Case Studies in Construction Materials

Case Studies in Construction Materials 19 (2023) e02244
Contents lists available at ScienceDirect
Case Studies in Construction Materials

journal homepage: www.elsevier.com/locate/cscm
A comprehensive review on the use of natural fibers in cement/

geopolymer concrete: A step towards sustainability
Jamal A. Abdalla a, *, Rami A. Hawileh a, A. Bahurudeen b, G. Jyothsna b, A. Sofi c,
Vigneshwaran Shanmugam d, B.S. Thomas a
a
Department of Civil Engineering, College of Engineering, American University of Sharjah, 26666, United Arab Emirates
b
Department of Civil Engineering, Birla Institute of Technology and Science, Hyderabad Campus, 500078, India
c
Department of Structural and Geotechnical Engineering, VIT Vellore, Tamilnadu, India
d
Department of Mechanical Engineering, Saveetha School of Engineering, Saveetha Institute of Medical and Technical Sciences, Chennai, Tamilnadu,
India
A R T I C L E I N F O A B S T R A C T
Keywords: The construction industry is shifting towards environmentally friendly products due to the rising
Fiber reinforced concrete demand for non-renewable raw materials, their high energy consumption, and, most importantly,
Natural fibers their detrimental environmental effects. High levels of solid waste produced by raw materials
Durability
release dangerous gases like nitrous and Sulphur oxides, which are very harmful to the envi
Sustainability
Fiber dosage
ronment. In recent years, the usage of fibers has tremendously increased to make significantly
robust structures. For sustainable, waste-free development, manufactured fibers can be replaced
with natural fibers without compromising on the requirements. This study considers various
natural fibers like basalt, coconut/coir, banana, sugarcane bagasse, hemp, kenaf, bamboo, jute,
sisal, abaca, and cotton, and their effects on fresh and hardened concrete have been discussed.
This article also reviews the composition, preparation, and processing procedures of various
natural fibers, and their potential applications in building materials are highlighted. Future
research avenues are identified, and possible negative impacts and limitations are discussed. Our
findings confirm the feasibility of standard concrete using natural fibers in cement or geopolymer
concrete. Lastly, this review compiles insights from numerous sources to aid academia and the
construction industry in developing eco-friendly materials.
1. Introduction
The need for eco-friendly structures is expected to rise in the future years. According to the World Green Building Council, "A green
building is a building that, in its design, construction or operation, reduces or eliminates negative impacts and can create positive
impacts on our climate and natural environment." The typical attributes of a "green" building include utilizing renewable energy,
reusing, and recycling, maintaining good indoor air quality, and using safe and sustainable materials [173]. Various governments and
construction industries promote sustainable construction materials through environmental protection initiatives [116,126,153,97].
Similarly, using fibers is one such step for enhancing the properties and behavior of concrete. Fiber-reinforced concrete is a composite
material incorporating mixtures of cement or geopolymer concrete matrix reinforced with discontinuous, randomly oriented, and
* Corresponding author.
E-mail addresses: jabdalla@aus.edu (J.A. Abdalla), chaprathu44@gmail.com (B.S. Thomas).
https://doi.org/10.1016/j.cscm.2023.e02244
Received 8 March 2023; Received in revised form 2 June 2023; Accepted 21 June 2023
Available online 22 June 2023
2214-5095/© 2023 The Authors. Published by Elsevier Ltd. This is an open access article under the CC BY license
(http://creativecommons.org/licenses/by/4.0/).
J.A. Abdalla et al. Case Studies in Construction Materials 19 (2023) e02244
uniformly distributed discrete fibers [174]. The optimal concentration of circular or flat fibers (namely steel, glass, or synthetic) can
improve the structural integrity of the concrete composite.
Previous studies reported that optimal fiber concentration improve the strength, abrasion resistance, resistance to plastic shrinkage
and minimize crack width, reduce steel reinforcement requirements, improve freeze–thaw resistance and ductility, prevent spalling in
severe fire, and improve toughness and energy absorption capacity ([117]; Grubesa, [61]; The constructor, [73]; [2]). In contrast,
manufacturing these fibers contributes to environmental pollution and carbon dioxide emissions, which made academia and industry
look for sustainable alternatives, i.e., natural fibers [118,130]. Even though manufactured fibers are long-lasting, they have poor
insulation capacity, are nonbiodegradable, causes microplastic pollution, making them entirely non-eco-friendly. Hence, using natural
fibers is a step towards a more sustainable approach. The use of natural fibers is diverse. They are used in building materials, chemicals,
Fig. 1. : Classification of natural and manufactured fibers.
2
cosmetics, medicines, insulation, particle boards, animal feed, and human food. Natural fibers are divided into three types: plant-based
(bagasse, sisal, jute, hemp, coconut, etc.), animal-based (wool, silk, hair, etc.), and mineral-derived (basalt, wollastonite, asbestos,
etc.). Fig. 1 shows the classification of natural fibers [21,20,54,82,144]. Natural fibers are renewable, readily available, and cheaper
than artificial fibers. The benefits of natural fibers make them ideal for manufacturing eco-friendly concrete capable of scaling up to
meet the current demand for eco-friendly buildings [163,164,65].
Several investigations have successfully used natural fibers in concrete composites over the past three decades. It is observed that
the type of fiber, length, and volume concentration are found to affect the properties of fresh and hardened concretes significantly.
Optimum fiber length and volume content are found to be different for different types of natural fibers (Gholampour et al. [59]).
Inadequate binding and strength degradation occur at increasing volume fraction (more than 4%) as mixing becomes more complex,
and fibers tend to cluster together. For a certain volume fraction of fibers, the tensile and compressive strengths of concretes increase
with increasing fiber aspect ratio. The aspect ratio of fibers is another important factor which influences the properties and behavior of
the composites. At aspect ratios greater than 120, fibers tend to coil up, resulting in poor distribution and decreased strength (Danso
et al. [40]; Mahesh et al. [111]; [87]). It is observed that fibers move into a position that is more optimized when they are at a lower
volume fraction as opposed to when they are at a greater volume fraction during press forming process. This may be because of the
increased resin volume fraction, which lowers the level of interference between the fibers (Shibata et al. [154]). Depending on the
fiber-matrix stress-transfer efficacy, the strength of natural fiber-reinforced composites tends to increase proportionally with strain rate
up to a point. At higher strain rates, failure modes such as embrittlement and fiber-matrix debonding were frequently witnessed in
earlier studies [42]. The natural filler properties, amount, sizes, and polymer matrix types have been identified as key factors affecting
the constitutive behavior of fiber reinforced composites under varying strain rates. By optimizing these factors, the fiber-matrix
stress-transfer efficiency can be increased, resulting in improved performance under varying strain rates (Khieng et at. [91]). It is
observed that the rigidity of all materials increases with strain rate, however flax fiber composites and jute fiber reinforced composites
were found to be stiffer than cotton fiber reinforced composites. Besides, flax and jute laminates exhibited similar constitutive
behavior, as mentioned above, compared with cotton laminates (Rubio et al. [146]).
This paper presents a state-of-the-art review on using natural fibers as reinforcement for cement paste, mortar, and concrete. The
fiber properties, fresh and hardened composite properties, mechanical performance, and durability will be emphasized and discussed.
This paper provides insights into optimum fiber length and concentrations, future trends, and applications. The literature reviewed
was diverse and consisted of articles from academia and industry. The primary keywords that are used in the search process include
composites, fiber-reinforced concrete, manufactured fiber, natural fibers, fiber reinforcement, fresh properties, and hardened prop
erties. In addition, the search was further performed using specific fiber terms such as basalt fibers, coconut fibers, banana fibers,
bagasse fibers, hemp fibers, kenaf fibers, bamboo fibers, human hair fibers, jute fibers, sisal fibers, abaca fibers, cotton fibers. A
detailed discussion on the performance of each fiber is meticulously reviewed, and salient conclusions are drawn. Moreover, based on
the extensive review of natural fiber composites, pathways for future research are highlighted.
2. Natural fibers in cementitious composites
In structural applications, fiber-reinforced composites have acquired considerable acceptance. Desirable characteristics and low
cost of fibers make them preferable to the construction sector. Natural fibers are environmentally friendly substitutes for conventional
fibers that can enhance the mechanical and durability properties of cementitious composites. These natural fibers used composites
Fig. 2. : Optimum replacement percentage of various natural fibers in cement concrete.
3
have several advantages compared with conventional fibers used composites. Besides, natural fibers exhibit excellent resistance to
corrosion and fatigue and are biodegradable, non-toxic, readily available, non-abrasive, lightweight, inexpensive, and possessing
strong specific strength. Basalt fiber, coconut, banana fiber, bagasse fiber, hemp, kenaf, bamboo fiber, jute fiber, sisal, abaca, and
cotton fibers are some of the often-used natural fibers discussed in this section. The optimum replacement percentage of the above-
mentioned natural fibers is shown in Fig. 2.
2.1. Basalt fibers
Basalts are formed by rapidly cooling basaltic lava. The lava originates from the earth’s crust’s interior, moves close to the surface,
and then cools. These are aphanitic igneous rocks, dark grey to black, with a finely-grained mineral texture formed from the rapid
cooling of the molten magma [67]. An extrusion/wire drawing technique manufactures basalt fibers (inorganic in nature) after melting
at 1450–1500ºC, like glass fiber manufacturing, except cheaper due to less energy consumption and no additives. Basalt fibers exhibit
excellent interfacial shear strength, high elastic modulus, heat insulation, and chemical resistance. A 74% reduction in workability is
observed compared to traditional OPC using 1.32% v/v. Khan et al., ($year$) [90]. Since basalt fibers have a high-water demand, a
superplasticizer is needed. The ’fiber’s large surface area absorbs more cement paste, increasing the viscosity and resulting in no
observable segregation for 24 mm fibers at 0.5% v/v [13]. In the case of self-compacting concrete, 0.25% v/v basalt fiber was
appropriate for slump flow, J-ring flow, and V-funnel flow time [66]. The interfacial transition zone (ITZ) of the recycled aggregate
concrete was improved using a 0.1–0.3% v/v mixture of basalt fibers, which also delayed and prevented the development of cracks
[183].
Fig. 3. : The variation of (a)Compressive strength, (b)Splitting tensile strength, and (c)Flexural strength as they depend upon basalt fiber con
centration [102].
4
The study on basalt fibers indicates that fiber concentration is critical for improving concrete material strength. Khan et al. [90]
found the optimum basalt fiber concentration (12 mm length, 7–15 µm diameters) was 0.68% v/v, while Zeng and Tang [182] rec
ommended a 1–1.5% v/v concentration to improve tensile strength, elastic modulus, and flexural toughness. Beams with higher
concentrations (1% v/v) generated more avalanches (sudden stress drops) than the lower concentration (0.5% v/v) specimens [107].
The compressive, flexural, and split tensile strength improved by 5.1%, 13%, and 24% in beams with a 0.5% w/w concertation of
basalt fibers (Kizilkanat et al. [94]). Jiang et al. [83] noted an increase of 0.2–4.7%, 6.3–9.6%, and 8–24.3% for mixtures with a
0.05–0.3% v/v basalt fiber concentration.
