is that pure hydrostatic pressure
does not cause yielding in a continuous solid
As a result of this, the hydrostatic component of a complex
state of stress doe not influence the stress at which yielding
occurs
For an isotropic material, the yield criterion must be
independent of the choice of axes i.e., it must be an
invariant function
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Yield Criteria
In simple homogeneous (uniaxial) compression or tension,
the metal flows plastically when the stress, σ, reaches the
value of the flow stress,
In a multiaxial state of stress, plastic flow (yielding)
depends on a combination of all stresses
A yield criterion is a postulated mathematical expression of
the states of stress that will cause yielding
It is a law defining the limit of elasticity or the start of
plastic deformation under any possible combination of
stresses
It can be expressed by f(σij) = C (constant).

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Yield Criteria
For isotropic materials, plastic yielding can depend only on
the magnitude of the principal stresses;
i.e., the yield criteria is expressed in function of invariants
I1, I2, and I3 or f (I1, I2, I3) = C.

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Yield Criteria
The two major yield criteria for predicting the onset of
yielding in ductile metals are
Tresca or shear stress criterion of yield or plastic
flow
von Mises or distortion energy criterion of yield or
plastic flow

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Tresca Yield Criterion
The Tresca yield criterion states that plastic flow starts
when the maximum shear stress, τmax reaches a certain
critical value, k, or when | τmax | = k,
Where k is the value of shear stress in uniaxial-tension test
(characteristic of a given material and its microstructure and
depends on shear strain rate, strain, and deformation
temperature).
This yield criterion assumes that yielding occurs when the
maximum shear stress reaches the value of the shear stress
in the uniaxial-tension test
The maximum shear strength is

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Tresca Yield Criterion…
Where σ1 is the algebraically largest and σ3 is the
algebraically smallest principal stress
For uniaxial tension σ1 = σ0, σ2 = σ3 = 0, and the shearing
yield stress τ0 is equal to σ0/2

Therefore the maximum shear stress criterion is

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Tresca Yield Criterion…
The maximum shear stress criterion predicts that
yielding will occur when

Equation shows that, according to Tresca’s rule, plastic

flow or yielding starts if the difference of maximum
(σ1) and minimum (σ3) principal stresses is equal to the
flow stress, σ0

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Tresca Yield Criterion…
The maximum shear stress criterion is less complicated
mathematically than the von Mises criterion, and for
this reason it is often used in engineering design
The maximum shear criterion does not take into
consideration the intermediate principal stress
It suffers from the major difficulty that it is necessary to
know in advance which are the maximum and
minimum principal stresses
von Mises, criterion is preferred in most theoretical
work
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Tresca’s Yield Locus
A yield locus is a plot of a
yield criterion
When σ1 = σ3 , σ2 =0

Tresca’s yield locus for plane

stress condition (σ2 =0)

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von Mises Yield Criterion
The von Mises yield criterion considers all the stresses
acting on the deforming body and can be expressed as
follows.
The start of plastic flow (yielding) must depend on a
combination of normal and shear stresses, which does not
change its value when transformed from one coordinate
system into another
In terms of principal stresses, the von Mises rule is given by

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von Mises Yield Criterion
In a general way

Equation predicts that yielding will occur when the right

side of the equation exceed the yield stress in uniaxial
tension σ0
von Mises yield criterion implies that yielding is not
dependent on any particular normal stress or shear stress
Yielding depends on a function of all three values of
principal shearing stresses
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von Mises Yield Criterion…
A physical interpretation of the von Mises yield criterion
shows that the left side of equation is proportional to the
energy that is stored in the elastically deformed material
prior to yielding.
This is the energy necessary for elastic volume change.
The flow rule then states that plastic flow starts when this
elastic energy reaches a critical value.
That is why the von Mises rule is also called the “distortion
energy criterion.

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von Mises yield locus
For a biaxial plane-stress
condition (σ2 =0) the von
Mises yield criterion can
be expressed
mathematically as

This the equation of

ellipse and the plot is
called a yield locus
von Mises yield locus for plane stress condition (σ2 =0)
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Comparison of Tresca and von Mises
Criteria

The experimental results agree best with the von Mises

theory 36
Comparison of Tresca and von Mises
Criteria…
The comparison
of Tresca and von
Mises criteria can
be expressed by
superimposing the
elliptical yield
locus (von Mises)
and hexagonal
yield locus
(Tresca) together

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Comparison of Tresca and von Mises
Criteria…
The yield locus for the maximum shear stress criterion falls
inside of the von Mises yield ellipse
In uniaxial tension or compression (points A and B), the von
Mises and Tresca yield criteria exhibit the same values
For conditions of balanced biaxial stress (σ1 = σ3) (point C),
the Tresca and von Mises yield criteria exhibit the same
results.
The greatest divergence between the two criteria occurs for
pure shear (σ1 = - σ3, σ2 =0) (point D)
In pure shear, there is a 15% difference between values of
obtained from the Tresca and von Mises yield criteria 38
Flow Rules
When the stresses at a given point in the metal reach a
certain level, as specified by a flow rule (Tresca or von
Mises), then plastic flow, i.e., plastic deformation, starts.
Similar to the Hooke’s law, analysis of plastic deformation
requires a certain relationship
Such a relation exists between the stresses (in principal
axes) and strain rates