Using 2.5%, v/v reduced the compressive strength but increased the flexural strength, modulus of rupture, and toughness index by
20.8%, 20.04%, and 4.64%, respectively [178]. Wang et al. [170] reported that in the case of geopolymer concrete, fibers with a 6 mm
length perform better than fibers with a length of 3, 12, and 18 mm, as they exhibited a compressive and flexural strength of 49.85 and
4.84 MPa, respectively, and provided the highest load, fracture toughness, and fracture energy. Previous research indicated basalt
fibers exhibit inconsistent behavior in alkaline media; however, it is vital for concrete to remain alkaline. Ramachandran et al. [139],
Mingchao et al. [121], and [108]. Li et al. [102] mentioned that basalt fibers are alkali- and corrosion-resistant. In contrast to these
findings, Lee et al. [100] noted 40% higher mass loss and 80% strength loss in an alkaline solution, while other researchers noted
corrosion increased with temperature [155,3]. However, the alkaline treatment of basalt fibers has been successful. For example,
zirconia protective coatings improved the corrosion resistance [147], ZrO2/TiO2 coatings slowed down erosion (Baklanova et al.,
[28]), and soaking in simulated alkaline solution improved the compressive, flexural, and splitting strength by 2.5%, 17.2%, and
12.1%, respectively, for a 0.1% v/v fiber concentration [102]. Within these fiber-infused cement/concrete systems, supplementary
cementitious materials have been shown to improve concrete properties (Fig. 3).
The blended combination of 30% w/w of GGBFS and 1% w/w of basalt fibers reduced the porosity and water absorbency by
32.75% and 40.15%, respectively [32]. Algin and Ozen [13] noted that basalt fibers reduced the rapid chloride ion penetration by
modifying the concrete pore structure and compactness, depleting the interconnected pores, and reducing permeability. The chloride
penetration with a 0.5% v/v fiber concentration (12 and 24 mm) was within the limits of 2000 Coulombs, while 2500 Coulombs for the
control specimen. The optimum fiber concentration is 0.49% for 21.12 mm long fibers. Thermal conductivity of concrete containing
1% w/w basalt fiber and 60% w/w blast furnace slag improved by 10.51% compared to the control. Drying shrinkage was reduced by
60.5% for 2% w/w basalt fiber in foamed concrete. When silica sand was replaced with waste marble powder, the ultimate shrinkage
strain was decreased by 19.96%, 26.46%, and 37.69% for concrete containing 0%, 1%, and 2% w/w basalt fiber, respectively [32].
Durability criteria, such as the freeze-thaw resistance of foamed concrete containing GGBFA and basalt fibers, were studied by
Fig. 4. : Residual compressive strength and splitting tensile strength of basalt fiber concrete after high temperature [11].
5
Bayraktar et al. [32]. The concrete blend containing 30% GGBFA and 2% w/w basalt fiber increased compressive strength by 39.8%
and 30.1%, respectively, after 50 and 100 freeze-thaw cycles. When the ’ ’GGBF’s content was increased to 60%, the improvement was
56.3%, 46.8%, and 8.5%, respectively, at 50, 100, and 150 cycles. The performance of basalt fiber concrete at elevated temperatures
was investigated by Alaskar et al. [11]; they determined the optimal concentration was 0.25–0.5%. The residual compressive strength
after exposure to 600 ºC for the 0% (control), 0.25%, 0.5%, 0.75%, and 1% basalt fiber concentrations were 28.4%, 30.5%, 30.7%,
28.9%, and 34.3%, respectively. In addition, the splitting tensile strength was 29.97%, 38.02%, 43.46%, 44.84%, and 49.52%,
respectively, indicating that fibers improve tensile capacity [68] (Fig. 4). Haido et al. [66] observed the highest elastic modulus for
temperatures up to 400 ºC for 0.5% v/v fiber concentration, while the splitting tensile strength increased for 0.25% v/v fiber con
centration. The inclusion of basalt fibers was seen to improve the ITZ of newly made concrete. With the inclusion of silica fume along
with basalt fibers, ITZ seemed to get denser and stronger [26].
2.2. Coconut fiber
The coconut tree (Cocos nucifera) belongs to the palm family (Arecaceae). The lightweight coconut fibers (also known as coir) are
obtained from the coconut’s fibrous mesocarp husk (outer shell), which can be extracted by mechanical process or soaking in water.
Matured fibers, typically brown, are abrasion resistant and stronger than the smoother and weaker white fibers. The high lignin
content (low cellulose) makes them highly durable, tough, stiff, strong, and resilient while having a high air porosity (95%) [160]. The
peculiarity of renewable coconut fibers (Fig. 5) is their biodegradability and heat-resistant nature [143]. Globally, 350,000 metric tons
of coconut fibers are produced each year, according to the official website of the Coir Board, Government of India (Coirboard, [70]).
India and Sri Lanka account for around 90% of the global coir fiber production—an estimated $140 million industry [158].
The major drawback of natural fiber cementitious materials is their poor wettability with the matrix. Several researchers studied
pre-treated coconut fibers in cementitious composite, particularly their effect on interfacial bond strength. The studies reported that
treatment with sodium hydroxide is cheap and easy but reduces the fiber tensile strength [140,62,69]. The combined use of calcium
chloride and sodium alginate improves the ultimate tensile strength of fibers by 18% [114]. Boiling and then washing coconut fibers
makes them stiffer and more rigid than raw fibers and increases the fiber–matrix bond strength (Asasutjarit et al., [22]). Ali et al. [14]
observed similar results for pre-boiled and washed fibers and noted that the fiber tensile strength, toughness, and fiber–concrete bond
strength increased by 34%, 55%, and 184%, respectively. In a unique study, washed fiber–reinforced concrete (0.25%, 0.5%, and
0.75% w/w) exhibited superior sound absorption characteristics [128]. The addition of coconut fibers may lead to a drastic reduction
in the workability of concrete. Khan and Ali [88] observed that although a 100% reduction in a slump was observed, using 2% w/w
coconut fibers and 1% w/w superplasticizer, the workability improved by 41%. Concrete with 15% w/w silica fume, 2% w/w coconut
fiber, and 1% w/w superplasticizer of cement showed superior mechanical characteristics.
The modulus of elasticity, compressive strength, splitting tensile strength, and flexural strength improved by 93%, 92%, 39%, and
36%, respectively. The addition of 10% fly ash, 15% silica fume, and 2% coconut fiber further improved the workability and
Fig. 5. : (a) Coconut fibers, (b) Hemp fibers, (c) Kenaf fibers, (d) Jute fibers, (e) Sisal fibers, (f) Cotton fibers.
6
mechanical properties [89]. Temperature regulation ensures that buildings are comfortable to inhabit. Coconut fibers reduce the
thermal conductivity of mortars, thus providing a passive means for improving occupant comfort in low-income houses [138].
Interestingly, the 4% v/v coconut fibers (38 mm length) gave the maximum tensile strength (2.8 MPa) and modulus of rupture
(5.45 MPa) [27]. The coconut fibers with 40 mm length at 2% w/w concentration exhibited the best impact resistance by absorbing
253.5 Joules of impact energy [140]. The alkalized coconut fibers exhibited 12% more flexural strength, 1680% more energy ab
sorption capacity, and 1740% higher ductility [104]. Reis [143] observed an average flexural strength of 42 MPa and fractured
toughness of 2.5 MPa⋅m1/2, with a fracture energy of 17.2 N/m for a coconut fiber–reinforced polymer concrete. Baruah and Talukdar
[31] observed a 17.2%, 17%, 25.2%, and 32.4% increase in the compressive strength, split tensile strength, modulus of rupture, and
shear strength, respectively, for a 1.5% v/v concentration of coconut fibers. Ali et al. [15] noted a similar observation that 5 cm
coconut fibers at a 5% w/w concentration exhibit the best overall mechanical and dynamic properties.
Ramli et al. [141] studied the chloride penetration of coconut fiber–reinforced concrete. They found that the chloride penetration
level increases with fiber concentration and exposure time. The depth of chloride concentration after 546 days of exposure increased
by 32.5%, 34.1%, 43.9%, and 39.0% for concrete containing 0.6%, 1.2%, 1.8%, and 2.4% v/v coconut fiber, respectively. Similar
results emerged for gas permeability, but carbonation had a negligible effect. With the inclusion of coconut fibers, there were visible
micro voids that might indicate a debonding failure in ITZ. But high energy absorption was linked to the slippage of fibers in the matrix
(Ahmad et al., [6]).
2.3. Banana fiber
The banana plant (Musa selenium) is a monocarpic perennial herb that belongs to the Musaceae family. It is cylindrical and has a
juicy pseudo-stem reaching a 6–7.5 m that arises from a fleshy corm or rhizome [143,163]. Fig. 6 shows the banana fibers and banana
fiber bars. They originated in Southeast Asia and can be found worldwide in tropical and subtropical areas. More than 95 million tons
are produced globally, with Africa accounting for about 46% of the annual production [4,86]. The cellulosic bast fibers are obtained
from the stem of the banana plant. The banana tree trunks are sliced longitudinally and then fed into a mechanical decorticator (fiber
extracting machine), alienating the pulp and pulling out the fibers before they are air-dried [122,150]. The different cultivars of
bananas exhibit a significant variation in the tensile strength and fiber strains, with 28.7 MPa and 1.67% the highest value of each,
respectively [136].
Zhu et al. [188] used 8–16% w/w of banana fibers and obtained flexural strength over 20 MPa. With a 14% fiber concentration, the
flexural strength was 25 MPa, and fracture toughness was 1.74 kJm− 2. The slump reduction was within the threshold limits for
concentrations up to 1.25% w/w, while 1.5% w/w could not satisfy the minimum limit [134]. Niyasom and Tangboriboon [127] noted
Fig. 6. : (a) Banana fibers, (b) Bamboo fibers, (c) Sugarcane bagasse fibers, (d) Abaca fibers.
7
a bulk and true density reduction. Another study made by, Poongodi et al. [135] found that adding banana fibers did not show any
effect on the density. Akinyemi and Dai [10] used 1.5% w/w banana fibers (1.30 g/cc density,13 mm length, and 4 mm width). They
noted a 3.6–13.1% improvement in flexural tensile strength and a 19–33% improvement in split tensile strength compared to the OPC
control specimen. Similarly, Dhawan et al. [45] noted a 6% and 22% improvement in the compressive and flexural strength,
respectively, using a 2.5% w/w banana fiber concentration (1 mm diameter, 40 mm length, and 1.35 g/cc density). Poongodi and
Murthi [134] demonstrated a 14% improvement in compressive strength and a 32% improvement in impact strength. The study also
stated a 23% increase in the impact strength at the final cracking of the lightweight, self-compacting concrete at 1.25% w/w banana
fiber and a 91% increase in the first crack load. The ductility index improved by 65% [135].
Mostafa and Uddin [122] studied the mechanical properties of reinforced blocks with randomly distributed banana fibers. They
found that blocks with 60 and 70 mm fibers had 71% and 68% higher compressive strength than the control, while flexural strength
increased by 77% and 82%, respectively. Reis [143] observed an average flexural strength of 27.082 MPa, fracture toughness of
1.678 MPa⋅m1/2, and fracture energy of 12.096 N/m. Elbehiry et al. [48] reported that banana fibers increase flexural strength by
25%, accounting for 60% of the flexural strength contributed by the steel bars. Although some studies have shown the presence of a
large number of ITZs in the banana fiber-added concrete, optimum replacement levels have been shown to reduce the porosities of the
matrix by filling the pores and thus helping to achieve a better ITZ [123].
2.4. Sugarcane bagasse fibers
The sugarcane plant (Saccharum officinarum) is a tall perennial grass reaching 3–4 m at its peak, constituted by linked and fibrous
stalks. It is a global, money-making crop and the leading distinct fountainhead of sugar, ethanol, and jaggery (semi-refined sugar). The
total worldwide turnout of sugar cane was 1841.53 metric tons in 2017, according to the food and agriculture organization of the
United Nations [165,52]. Extracting and refining sugarcane generates a large amount of bagasse residue (consisting of crushed rind
with lignocellulosic fibers), which needs efficient disposal [142]. Treating bagasse residue in an alkaline solution followed by boiling
and oven drying generates renewable, lightweight bagasse fibers [143]. The pictorial representation of bagasse fibers is shown in
Fig. 6.
Danso [39] noted the dry moisture content and specific weight of bagasse fiber (110 mm long, 0.78 mm diameter) as 9.7% and
0.56 g/cm3, and the tensile strength and modulus of elasticity as 42 MPa and 0.89 GPa, respectively. They measured a 153% and 219%
increase in water absorption over 24 h and 14 days, respectively. The cane fiber epoxy ’composites’ exhibited flexural and impact
strength of 490.77 MPA and 93.92 KJ/m2, respectively [96]. As the number of fibers increases, the compressive strength is found to
decrease. A reduction from 12.6 to 4.5 MPa for 2.5% and 15% w/w fibers was observed. In comparison, the control specimen with
13.4 MPa [23].). A similar observation by Madhwani et al. [110] noted a 38% improvement in compressive and flexural strength with
1% w/w fibers. Ruano et al. [145] reported a 25% improvement in the flexural strength of notched beams containing 0.8% fibers,
while Micheal and Moussa [120] found that a cement brick containing 1.5% bagasse fiber can withstand 511 kN of compression while
the control specimen could only withstand 304 kN.
Bagasse fibers can significantly improve the cracking resistance at low temperatures. Moreover, it also enhances the stability of the
asphalt mixtures at high temperatures by reducing the fluidity and enhancing the interfacial bonding of the aggregates [106].
Madhwani et al. [110] noted that water absorption is increased with the dosage of sugarcane fibers. For instance, an increase of 59% is
reported for the fiber dosage of 5%. The density of the cement bricks dropped by 8–13% by adding 1.5% bagasse fibers [120].
Madhwani et al. [110] noted a 25% improvement in the compressive strength of the acid-attacked specimens by adding 1% w/w fibers.
Sugarcane bagasse fiber-based insulation has superior thermal insulation characteristics (0.04610 W/m. K at 15.6–32 ºC), contrasting
with palm oil fibers and coconut fibers [115]. The thermal conductivity of the cement composite reduced from 0.62 to 0.46 W/m. K
when the fiber concentration increased from 1.5% to 3% [129]. Asim et al. [23] found that the thermal conductivity of concrete
containing 2.5%, 5.0%, 7.5%, and 1.0% w/w sugarcane fibers reduced to 3.9, 6.8, 10, and 14.2, respectively, in comparison with the
control specimen. The sound absorption coefficient α of the bagasse-based samples s at a thickness of 1 and 2 cm were investigated by
Fouladi et al. [56]. The specimen with 1 cm thickness achieved an α of 0.9 at 3800 Hz, while the α dropped to 0.88 at 1000 Hz for 2 cm
thick samples. Similarly, Carvalho et al. [35] declared that the panels containing bagasse fibers demonstrated more excellent sound
energy retention when compared with the panels made with Pinus sp. fibers and eucalyptus sp. fibers. The effect of sugarcane bagasse
fibers on the concrete matrix is typically related to the absorption rates. It was seen that the absorption increases over the increasing
cure time, and thus the cement matrices become denser and more compact [137].
2.5. Hemp fibers
Hemp (Cannabis sativa), also known as industrial hemp (Fig. 5), has been cultivated for bast fibers and edible seeds since 8000 BC
[16,79]. China is the ’ ’world’s leading producer of hemp fibers, planting 164,819 acres in 2019; more than half were for fiber
cultivation (mjbizdaily, [71]). The global hemp industry generated $4.9 billion in 2019, which is forecasted to reach $18.6 billion by
2027 (Grandview research, [75]; Globe newswire, [74]). Hemp fiber is considered the most potent natural fiber in the world. It has
been estimated that the plant can be used in 25,000–50,000 products (Hempalta, [76]), including textiles (clothing, diapers, shoes,
handbags, etc.), industrial (carpeting, canvas, rope, netting, etc.), paper (cardboard, newsprint, packaging, etc.), body care (cosmetics,
soaps, shampoos, lotions, etc.), foods (hemp seed oil, food supplements, protein powder, etc.) and building materials (fiberboards, oil
paints, coatings, solvents, fuel, etc.). Hemp has an excellent carbon dioxide reabsorption capacity, equivalent to 1800 kg/ton of hemp
[44].
8
The binder’s chemical nature influences the hemp-reinforced concrete’s effectiveness and durability [43]. Surface-treating hemp
fibers (NaOH aqueous solution) remove the organic impurities, making a homogenous and roughened fiber surface, thus improving the
fiber’s tensile strength. It also improves the bond within the concrete blend and enhances the flexural tensile strength of the concrete
by 94% [152,25]. Wet preserved hemp fibers improve concrete properties by having a 4% higher cellulose content. The fiber pro
duction costs can be reduced as wet preservation is equivalent to fiber pretreatment. Sáez-Pérez et al. [149].
Hemp fibers delay the initial setting time of concrete by about 45 min due to the increase in the calcium concentration [152]. The
density of hemp fiber concrete varies between 330 and 1280 kg/m3, as observed by Sassoni et al. [151]. The specific gravity of hemp
fiber concrete composites gradually decreases as the quantity of hemp fiber increases since hemp fibers have a lower specific gravity
(1.5). The specific gravity of the control composite (2.43) was reduced to 2.39 with 0.18% hemp fiber and 2.34 with 0.54% hemp fiber
[105]. Similar observations by Poletanovic et al. [133] found a 5% reduction in the concrete density using 0.5–1% v/v hemp fibers.
Awwad et al. [25] observed a decrease in workability when hemp fibers were introduced and determined the maximum dosage of
hemp fibers is 1% v/v. Çomak et al. [38] also reported a similar observation on reduced workability.
Hemp fibers reduce the compressive strength of concrete. A concentration of 0.5% reduced the compressive, flexural, and splitting
tensile strength by 19%, 31%, and 1%, respectively. The removal of 10% coarse aggregates in the 0.5%, 0.75%, and 1% v/v hemp fiber
concrete reduced the compressive strength by 25%, 14%, and 19%, respectively; the removal of 20% coarse aggregate reduced
compressive strength by 29%, 27%, and 22%, respectively. With the reduction of 30% coarse aggregates in the 0.5%, 0.75%, and 1% v/
v hemp fiber concrete, the flexural strength was reduced by 21%, 27%, and 11%, respectively. The splitting tensile strength was
reduced by 29% and 5% for 0.5% and 0.75% v/v hemp fiber but increased by 1% when the concentration of hemp fiber was 1% v/v
[25]. Çomak et al. [38] observed improved mechanical properties using 1%, 2%, and 3% v/v hemp fibers, with the best results for
2–3% v/v fibers with a 12 mm length. The control ’specimen’s compressive, flexural, and split tensile strength were 27.97, 5.02, and
2.08 MPa, respectively.
The compressive strength increased to 31.39, 35.05, and 30.72 for concrete with a 2% v/v concentration of 6-, 12-, and 18-mm long
fibers, respectively. The flexural tensile strength was 5.63, 5.47, and 5.58 MPa, respectively, while the split tensile strength was 3.00,
3.71, and 3.25 MPa, respectively (Fig. 7). Chabannes et al. [36] performed triaxial compression tests. They noted a higher shear
resistance in hemp concrete than in rice husk concrete. The modulus of elasticity of 0.5% v/v of hemp fiber concrete was reduced by
7% as the fibers reduced stiffness and improved ductile behavior [25]. In contrast, Grubesa et al. [61] noted a 1.5–3% improvement in
the modulus of elasticity of hemp fiber concrete. Poletanovic et al. [133] observed a 15–23% improvement in water absorption and a
134–266% increase in the specific energy absorption capacity for the alkali-activated concrete containing 0.5–1.0% v/v hemp fibers.
Walker et al. [169] showed that the freeze-thaw resistance of hemp lime concrete is poor but could be improved using proper water
retainers. The high ductility of the pore walls resulted in superior performance during salt exposure, even after a month. Hemp
concrete was also highly resistant to heavy microbial immunizations and biological deterioration. Hemp lime concrete exhibits
excellent acoustic properties by virtue of its porosity, as it absorbs 40–50% of the incident signal. The acoustic absorption capacity can
be altered by changing the fabrication process and constituent materials [59,86].
Hemp concrete (dried) exhibited a specific heat capacity of 1500 J/ (kg K), which increased to 2900 J/ (kg K) at 99% relative
humidity [50]. Industrial hemp fibers have low thermal conductivity, reducing air conditioning demands and making them suitable for
buildings in extreme weather conditions. Concrete with 0.75% hemp fiber had a 35% lower thermal conductivity [25]. Grubesa et al.
[61] noted no significant improvement in the residual properties of the hemp fiber concrete. Although polypropylene fibers melted at a
temperature below 400 ºC, hemp fibers exhibited only partial disintegration, successfully preventing crack propagation. The matrices
of hemp fibers were better when coarse aggregates were included in the systems where more space was available for the hemp to
interact with the matrices.
Fig. 7. : Mechanical properties of hemp fiber concrete [38].
9
2.6. Kenaf fibers
Kenaf (Hibiscus cannabinus) originated in Africa, belongs to the family Malvacea, and has been cultivated since 4000 BC. It is also
known as industrial kenaf, as it (obtained from the stem of kenaf plants) is a warm-season annual fiber used in various industrial
products. Kenaf is closely related to okra/’ ’lady’s finger (Abelmoschus esculentus), roselle (Hibiscus sabdariffa), and cotton (Gossypium
hirsutum). It is grown in the tropical and subtropical parts of Africa and Asia. The world produces about 21,76,087 tons of kenaf
annually, of which India contributes 46%, and China contributes 26% (Webber et al. [171]; [12,148]; Kozlowski et al. [95]). The kenaf
plant can grow 3.5–4.5 m in 4–5 months and yield 6–10 dry tons per acre annually. The kenaf plant typically requires no pesticides
(highly resistant to insect mutilation), adapts well to various soil types, and requires minimal fertilizer for effective growth [181,49].
The physical properties of kenaf fibers depend on the type of fibers and the extracting and drying conditions. The mechanical
properties vary in the range of density:0.6–1.45 g/cm3, tensile strength:223 − 930 MPa, Tensile modulus:11–60 GPa, and elongation:
1.6 − 5.7% [112]. The kenaf bast fibers have excellent mechanical properties, making them ideal for reinforcing concrete [131].
Chemical pretreatments, including peroxide, silane coupling agent, titanate, mercerization, etherification, acetylation, graft copoly
merization, sodium chloride, benzoilation, plasma, and isocyanate treatment, modify and clean the fiber surface, reduce the moisture
absorption, and enhance the interfacial bonding between the fiber and matrix [47,85].
The concrete specimen incorporating kenaf fibers exhibited ductile failure with well-distributed cracks compared to the control
concrete’s brittle failure. The compressive strength of the concrete containing 1.2% and 2.4% v/v kenaf fibers was 48.5 and 33.4 MPa,
respectively, compared with the control mixes of 56.6 and 53 MPa, respectively. The flexural strength was 5.0 and 4.7 MPa; however,
the control specimen had a flexural strength of 6.2 and 6.8 MPa. The split tensile strength was found to increase from 2.9 and 3.5 MPa
to 3.8 and 4.9 MPa for 1.2% and 2.4% v/v kenaf fibers. Elsaid et al., ($year$) [49]. Zhou et al. [186] found that the compressive
strength was reduced by 12.2–46.2%, while the flexural strength improved by 30.7–66.9% for the 1% optimal concentration (Fig. 8).