Equations are called “plasticity equations

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Flow Rules…
σm is the mean principal stress given by

The variable λ depends on direction of plastic flow,

temperature, material, strain, and strain rate

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Power and Energy of Deformation
The plastic deformation
processes are irreversible.
The mechanical energy,
consumed during
deformation, is transformed
largely into heat.
Consider the homogeneous
deformation of a block
In homogeneous
deformation, the shear
strain rates are equal to
zero.
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Power and Energy of Deformation…
The instantaneous power of deformation (force times
velocity) is given by

where V is the volume of the deforming block.

The energy of deformation,

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Power and Energy of Deformation…

43
Temperature and Heat Transfer
In metal forming processes, both plastic deformation and
friction contribute to heat generation.
Approximately 90 to 95% of the mechanical energy
involved in the process is transformed into heat
In some continuous forming operations such as drawing
and extrusion, performed at high speeds, temperature
increases of several hundred degrees may be involved
Heat generation is also significant in forgings produced in
high-speed equipment such as mechanical press, screw
press, and hammer.

44
Temperature and Heat Transfer…
A part of generated heat remains in the deformed material,
another part flows into the undeformed/less-deformed
portion of the material where temperature is lower, while
still an additional part may flow into the tooling
With the finite element based process modeling, the heat
generation during deformation and heat transfer before,
during, and after deformation can all be calculated
To ensure accurate heat transfer calculation, correct
workpiece and die interface heat transfer coefficient must
be known.
Using accurate process modeling, the influence of press
speed, contact time, and heat transfer in metal forming can
be evaluated. 45
Temperature and Heat Transfer…
In metal forming, the magnitudes and distribution of
temperatures depend mainly on:
The initial workpiece and die temperatures
Heat generation due to plastic deformation and friction
at the workpiece/die interface
Heat transfer between the workpiece and dies and
between the workpiece and the environment (air or
lubricant and coolant, etc.)

46
Temperature and Heat Transfer…
In processes such as forging and extrusion, the average
instantaneous temperature in the deforming workpiece, θA,
can be estimated by

where θW is the initial workpiece temperature,

θD is the temperature increase due to plastic deformation,
θF is the temperature increase due to interface friction,
θT is the temperature drop due to heat transfer into the dies,
θR is the temperature drop due to radiation to the
environment,
and θC is the temperature drop due to convection to the
environment. 47
Temperature and Heat Transfer…
The temperature increase due to the deformation, in a time
interval ∆t, is given by

UP is the work of plastic deformation per unit volume

is the flow stress of the workpiece
is the effective strain
c is the specific heat of the workpiece, ρ is the density of
the workpiece,
β is the fraction of deformation energy transformed into
heat ; usually, β = 0.95. The reminder is stored
in the material as energy associated with the defect
structure 48
Temperature and Heat Transfer…
The temperature increase due to friction, θF, is given by

where,
μ is the friction coefficient at material/tool interface
p is the stress normal to interface
v is the velocity at the material/tool interface
A is the surface area at the material/tool interface
∆t is the time interval of consideration
V is the volume of the workpiece which is subject to
temperature increase.
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Temperatures in Forging Operations
In forging, the metal flow is non steady state.
Contact between the deforming metal and the dies is
intermittent.
The length of contact time and the nature of the heat
transfer at the die/material interface influence
temperatures very significantly.
A simple example of an operation involving non-steady-
state metal flow is the cold upsetting of a cylinder
In hot forging operations, the contact time under pressure
between the deforming material and the dies is the most
significant factor influencing temperature conditions
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Temperatures in Forging Operations…
Due to strain rate and temperature effects, for the same forging
process, different forging loads and energies are required by
different machines.
For the hammer, the forging load is initially higher but the
maximum load is lower than for either hydraulic or screw
presses.
The reason for this is that in the presses the flash cools rapidly,
whereas in the hammer the flash temperature remains nearly
the same as the initial stock temperature
Thus, in hot forging, not only the material and the formed
shape but also the type of equipment used (rate of deformation
and die chilling effects) determine the metal flow behavior and
the forming load and energy required for the process
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Temperatures in Forging Operations…
Surface tearing and cracking or development of shear bands in
the formed material often can be explained by excessive
chilling of the surface layers of the formed part near the
die/material interface
With the advancement of finite element modeling and the
increase in computer speed, heat transfer in any forging and
heat treatment condition can be simulated accurately in a very
short time.

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