Fig. 8. : Compressive failure modes of kenaf fiber–reinforced concrete [186].
10
Mahzabin et al. [113] observed that concrete incorporating untreated kenaf fibers exhibited higher workability and a more extensive
spread diameter. The water absorption of the control specimen, untreated fiber concrete, and treated fiber concrete were 0.27%,
0.40%, and 0.25%, respectively. Similarly, the initial surface absorption test values were 4.65, 5.64, and 1.33 ml/m2⋅s at a 60-minute
interval, and drying shrinkage at 25 days was 0.321%, 0.360%, and 0.246%, respectively. After 30 days of wet and dry cycles, the
compressive strength of the control specimen, untreated fiber concrete, and treated fiber concrete were 2.363, 4.910, and 6.003 MPa,
respectively. The cellulose content and crystallinity of the hydrogen peroxide-treated kenaf fibers increased by 40% and 26.8%,
respectively, and the fiber tensile strength increased by 18.9% [63]. The reduced autogenous and drying shrinkage cracking is found to
decrease using 0.25–0.5% kenaf fibers which serve as a bridging effect connecting cracks and reducing crack propagation [64].
The highest fracture strength was achieved using 0.3% kenaf fibers [132]. Previous research shows that kenaf fibers improve
ductility and other properties; however, extended durability studies are needed to understand their long-term effects on concrete
systems [1]. The major drawback of concrete systems is the poor kenaf matrix adhesion. This is mainly due to the dissimilarity between
the hydrophilic hemicellulose and lignin and the hydrophobic property of the matrices themselves. However, surface treatment has
improved the adhesion between fibers and cement matrices by reducing water absorption [1].
2.7. Bamboo fibers
Bamboo (Bambusa vulgaris) is one of the fastest-growing and highest-yielding natural construction materials, with estimated annual
global production of 20 million tons. Thomas et al., ($year$) [163]. Approximately 0.8% (31.5 million ha) of the world’s land is
covered by bamboo forests. ([167]; Frias et al. [57]; [51]). It is one of the most rapid-growing plants, where some species grow 50 cm
per day to 20–30 m tall within a few weeks. Approximately 35–40% (by weight) of the cultivated bamboo is burnt in open landfills.
The eco-friendly bamboo fibers generated from the new bamboo chips or clippings have successfully reinforced cementitious
Fig. 9. : Compressive, flexural, and splitting tensile strength of bamboo fiber concrete [101].
11
materials. ([167]; Frias et al. [57]; [177,179]).

Wahyuni et al. [168] concrete’s split tensile strength with a 0.5% w/w concentration of bamboo fibers is comparable with that of
the control concrete. The bamboo fiber’s surface area and thermal stability were enhanced after the alkali treatment. Additionally,
adding 0.5% w/w bamboo fibers improved the cementitious composite’s toughness and decreased its elastic modulus. T′ [101] (Fig. 9).
With comparable split tensile strength, the flexural strength increased while the compressive strength reduced. The enhancement in
the mechanical properties and fiber-matrix adhesion is observed when the bamboo fibers are pre-treated with microwave-assisted
sodium hydroxide (10% concentration). The addition of 1–1.5% dosage of bamboo fibers to concrete increased its tensile strength
(by 24.32%), modulus of rigidity (54.5–97%), and modulus of elasticity (16.00–59.1%). Akinyemi et al., ($year$) [9].
One of the studies reported that cement matrices with bamboo fibers and coating technologies were employed to create a smooth
transmission of tensile stress between the matrix and the fiber system [81]. In the case of self-compacting concrete, it is observed that
the addition of bamboo fibers increased the cohesiveness and internal resistance of the fresh mixes. Further, combined bamboo fiber
and limestone powder improved the compressive and tensile strengths as the curing age increases [46]. In the case of self-compacting
concrete, adding bamboo fibers increased the cohesiveness and internal resistance of the fresh concrete mixes. Further, the combined
use of bamboo fiber and limestone powder improved the compressive strength as well as tensile strength [46]. Furthermore, bamboo
fibers increase the tensile strength, and help to avoid undesirable brittle failure (Ahmad et al., [5]). A study on the usage of bamboo
fiber bundles in reinforced composites recommends the alternative arrangement of structure with thin and thick layers, which en
hances mechanical strength. Further, the study revealed that short bamboo fiber has a significant reinforcing effect in cement mortar
than in concrete due to its superior interface performance (Xun [58]).
2.8. Jute fibers
Jute (Corchorus olitorius) is known as the "golden fiber" due to its versatility. Each year, around 32,25,551 metric tonnes of jute are
cultivated globally. India and Bangladesh are the largest producers of jute in the world, accounting for 66.35% and 24.80% of the
Fig. 10. : (a)Compressive strength, (b)Split tensile strength, and (c)Shrinkage of jute fiber–reinforced concrete [124].
12
global total, respectively. When the jute plants grow 15–20 cm in height, they are thinned out and harvested immediately after
flowering. Harvested stalks are softened in water for 20 days before being retted (mechanical, chemical, steam, or microbial) to extract
the fibers. These fibers are commonly used in fabrics, soft sweaters, ropes and twines, floor coverings, sacks for storage, and geotextiles
[180,175]. High tensile strength, moderate fire resistance, renewability and recyclability, biodegradability, and eco-friendliness make
jute fibers suitable for concrete reinforcement. The fibers’ ability to absorb water is context specific. For instance, the water absorbency
of raw, alkali-modified, and tannin polymer-modified jute fibers are 210%, 170%, and 110%, respectively. The natural jute fibers
retained 82% of their tensile strength, while the chemically modified fibers retained 98% at the end of 90 days. Kundu et al. [98]. The
fresh properties of the concrete incorporating 0.25%, 0.5%, and 1.0% v/v jute fibers were investigated by Islam and Ahmed [78]. The
hydrophilic nature of the high specific surface and small fiber diameter decreased the fluidity and resulted in substantial slump loss,
which was severe for the 0.5% v/v mixture. The fresh and mechanical properties of concrete containing 10- and 20-mm fibers were
enhanced. Another study by Kim et al. [92] reported a similar observation that the slump of jute fiber-reinforced concrete is severely
affected.
The optimal concentration and size of jute fibers can reduce porosity and microcracks, as well as the actions that initiate and
propagate cracks. Zhang et al. [185]. An improvement in the seismic performance is observed by [27] by adding jute fibers. Using jute
fabric reinforced polymer, a shear-damaged reinforced concrete beam can be effectively repaired to its original strength. Jir
awattanasomkul et al. [109,84]. The water absorption and apparent porosity are found to increase, whereas bulk density is decreased
in the case of concrete composites with 1% jute fibers [98]. The raw jute fiber, alkali-modified, and polymer-modified concrete had
bulk densities that were 7.14%, 3.23%, and 2.14% lower than the control, respectively. Water absorption was increased by 57.7%,
40%, and 11.1% over the control, respectively. The apparent porosity was 47.39%, 35.96%, and 7.02% greater than the control. The
concrete composite outperformed the control in terms of compressive strength (5.94%, 12.29%, and 24.18%), flexural strength
(10.64%, 21.27%, and 36.17%), and brittleness index (5.25%, 9.45%, and 10.49%) of the raw jute fiber, alkali-modified fiber, and
polymer-modified fiber concrete, respectively. The ultimate load of the fiber-reinforced concrete pipes was 34.85%, 81.56%, and
107.99% greater than the control for raw jute fiber, alkali-modified fiber, and polymer-modified fiber concrete, respectively. The slab
reinforcements can be limited to 28% by utilizing the tension zone of jute fiber and steel bar reinforced concrete containing 5% w/w
jute fibers. The dynamic elastic modulus and damping ratio increased by 68% and 100% when compared to the control.
Impact resistance increased by a factor of 6.5, while energy absorption and toughness increased by 220% and 130%, respectively.
The compressive strength decreased by 6%, while the split tensile and flexural strength increased by 13% and 128%, respectively [77].
Fig. 11. (a) sisal plant; (b) harvesting; (c) preliminary drying; (d) fiber extraction; (e) processing; (f) virgin fibers; (g) traditional sun drying; (h)
final product; (i) storage (I.S.).
13
Nambiar and Haridharan [124] noted that adding 1–2% fibers increased the drying shrinkage and decreased the water sorptivity and
chloride penetration (Fig. 10). The loss in compressive strength due to acid attack decreases with the addition of a 1–2% dosage of
fibers. For instance, the loss experienced by the 1% and 2% fiber-reinforced concrete was 35.11% and 39.39%, whereas the control
specimen exhibited a 40.625% loss. After exposing the ultra-high-strength, fiber-reinforced concrete (with 3 kg/m3 jute fiber) to 400
ºC, Zhang et al. [184] noted comparative compressive strength to the control blend. In contrast, the higher fiber concentrations had a
reduced compressive strength. The optimal fiber concentration and length for increasing mechanical properties were 0.2% v/v and
6 mm, respectively [159]. Achieving healthier ITZ zones with the jute fibers is usually obtained by water saturated method and can
change based on the fiber dose and alkali additions.
2.9. Sisal fibers
The sisal plant (Agave Sisalana), a native of Mexico, grows in tropical regions. About 0.3 million tonnes are produced globally, with
Brazil, Tanzania, and Kenya being the leading producers. Mechanical decortications and hand stripping are used to remove sisal fibers
from the leaves of the sisal plant [53]. It contains 78% cellulose, 8% lignin, 10% hemicelluloses, 2% waxes, and around 1% ash by
weight; however, the exact composition depends upon the age and growing region of the plant [103]. The stepwise procedure to
extract sisal fibers is shown in Fig. 11. These fibers are commonly used in composite fabrication due to their high mechanical strength
and performance [8]. Several researchers explored the potential of these fibers as cement reinforcement. Baluch et al. [29] reported
that the sisal fiber has poor resistance to crack propagation. The durability of sisal fiber-reinforced cement is found to increase with
chemical treatment. NaOH and acetylation-treated sisal fibers were tested at varying concentrations (2%, 6%, 10%, 20%, and 30%),
using acetic acid and acetic anhydride acetylation (5% and 10%) with the fiber volume ratio at 0.5%, 1%, 1.5%, and 2%. Fibers treated
with 2%, 6%, and 10% NaOH showed enhanced bonding during the single fiber pull-out test: however, when the concentration of
NaOH was increased to 20% and 30%, the fiber’s properties were compromised because of surface damage. Sisal fibers treated with
5%, 10%, and acetic anhydride had weak fracture strengths. This was explained by the fiber’s surface being damaged at increasing
chemical concentrations. To increase the concrete’s strength, it was advised to use chemicals at lower concentrations [41].
Naraganti et al. [125] compared the sisal fiber concrete’s impact resistance with steel and polypropylene fiber concrete. These
fibers were combined in four proportions (0.5, 1, 1.25, and 1.5 vol%), and a combination of these fibers was also used. Impact strength
of the concrete improved with the fiber concentration. Compared to the steel and polypropylene performance, sisal fiber concrete had
lower impact properties. However, it showed enhanced resistance against impact loading during crack initiation compared to the steel
and polypropylene fibers. For instance, after 90 days of curing, the kinetic energy needed to initiate a crack in the concrete with 1% v/v
sisal fiber was 3522 J. In contrast, for steel and polypropylene fiber concrete, it was only 1093 J and 1235 J. The manufacturing
environment and sisal fiber size significantly impact the mechanical properties of sisal fibers. The dimension aimed to determine the
fiber characteristics, length, environmental factor, and strain rate. On the other hand, the sisal fiber is very ductile in the specimens’
breaking zone (Biju et al. [162]).
Wei and Meyer [172] studied the degradation properties of virgin sisal fiber with respect to chemical (Na2CO3) and thermal
treatment. Thermal treatment was found to increase the tensile strength and modulus by 45% and 70% for adding 0.25% w/w fiber.
However, with excessive use of sisals, a non-uniform cementing matrix can be observed, which can be better controlled with an optimal
Fig. 12. : (a) abaca plant; (b) flower; (c) heart; (d) drying virgin fiber; (e) dried fiber; (f)abaca fiber stack (I.S.).
14
dosage.
2.10. Abaca fibers
The abaca plant (Musa Textilis), also known as manila hemp, is a close relative of the banana plant and belongs to the Musaceae
family (Fig. 12). The Philippines is the ‘world’s leading abaca producer (85–90%), followed by Ecuador. Abaca fiber is known for its
long fiber length, high mechanical properties, flexibility, and durability, which makes it one of the most potent natural fibers. The use
of these fibers is diverse. They are widely used in paper and pulp, fabrics, furnishing, household construction materials, fuels, in
sulators, and automobile components. (Armecin et al., 2014; [161]). Abaca fibers contain 55–75% cellulose, 10–55% hemicellulose,
0.5–6% pectin, and 5–16% lignin. The density varies between 1.3 and 1.5 g/cm3. It has an elongation of 2.7–14% with Young’s
modulus and tensile strength of 9–33.6 GPa and 400–1135 MPa, respectively [156]. The enhanced properties of the abaca fiber make
them an effective reinforcement material in lightweight polymer composites for construction, structural, automotive, housing, and
industrial applications.
Janne and Michael [80] studied geopolymer concrete incorporating treated and non-treated abaca fibers (0%, 0.25%, and 0.5%
weight of fly ash was used). Alkaline treatment was performed by immersing the fibers in a 12 M NaOH solution for two hours,
resulting in a surface rougher than the surface of the untreated fibers. The rougher surface enhanced fiber–geopolymer adhesion,
increasing compressive and bending strength. Three concentrations (0.5%, 1%, and 1.5%) of abaca fibers were used for the test, which
decreased compressive strength with an increase in fiber concentration. Adding 1% and 1.5% abaca fiber decreased the compressive
strength of the 0.5% concrete from 50 N/mm2 to 42.96 and 34.96 N/mm2. This decrease was attributed to ineffective bonding.
The study suggested a lower abaca fiber weight percentage for concrete (Anthony et al. [24]). In another study, Tampi et al. [161]
utilized different abaca fiber concentrations (0%, 0.15%, 0.20%, and 0.25%) and fiber lengths (25, 37.5, and 50 mm) for the concrete
development. They found that 0.15% abaca fiber concentration and 50-mm fiber length maximized compressive, tensile, and flexural
strength. In addition, the modulus of elasticity also increased by 14.96% compared to control concrete. The higher water absorption of
abaca fibers can have a significant impact on cement matrices, but this can also be an initiative to optimize the mixes for effective
internal curing. Lee and Choi [99].
2.11. Cotton fibers
Cotton (Gossypium hirsutum) is a member of the Malvaceae family of plants. It has been cultivated for around seven thousand
years, and fabric traces have been discovered in the Indus valley civilization (Fig. 5). Around 2.5% of the world’s arable land is devoted
to cotton production, which amounts to approximately 25.9 million tonnes. India, China, the United States, Brazil, and Pakistan are the
top five cotton-producing countries. The cotton fiber grows in a protective case around the cotton seeds. It consists of 95% cellulose.
The other 5% of non-cellulosic compounds are modified by chemical treatment, increasing the cellulose content to above 99%. The
natural hollow cotton fibers are strong, abrasion-resistant, and resistant to high temperatures [37,157,72,176].
The performance of cotton fiber–reinforced geopolymer was investigated by Alomari et al. [17]. Four different concentrations of
cotton fibers were used: 0.3%, 0.5%, 0.7%, and 1% w/w for the study. After the addition of cotton fiber, the density of the geopolymer
decreased; the lowest density (1.8 g/cm3) was seen for the maximum concentration (1% w/w) cotton fiber geopolymer, while the
highest density (2.0 g/cm3) was observed for the pure geopolymer. The geopolymer’s porosity increased with an increase in the fiber
concentration. The geopolymer containing 1% w/w cotton had a maximum porosity of 30%, while the pure geopolymer had a
minimum of 20%. Mechanical properties like fracture toughness and flexural strength were noted maximum for the geopolymer with
1.5% cotton fiber (fracture toughness of 1.12 MPa m1/2 and flexural strength of 11.7 MPa).
The geopolymers reinforced with 0.7% and 1% dosage exhibited low strength due to their poor workability and high porosity of the
geopolymer. Alomari et al. [18] investigated the effect of fiber orientation on concrete strength. For reinforcement, cotton fabrics with
vertical and horizontal fiber orientations were used. The horizontally oriented cotton fabric added concrete had a maximum
compressive strength of 90 MPa, while the vertically oriented fabric had a compressive strength of 60 MPa. Alomari et al. [19] also
investigated the impact properties of the cotton fiber-added geopolymer. Geopolymer was created with 17.2% cotton fiber by weight.
The highest impact strength of the geopolymer was 3.2 kJ/m2, which rose by 60% when 10% by weight of conventional Portland
cement was added. The ordinary Portland cement addition increased the bonding of the fibers to the geopolymer and enhanced
strength. The cotton cementing matrices are seen to improve, and most studies have reported a quasi-ductile behavior.
2.12. Human hair fibers
Hair is an essential biomaterial that is primarily constituted of protein, specifically keratin. Keratins are proteins composed of long
sequences of amino acids (polymers). The average composition of hair’s basic elements is 50.65% carbon, 20.85% oxygen, 17.14%
nitrogen, 6.36% hydrogen, and 5.0% sulphur. In the last few years, biological fibers have become a desirable alternative reinforcement
for composites from both ecological and economical point of view (Akarsh et al. [166]). Human hair fiber is a non-homogeneous,
complex material. The keratin fibers that make up human hair are arranged in one direction along its longitudinal axis, giving it
anisotropic mechanical properties (Barone et al., [30]). Solid waste human hair is also one of the most available natural fibers, which
aids in sustainable construction practices. The study suggested that the use of 2% human hair as fiber and 15% silica fume as a
cementitious additive considerably improved the compressive strength, flexural strength, and split tensile strength of the concrete by
14%, 8%, and 7%, respectively [7].
15
The comparison of the mechanical properties and structures of alpha-keratin fibers such as wool, human hair, and related fibers led
researchers to the conclusion that human hair has the highest tensile strength of the fibers that were studied. Further, the exceptional
properties of human hair, such as its distinctive chemical composition, slow degradation rate, high tensile strength, thermal insulation,
elastic recovery, and one-of-a-kind interactions with water and oils, have resulted in a wide variety of applications for the fiber that
corresponds to human hair (Fueghelman et al. [55]). After 28 days, the density of concrete was found to be decreased as the dosage of
hair fiber increased. Besides, water absorption of hair fiber used specimens was reduced as the amount of human hair fiber increased.
In addition, the modulus of elasticity increased with the incorporation of human hair fiber at all curing ages, whereas the drying
shrinkage of concrete was found to be reduced [33].
3. Life cycle assessment of natural fiber-based cementitious materials
The construction industry is a significant contributor to rising greenhouse gas (GHG) emissions—an emission that is known to
expedite climate change. Each year, the construction sector contributes more GHG emissions than the prior year. Due to its energy-
intensive manufacturing processes, transportation, and construction, this sector accounts for around 40% of GHG emissions and
40% of raw material consumption globally. Furthermore, the end-of-life destruction and disposal of solid waste have a significant
environmental impact. A variety of raw materials were used depending on the type of concrete required in the construction-based
concretes, and the finished products were formed after a series of processes. Concrete produced in the construction industry was
used in a variety of ways that had both direct and indirect effects on the environment. The negative environmental impact of using non-
renewable raw materials can be mitigated by using eco-friendly materials such as natural fibers. As the environmental effects of cement
production are critical, the life cycle assessment (LCA) analysis needs to be done on a larger scale [34]. However, most of the studies
reported have used glass fiber, carbon fiber, Kevlar fiber, and polymer fiber as reinforcement in cement materials. These materials
provide increased strength but are more expensive, use more energy, and have a higher environmental impact than natural fibers.
Minimal studies on the life cycle assessment analysis of cement materials reinforced with natural fibers are reported. Natural fiber
–based reinforcement provides increased strength while minimizing environmental impact and cost. Zhou et al. [187] compared the
environmental impact of kenaf fiber–reinforced with glass fiber–reinforced cement.
They found that the kenaf fiber cement provided environmental benefits, especially for human health, natural resource depletion,
and habitat alteration. They estimated that kenaf fiber wall panels contributed only 40% of the cancer-causing properties of glass fiber
wall panels. The authors concluded that kenaf-based cement is superior to glass-based cement. Merta et al. [119] compared the LCA of
concrete for three natural fibers (flax, hemp, and seagrass) with polyacrylonitrile fibers. The cradle-to-gate approach was considered to
perform LCA. Natural fiber–based cement reduced the use of fossil resources and GHG compared to polyacrylonitrile fiber-based
cement. The environmental impact of hemp and flax fiber concrete was approximately 10% lower than polyacrylonitrile fiber con
crete. Hemp, flax, and sea grass–based concrete had a 6.6%, 6.6%, and 9.9% lower impact on ozone layer depletion than poly
acrylonitrile fiber–based concrete. These two studies demonstrate the environmental benefits of natural fiber-based cement. Notably,
the available research on the LCA assessment of natural fiber-based concrete is highly limited; nevertheless, further study in this field
will expand its application in the construction industry.
4. Conclusions
This paper presents a state-of-the-art review of using natural fibers extracted from basalt, coconut/coir, banana, sugarcane bagasse,
hemp, kenaf, bamboo, jute, sisal, abaca, and cotton as reinforcement for cement paste, mortar, and concrete. These findings confirm
that using natural fibers to reinforce cement concrete and geopolymer concrete can meet the requirements of building materials. The
studies identified the optimal concentrations as follows: basalt fibers (0–0.5%), coconut fibers (0.6–1.2%), banana fibers
(0.175–0.35%), sugarcane bagasse fiber (0–3%), hemp fibers (0–1%), kenaf fibers (1.2–2.4%), jute fibers (0–1%), bamboo fibers
(3–4%), sisal fibers (0–0.25%), and abaca fibers (0–0.25%).
• Basalt fibers are an eco-friendly alternative to conventional fibers, and previous studies have indicated that they can improve
concrete’s mechanical properties and durability. Despite an increase in water demand, basalt fibers of shorter lengths and lower
concentrations can help maintain the workability of concrete. If longer fibers are required, it is recommended to use an appropriate
plasticizer. Doing a preliminary concentration test is advised to prevent an excessive fiber concentration, which results in fiber
baling.
• Coconut fiber-reinforced concrete is dependent upon the fiber length. The literature suggests using five mm-long coconut fibers
with a maximum concentration of 3%. The density depends on the fiber distribution and quality of the treatment method, such as
washing and drying the coconut fibers before using them. This treatment removes the fiber’s natural waxy layers, resulting in
concrete with better bond and tensile strength.
• Banana fibers are well suited for reinforcing concrete in developing countries like India, where production is very high. Banana
fibers are an excellent alternative to other fibers due to their low elongation of break. The literature on banana fibers is highly
limited. However, preliminary research suggests that banana fibers can increase tensile strength and decrease concrete density
when compared to other fibers. More research on effective treatment processes and separation techniques requires special attention
as the detailed understanding may scale up the use of banana fibers.
16
• Sugarcane bagasse fibers can be used at up to 20% concentrations. Acid or silane treatments are recommended to prevent adhesion
loss between the mortar and fiber. A suitable substitution range can enhance the characteristics of concrete and provide excellent
thermal insulation.
• Hemp fibers are a good alternative for manufacturing concrete blocks in multistore building applications. It forms an excellent
option for wall infill, provided there are no space restrictions. Due to their larger sample size, hemp-based systems have shown good
dimensional stability and can be used to build standalone walls. Like sugarcane bagasse, hemp has a low thermal conductivity
making it a good material for hot and humid cities.
• Kenaf fibers are a good substitute for manufactured fibers, and studies suggest that hybrid fibers are useful in structural projects.
The percentage of cellulose in kenaf fibers improves the mechanical properties of concrete; however, its length and diameter should
be examined before using them to reinforce concrete.
• Like kenaf, bamboo fibers are readily available for concrete reinforcement. Concrete with a targeting ductility can be manufactured
using concentrations of bamboo fibers up to 1%. Overall, bamboo fibers improve the tensile strength and torsional toughness of
concrete samples.
• High fiber concentrations can cause concrete porosity and balling, especially in jute fibers. According to the literature, concrete
properties such as flexural strength can be improved by using higher binder concentrations and shorter jute fibers at lower con
centrations. Concrete’s compressive and split tensile strength increased with a sisal fiber concentration of around 1%. However,
studies indicate they can be used in concrete up to 25 MPa only.
• The optimal concentration of abaca fibers is typically lower than other fibers used to reinforce concrete. Previous studies suggested
the use of only a 0.2–0.4% v/v concentration and reported a decrease in the mechanical properties of the concrete but an increase in
ductility. Higher concentrations cause dehydration precipitation in the form of calcium hydroxide crystals, which increase the
porosity of the concrete. Like abaca, cotton fibers can form calcium hydroxide; however, they can improve the mechanical
properties and bonding of concrete. Overall, the fibers reviewed provide a cheap and sustainable alternative for concrete
reinforcement.
5. Pathways for future research
The present review is primarily focused on the use of natural fibers in concrete. From the systematic review of twelve natural fibers,
the following recommendations for future studies are obtained.
• From the comprehensive review, it is observed that the research related to complete durability aspects are highly limited to certain
natural fibers. For example, the long-term effects of kenaf fibers used in concrete are yet to be done. In a similar way, studies on the
durability aspects of banana fibers, bamboo fibers, and jute fibers are minimal and need to be addressed. More research should be
focused on in-depth durability analysis of available natural fibers so they can be effectively utilized.
• Hybrid natural fiber-reinforced composites are one of the most trending composites. The combined use of fibers is effective as the
property of one fiber is stabilized by the other. The tendency of moisture absorption in natural fibers is one of the major issues, as it
influences the mechanical properties of the composites. For example, abaca fibers have a moisture content of around 15%. But in
the case of flax fiber, the moisture content is 7%. To overcome these issues, these fibers are combinedly used with manufactured
fibers to achieve a moisture content within the permissible limit. Several investigations are needed to understand the behavior of
composite fibers made with manufactured and natural fibers. However, only very limited studies are done on in-depth analysis of
hybrid natural fiber-reinforced composites. Therefore, studies on hybrid fiber-reinforced composites are suggested.
• Although there have been a number of research studies attempted for individual industries on the use of natural fibers, there is a
significant gap in knowledge transfer to the industries. As a result, the application of natural fibers in real-time is hampered to a
greater extent. The biggest challenge to the industrial acceptance of natural fiber-reinforced composites is the inconsistent prop
erties of fibers. Without a thorough understanding of the properties and proper guideline databases, it is challenging to address the
issues of reliability and performance of natural fiber-reinforced composites. Therefore, further studies on the assessment of vari
ation in properties of natural fibers with respect to their source are recommended.
• International standards are available specifically for manufactured fibers. It is vital to include natural fibers in standards and
guidelines which enable the use of natural fibers in construction practice. For instance, many government agencies in developing
countries only allow the use of materials that are listed in their respective national standards. Hence it is necessary to develop
specifications for natural fibers in national codes and standards. Thus, research studies and future reviews which are related to the
development of salient specifications of natural fibers are proposed.
• Although several environmental benefits are attributed to natural fiber composites, studies on the life cycle assessment of natural
fiber-reinforced composites are minimal. Evaluation of the environmental impact of natural fiber composites should be conducted
for all product phases, including the extraction of raw materials, production, energy consumption for fabrication, impact during
life, waste generation and recycling, and incineration or disposal after their lifespan. Because these environmental benefits are the
driving force for their industrial acceptance, a comprehensive study on the life cycle assessment of different natural fiber-reinforced
composites needs to be conducted.
• The cost of natural fiber-reinforced composites is a notable advantage compared with manufactured fiber-reinforced composites.
Therefore, a detailed cost-benefit analysis aids in understanding the potential of natural fiber-reinforced composites, which in
creases their use in the construction sector. For that reason, further research studies on the cost-benefit analysis of natural fiber-
reinforced composites are suggested.
17
Declaration of Competing Interest
The authors declare that they have no known competing financial interests or personal relationships that could have appeared to
influence the work reported in this paper.
Data availability
Data will be made available on request.
Acknowledgements
The support for the research conducted was provided by the Riad Sadek Endowed Chair in Civil Engineering of the American
University of Sharjah. The support for publication of this paper was provided by the Open Access Program (OAP) of the American
University of Sharjah. All support received are gratefully appreciated. This paper represents the opinions of the authors and does not
mean to represent the position or opinions of the American University of Sharjah.
References
[1] A.G.N. Abbas, F.N.A.A. Aziz, K. Abdan, N.A. Mohd Nasir, M.N. Norizan, Kenaf fiber reinforced cementitious composites, Fibers 10 (1) (2022) 3.
[2] J.A. Abdalla, B.S. Thomas, R.A. Hawileh, J. Yang, B.B. Jindal, E. Ariyachandra, Influence of nano-TiO2, nano-Fe2O3, nanoclay and nano-CaCO3 on the
properties of cement/geopolymer concrete. Cleaner, Materials (2022), 100061. Mar 8.
[3] M. Afroz, I. Patnaikuni, S. Venkatesan, Chemical durability and performance of modified basalt fiber in concrete medium, Constr. Build. Mater. 154 (2017)
191–203. Nov 15.
[4] D.A. Ahmad, A. Ma’aruf, Investigation into the use of plantain peels ash as an admixture in concrete, Int J. Eng. Sci. Comput. 6 (2016) 5377–5380.
[5] J. Ahmad, Z. Zhou, A.F. Deifalla, Structural properties of concrete reinforced with bamboo fibers: a review, J. Mater. Res. Technol. 24 (2023) 844–865,
https://doi.org/10.1016/j.jmrt.2023.03.038.
[6] W. Ahmad, S.H. Farooq, M. Usman, M. Khan, A. Ahmad, F. Aslam, R.A. Yousef, H.A. Abduljabbar, M. Sufian, Effect of coconut fiber length and content on
properties of high strength concrete, Materials 13 (5) (2020) 1075. Feb 28.
[7] M. Akbar, T. Umar, Z. Hussain, H. Pan, G. Ou, Effect of human hair fibers on the performance of concrete incorporating high dosage of silica fume, Appl. Sci.
13 (1) (2023), https://doi.org/10.3390/app13010124.
[8] N. Akhil, P. Ramu, Experimental investigations on the rut resistant surface layer with Inclusion of Marble Dust and Sisal Fibers, Mater. Today.: Proc. 18 (2019)
3233–3246. Jan 1.
[9] A.B. Akinyemi, E.T. Omoniyi, G. Onuzulike, Effect of microwave assisted alkali pretreatment and other pretreatment methods on some properties of bamboo
fiber reinforced cement composites, Constr. Build. Mater. 245 (2020), 118405. Jun 10.
[10] B.A. Akinyemi, C. Dai, Development of banana fibers and wood bottom ash modified cement mortars, Constr. Build. Mater. 241 (2020), 118041. Apr 30.
[11] A. Alaskar, A. Albidah, A.S. Alqarni, R. Alyousef, H. Mohammadhosseini, Performance evaluation of high-strength concrete reinforced with basalt fibers
exposed to elevated temperatures, J. Build. Eng. 35 (2021), 102108. Mar 1.
[12] E. Alexopoulou, Y. Papatheohari, M. Christou, A. Monti, Origin, description, importance, and cultivation area of kenaf. InKenaf: A multi-purpose crop for
several industrial applications, Springer,, London, 2013, pp. 1–15.
[13] Z. Algin, M. Ozen, The properties of chopped basalt fiber reinforced self-compacting concrete, Constr. Build. Mater. 186 (2018) 678–685. Oct 20.
[14] M. Ali, X. Li, N. Chouw, Experimental investigations on bond strength between coconut fiber and concrete, Mater. Des. 44 (2013) 596–605. Feb 1.
[15] M. Ali, A. Liu, H. Sou, N. Chouw, Mechanical, and dynamic properties of coconut fiber reinforced concrete, Constr. Build. Mater. 30 (2012) 814–825. May 1.
[16] S. Allegret, The history of hemp, Hemp: Ind. Prod. Uses (2013) 4–26.
[17] T. Alomayri, F.U. Shaikh, I.M. Low, Characterisation of cotton fiber-reinforced geopolymer composites, Compos. Part B: Eng. 50 (2013) 1–6. Jul 1.
[18] T. Alomayri, F.U. Shaikh, I.M. Low, Effect of fabric orientation on mechanical properties of cotton fabric reinforced geopolymer composites, Mater. Des. 57
(2014) 360–365. May 1.
[19] T. Alomayri, F.U. Shaikh, I.M. Low, Mechanical and thermal properties of ambient cured cotton fabric-reinforced fly ash-based geopolymer composites, Ceram.
Int. 40 (9) (2014) 14019–14028. Nov 1.
[20] F.M. Al-Oqla, S.M. Sapuan, Natural fiber reinforced polymer composites in industrial applications: feasibility of date palm fibers for sustainable automotive
industry, J. Clean. Prod. 66 (2014) 347–354. Mar 1.
[21] F.M. AL-Oqla, O.Y. Alothman, M. Jawaid, S.M. Sapuan, M.H. Es-Saheb, Processing and properties of date palm fibers and its composites. InBiomass and
bioenergy, Springer,, Cham, 2014, pp. 1–25.
[22] C. Asasutjarit, J. Hirunlabh, J. Khedari, S. Charoenvai, B. Zeghmati, U.C. Shin, Development of coconut coir-based lightweight cement board, Constr. Build.
Mater. 21 (2) (2007) 277–288. Feb 1.
[23] M. Asim, G.M. Uddin, H. Jamshaid, A. Raza, U. Hussain, A.N. Satti, N. Hayat, S.M. Arafat, Comparative experimental investigation of natural fibers reinforced
light weight concrete as thermally efficient building materials, J. Build. Eng. 31 (2020), 101411. Sep 1.
[24] Anthony R., Awasthi S.Y., Singh P., Kumar V.P. An Experimental and Characteristic Study of Abaca Fiber Concrete. InIOP Conference Series: Materials Science
and Engineering 2020 Aug 1 (Vol. 912, No. 3, p. 032077). IOP Publishing.
[25] E. Awwad, M. Mabsout, B. Hamad, M.T. Farran, H. Khatib, Studies on fiber-reinforced concrete using industrial hemp fibers, Constr. Build. Mater. 35 (2012)
710–717. Oct 1.
[26] T. Ayub, N. Shafiq, M.F. Nuruddin, Effect of chopped basalt fibers on the mechanical properties and microstructure of high-performance fiber reinforced
concrete, Jan 1, Adv. Mater. Sci. Eng. (2014), 587686, https://doi.org/10.1155/2014/587686.
[27] M.A. Aziz, P. Paramasivam, S.L. Lee, Prospects for natural fibre reinforced concretes in construction, Int. J. Cem. Compos. Light. Concr. 3 (2) (1981) 123–132,
https://doi.org/10.1016/0262-5075(81)90006-3.
[28] N.I. Baklanova, A.V. Utkin, Alkali resistance, improved alkali resistance of basalt fibers with zirconia and titania coatings, Cem. Concr. Res. 53 (2013) 1–8.
[29] H. Baluch, Y.N. Ziraba, A.K. Azad, Fracture characteristics of sisal fiber reinforced concrete, Int. J. Cem. Compos. Lightweight Concr. 9 (3) (1987) 157–168.
Aug 1.
[30] J.R. Barone, Polyethylene/keratin fiber composites with varying polyethylene crystallinity, Compos. Part A Appl. Sci. Manuf. 36 (11) (2005) 1518–1524,
https://doi.org/10.1016/j.compositesa.2005.03.006.
[31] P. Baruah, S. Talukdar, A comparative study of compressive, flexural, tensile and shear strength of concrete with fibers of different origins, Indian Concr. J. 81
(7) (2007) 17–24.
[32] O.Y. Bayraktar, G. Kaplan, O. Gencel, A. Benli, M. Sutcu, Physico-mechanical, durability and thermal properties of basalt fiber reinforced foamed concrete
containing waste marble powder and slag, Constr. Build. Mater. 288 (2021), 123128. Jun 21.
18
[33] N. Bheel, P. Awoyera, O. Aluko, S. Mahro, A. Viloria, C.A.S. Sierra, Sustainable composite development: Novel use of human hair as fiber in concrete, Case
Stud. Constr. Mater. 13 (2020), e00412, https://doi.org/10.1016/j.cscm.2020.e00412.
[34] C. Cao, Sustainability and life assessment of high strength natural fiber composites in Construction, Jan 1. Advanced high strength natural fiber composites in
construction, Woodhead Publishing,, 2017, pp. 529–544. Jan 1.
[35] S.T. Carvalho, L.M. Mendes, A.A. Cesar, J.B. Flórez, F.A. Mori, G.F. Rabelo, Acoustic characterization of sugarcane bagasse particleboard panels (Saccharum
officinarum L), Mater. Res. 18 (4) (2015) 821–827 (Aug).
[36] M. Chabannes, F. Becquart, E. Garcia-Diaz, N.E. Abriak, L. Clerc, Experimental investigation of the shear behaviour of hemp and rice husk-based concretes
using triaxial compression, Constr. Build. Mater. 143 (2017) 621–632. Jul 15.
[37] N. Chand, M. Fahim, Tribology of natural fiber polymer composites. Woodhead Publishing Series in Composites Science and Engineering 2021, Woodhead
publishing,, 2020, pp. 1–59.
[38] B. Çomak, A. Bideci, Ö.S. Bideci, Effects of hemp fibers on characteristics of cement-based mortar, Constr. Build. Mater. 169 (2018) 794–799. Apr 30.
[39] H. Danso, Properties of coconut, oil palm and bagasse fibers: as potential building materials, Procedia Eng. 200 (2017) 1–9. Jan 1.
[40] H. Danso, D.B. Martinson, M. Ali, J. Williams, Effect of fibre aspect ratio on mechanical properties of soil building blocks, Constr. Build. Mater. 83 (2015)
314–319, https://doi.org/10.1016/j.conbuildmat.2015.03.039.
[41] M.D. De Klerk, M. Kayondo, G.M. Moelich, W.I. de Villiers, R. Combrinck, W.P. Boshoff, Durability of chemically modified sisal fiber in cement-based
composites, Constr. Build. Mater. 241 (2020), 117835. Apr 30.
[42] S. Debnath, T.K. Khieng, M. Anwar, A.K. Basak, A. Pramanik, Strain rate sensitivity of epoxy composites reinforced with varied sizes of bagasse particles,
J. Compos. Sci. 4 (3) (2020) 1–14, https://doi.org/10.3390/jcs4030110.
[43] G. Delannoy, S. Marceau, P. Gle, E. Gourlay, M. Gueguen-Minerbe, S. Amziane, F. Farcas, Durability of hemp concretes exposed to accelerated environmental
aging, Constr. Build. Mater. 252 (2020), 119043. Aug 20.
[44] İ. Demir, C. Doğan, Physical and mechanical properties of hempcrete, Open Waste Manag. J. 13 (1) (2020). Jul 21.
[45] Dhawan A., Gupta N., Goyal R., Saxena K.K. Evaluation of mechanical properties of concrete manufactured with fly ash, bagasse ash and banana fiber.
Materials Today: Proceedings. 20210, https://doi.org/10.1016/j.matpr.2020.06.006.
[46] A.N. Ede, O.M. Olofinnade, O. Joshua, D.O. Nduka, O.A. Oshogbunu, Influence of bamboo fiber and limestone powder on the properties of self-compacting
concrete, Cogent Eng. 7 (1) (2020), https://doi.org/10.1080/23311916.2020.1721410.
[47] A.M. Edeerozey, H.M. Akil, A.B. Azhar, M.Z. Ariffin, Chemical modification of kenaf fibers, Mater. Lett. 61 (10) (2007) 2023–2025. Apr 1.
[48] A. Elbehiry, O. Elnawawy, M. Kassem, A. Zaher, M. Mostafa, FEM evaluation of reinforced concrete beams by hybrid and banana fiber bars (BFB), Case Stud.
Constr. Mater. 14 (2021), e00479. Jun 1.
[49] A. Elsaid, M. Dawood, R. Seracino, C. Bobko, Mechanical properties of kenaf fiber reinforced concrete, Constr. Build. Mater. 25 (4) (2011) 1991–2001. Apr 1.
[50] Evrard A. Transient hygrothermal behaviour of lime-hemp materials. Universite Catholique De Louvain. 2008.
[51] FAO 2017, Food and Agriculture Organization of the United Nations, repository. 〈http://www.fao.org/docrep/013/i1757e/i1757e.pdf〉.
[52] FAO, 2019. World food and agriculture statistical pocketbook. Food and Agricultural Organization of United Nations: Economic and Social Department: The
Statistical Division. 〈http://www.fao.org/3/ca6463en/CA6463EN.pdf〉 (Page 28, accessed 21/12/2019).
[53] FAO 2021, Food and Agriculture Organization of the United Nations, repository. 〈http://www.fao.org/economic/futurefibers/fibers/sisal/en/〉 (accessed 08/
08/2021).
[54] O. Faruk, A.K. Bledzki, H.P. Fink, M. Sain, Biocomposites reinforced with natural fibers: 2000–2010, Prog. Polym. Sci. 37 (11) (2012) 1552–1596. Nov 1.
[55] M. Feughelman, Mechanical Properties and Structure of Alpha-keratin Fibers: Wool, Human Hair and Related Fibres, UNSW Press,, 1997.
[56] M.H. Fouladi, M.H. Nassir, M. Ghassem, M. Shamel, S.Y. Peng, S.Y. Wen, P.Z. Xin, M.J. Nor, Utilizing Malaysian natural fibers as sound absorber, Model. Meas.
Methods Acoust. Waves Acoust. Micro (2013) 161–170. Aug 28.
[57] M. Frías, H. Savastano, E. Villar, M.I.S.D. Rojas, S. Santos, Characterization, and properties of blended cement matrices containing activated bamboo leaf
wastes, Cem. Concr. Compos 34 (2012) 1019–1023, https://doi.org/10.1016/j.cemconcomp.2012.05.005.
[58] X. Gao, D. Zhu, S. Fan, M.Z. Rahman, S. Guo, F. Chen, Structural and mechanical properties of bamboo fiber bundle and fiber/bundle reinforced composites: a
review, J. Mater. Res. Technol. 19 (2022) 1162–1190, https://doi.org/10.1016/j.jmrt.2022.05.077.
[59] A. Gholampour, T. Ozbakkaloglu, A review of natural fiber composites: properties, modification and processing techniques, characterization, applications,
Springer,, US, 2020, https://doi.org/10.1007/s10853-019-03990-y, 3.
[60] P. Glé, E. Gourdon, L. Arnaud, Acoustical properties of materials made of vegetable particles with several scales of porosity, Appl. Acoust. 72 (5) (2011)
249–259. Apr 1.
[61] I.N. Grubesa, B. Marković, A. Gojević, J. Brdarić, Effect of hemp fibers on fire resistance of concrete, Constr. Build. Mater. 184 (2018) 473–484. Sep 30.
[62] H. Gu, Tensile behaviours of the coir fiber and related composites after NaOH treatment, Mater. Des. 30 (9) (2009) 3931–3934. Oct 1.
[63] A. Guo, Z. Sun, J. Satyavolu, Impact of chemical treatment on the physiochemical and mechanical properties of kenaf fibers, Ind. Crops Prod. 141 (2019),
111726. Dec 1.
[64] A. Guo, Z. Sun, J. Satyavolu, Impact of modified kenaf fibers on shrinkage and cracking of cement pastes, Constr. Build. Mater. 264 (2020), 120230. Dec 20.
[65] R.C. Gupta, P. Mehra, B.S. Thomas, Utilization of copper tailing in developing sustainable and durable concrete, J. Mater. Civ. Eng. 29 (5) (2017) 04016274.
May 1.
[66] J.H. Haido, B.A. Tayeh, S.S. Majeed, M. Karpuzcu, Effect of high temperature on the mechanical properties of basalt fiber self-compacting concrete as an
overlay material, Constr. Build. Mater. 268 (2021), 121725. Jan 25.
[67] S.K. Haldar, Chapter 2 - Geology and Geochemistry, Platinum-Nickel-Chromium Deposits, Elsevier,, 2017, pp. 37–61, https://doi.org/10.1016/B978-0-12-
802041-8.00002-X.
[68] M. Hanafi, E. Aydin, A. Ekinci, Engineering properties of basalt fiber-reinforced bottom ash cement paste composites, Materials 13 (8) (2020) 1952 (Jan).
[69] Hardjasaputra, Harianto, Gino Ng, Girum Urgessa, Gabriella Lesmana, and Steven Sidharta. Performance of lightweight natural-fiber reinforced concrete. In
MATEC Web of Conferences, vol. 138, p. 01009. EDP Sciences, 2017.
[70] http://coirboard.gov.in/?page_id=127#:~:text=Currently%2C%20the%20global%20annual%20production,350%2C000%20metric%20tons%20(MT) ,
accessed 23/04/2021.
[71] https://mjbizdaily.com/global-hemp-potential/ (accessed 24/04/2021).
[72] https://news.unt.edu/news-releases/making-cotton-plant-easier-harvest-more-profitable (Accessed 03/08/2021).
[73] https://theconstructor.org/concrete/fiber-reinforced-concrete/150/ 2021, (Accessed 26 April 2021).
[74] https://www.globenewswire.com/news-release/2021/02/08/2171422/0/en/Global-Industrial-Hemp-Market-to-Garner-18–6-Billion-by-2027-Allied-Market-
Research.html (accessed 24/04/2021).
[75] https://www.grandviewresearch.com/industry-analysis/industrial-hemp-market (accessed 24/04/2021).
[76] https://www.hempalta.com/market-overview/ (accessed 24/04/2021).
[77] T. Hussain, M. Ali, Improving the impact resistance and dynamic properties of jute fiber reinforced concrete for rebars design by considering tension zone of
FRC, Constr. Build. Mater. 213 (2019) 592–607. Jul 20.
[78] M.S. Islam, S.J. Ahmed, Influence of jute fiber on concrete properties, Constr. Build. Mater. 189 (2018) 768–776. Nov 20.
[79] T. Jami, S.R. Karade, L.P. Singh, A review of the properties of hemp concrete for green building applications, J. Clean. Prod. 239 (2019), 117852. Dec 1.
[80] Janne P.S.N., Michael A.B.P. Development of abaca fiber-reinforced foamed fly ash geopolymer. InMATEC Web of Conferences 2018 Mar 14 (Vol. 156, p.
05018). EDP Sciences.
[81] A. Javadian, I.F. Smith, N. Saeidi, D.E. Hebel, Mechanical properties of bamboo through measurement of culm physical properties for composite fabrication of
structural concrete reinforcement, Feb 13, Front. Mater. 6 (2019) 15, https://doi.org/10.3389/fmats.2019.00015.
[82] M.H. Jawaid, H.A. Khalil, Cellulosic/synthetic fiber reinforced polymer hybrid composites: A review, Carbohydr. Polym. 86 (1) (2011) 1–8. Aug 1.
19
[83] C. Jiang, K. Fan, F. Wu, D. Chen, Experimental study on the mechanical properties and microstructure of chopped basalt fiber reinforced concrete, Mater. Des.
58 (2014) 187–193. Jun 1.
[84] T. Jirawattanasomkul, S. Likitlersuang, N. Wuttiwannasak, T. Ueda, D. Zhang, M. Shono, Structural behaviour of pre-damaged reinforced concrete beams
strengthened with natural fiber reinforced polymer composites, Compos. Struct. 244 (2020), 112309. Jul 15.
[85] S. Kalia, B.S. Kaith, I. Kaur, Pretreatments of natural fibers and their application as reinforcing material in polymer composites—a review, Polym. Eng. Sci. 49
(7) (2009) 1253–1272 (Jul).
[86] R.C. Kanning, K.F. Portella, R.M. Costa, R.F.K. Puppi, Evaluation of pozzolanic activity of banana leaf ash, International conference on durability of building
materials and components,, Portugal, 2011.
[87] A. Karimah, et al., A review on natural fibers for development of eco-friendly bio-composite: characteristics, and utilizations, J. Mater. Res. Technol. 13 (2021)
2442–2458, https://doi.org/10.1016/j.jmrt.2021.06.014.
[88] M. Khan, M. Ali, Effect of super plasticizer on the properties of medium strength concrete prepared with coconut fiber, Constr. Build. Mater. 182 (2018)
703–715. Sep 10.
[89] M. Khan, M. Ali, Improvement in concrete behavior with fly ash, silica-fume and coconut fibers, Constr. Build. Mater. 203 (2019) 174–187. Apr 10.
[90] M. Khan, M. Cao, M. Ali, Effect of basalt fibers on mechanical properties of calcium carbonate whisker-steel fiber reinforced concrete, Constr. Build. Mater. 192
(2018) 742–753. Dec 20.
[91] T.K. Khieng, S. Debnath, E. Ting Chaw Liang, M. Anwar, A. Pramanik, A.K. Basak, A review on mechanical properties of natural fibre reinforced polymer
composites under various strain rates, J. Compos. Sci. vol. 5 (5) (2021) 1–13, https://doi.org/10.3390/jcs5050130.
[92] J. Kim, C. Park, Y. Choi, H. Lee, G. Song, An investigation of mechanical properties of jute fiber-reinforced concrete. High Performance Fiber Reinforced
Cement Composites, Springer,, Dordrecht, 2012, pp. 75–82.
[93] O. Kinnane, A. Reilly, J. Grimes, S. Pavia, R. Walker, Acoustic absorption of hemp-lime Construction, Constr. Build. Mater. 122 (2016) 674–682. Sep 30.
[94] A.B. Kizilkanat, N. Kabay, V. Akyüncü, S. Chowdhury, A.H. Akça, Mechanical properties and fracture behavior of basalt and glass fiber reinforced concrete: An
experimental study, Constr. Build. Mater. 100 (2015) 218–224. Dec 15.
[95] Kozlowski R.M., Mackiewicz-Talarczyk M., editors. Handbook of natural fibers: volume 1: types, properties and factors affecting breeding and cultivation.
Woodhead Publishing; 2020 Jan 28.
[96] G.H. Kumar, H. Babuvishwanath, R. Purohit, P. Sahu, R.S. Rana, Investigations on mechanical properties of glass and sugarcane fiber polymer matrix
composites, Mater. Today.: Proc. 4 (4) (2017) 5408–5420. Jan 1.
[97] S. Kumar, B.S. Thomas, V. Gupta, P. Basu, S. Shrivastava, Sandstone wastes as aggregate and its usefulness in cement concrete–A comprehensive review,
Renew. Sustain. Energy Rev. 81 (2018) 1147–1153. Jan 1.
[98] S.P. Kundu, S. Chakraborty, A. Roy, B. Adhikari, S.B. Majumder, Chemically modified jute fiber reinforced non-pressure (N.P.) concrete pipes with improved
mechanical properties, Constr. Build. Mater. 37 (2012) 841–850. Dec 1.
[99] G.W. Lee, Y.C. Choi, Effect of abaca natural fiber on the setting behavior and autogenous shrinkage of cement composite, J. Build. Eng. 56 (2022), 104719. Sep
15.
[100] J.J. Lee, J. Song, H. Kim, Chemical stability of basalt fiber in alkaline solution, Fibers Polym. 15 (11) (2014) 2329–2334. Nov 1.
[101] M. Li, S. Zhou, X. Guo, Effects of alkali-treated bamboo fibers on the morphology and mechanical properties of oil well cement, Constr. Build. Mater. 150
(2017) 619–625. Sep 30.
[102] M. Li, F. Gong, Z. Wu, Study on mechanical properties of alkali-resistant basalt fiber reinforced concrete, Constr. Build. Mater. 245 (2020), 118424. Jun 10.
[103] Y. Li, Y.W. Mai, L. Ye, Sisal fiber and its composites: a review of recent developments, Compos. Sci. Technol. 60 (11) (2000) 2037–2055. Aug 1.
[104] Z. Li, L. Wang, X. Wang, Flexural characteristics of coir fiber reinforced cementitious composites, Fibers Polym. 7 (3) (2006) 286–294 (Sep).
[105] Z. Li, X. Wang, L. Wang, Properties of hemp fiber reinforced concrete composites, Composite’s Part A: Appl. Sci. Manuf. 37 (3) (2006) 497–505. Mar 1.
[106] Z. Li, X. Zhang, C. Fa, Y. Zhang, J. Xiong, H. Chen, Investigation on characteristics and properties of bagasse fibers: Performances of asphalt mixtures with
bagasse fibers, Constr. Build. Mater. 248 (2020), 118648. Jul 10.
[107] Z. Liu, R. Worley II, F. Du, C.D. Giles, M. Dewoolkar, D. Huston, T. Tan, A study on avalanches of early age basalt fiber reinforced concrete beams during
flexure, J. Clean. Prod. 279 (2021), 123695 (Jan).
[108] Z. Lu, L. Su, G. Xian, B. Lu, J. Xie, Durability study of concrete-covered basalt fiber-reinforced polymer (BFRP) bars in marine environment, no. October 2019,
Compos. Struct. 234 (2020), 111650, https://doi.org/10.1016/j.compstruct.2019.111650.
[109] K. Madhavi, V.V. Harshith, M. Gangadhar, V.C. Kumar, T. Raghavendra, External strengthening of concrete with natural and synthetic fiber composites, Mater.
Today.: Proc. 38 (2021) 2803–2809. Jan 1.
[110] H. Madhwani, D. Sathyan, K.M. Mini, Study on durability and hardened state properties of sugarcane bagasse fiber reinforced foam concrete, Nov 20, Mater.
Today.: Proc. (2020), https://doi.org/10.1016/j.matpr.2020.10.313.
[111] M.S. Mahesh, Evaluation of Aspect Ratio (L/D) of Bamboo Fibre As a Reinforcement Material in Concrete, Int. J. Res. Eng. Technol. 05 (26) (2016) 80–83,
https://doi.org/10.15623/ijret.2016.0526015.
[112] R. Mahjoub, J.M. Yatim, A.R. Sam, S.H. Hashemi, Tensile properties of kenaf fiber due to various conditions of chemical fiber surface modifications, Constr.
Build. Mater. 55 (2014) 103–113. Mar 31.
[113] M.S. Mahzabin, L.J. Hock, M.S. Hossain, L.S. Kang, The influence of addition of treated kenaf fiber in the production and properties of fiber reinforced foamed
composite, Constr. Build. Mater. 178 (2018) 518–528. Jul 30.
[114] P. Mani, K.G. Satyanarayana, Effects of the surface treatments of lingo-cellulosic fibers on their debonding stress, J. Adhes. Sci. Technol. 4 (1) (1990) 17–24.
[115] K. Manohar, Experimental investigation of building thermal insulation from agricultural by-products, Curr. J. Appl. Sci. Technol. (2012) 227–239. Jun 8.
[116] P. Mehra, S. Kumar, B.S. Thomas, R.C. Gupta, Analysis on the hazardous jarosite added concrete, Constr. Build. Mater. 191 (2018) 253–259. Dec 10.
[117] L. Melchert, The Dutch sustainable building policy: A model for developing countries? Build. Environ. 42 (2) (2007) 893–901. Feb 1.
[118] I. Merta, E.K. Tschegg, Fracture energy of natural fiber reinforced concrete, Constr. Build. Mater. 40 (2013) 991–997. Mar 1.
[119] I. Merta, A. Mladenovič, J. Turk, A. Šajna, A. Mauko Pranjić, Life cycle assessment of natural fiber reinforced cementitious composites. Key Engineering
Materials 761, Trans Tech Publications Ltd,, 2018, pp. 204–209.
[120] A. Micheal, R.R. Moussa, Investigating thE Economic and Environmental Effect of Integrating Sugarcane Bagasse (SCB) fibers in cement bricks, Mar 4, Ain
Shams Eng. J. (2021), https://doi.org/10.1016/j.asej.2020.12.012.
[121] W. Mingchao, Z. Zuoguang, L. Yubin, L. Min, S. Zhijie, Chemical durability and mechanical properties of alkali-proof basalt fiber and its reinforced epoxy
composites, J. Reinf. Plast. Compos. 27 (4) (2008) 393–407 (Mar).
[122] M. Mostafa, N. Uddin, Experimental analysis of Compressed Earth Block (CEB) with banana fibers resisting flexural and compression forces, Case Stud. Constr.
Mater. 5 (2016) 53–63. Dec 1.
[123] R.B. Mugume, A. Karubanga, M. Kyakula, Impact of addition of banana fibers at varying fiber length and content on mechanical and microstructural properties
of concrete, Oct 8, Adv. Civ. Eng. (2021) 9422352, https://doi.org/10.1155/2021/9422352.
[124] R.A. Nambiar, M.K. Haridharan, Mechanical and durability study of high-performance concrete with addition of natural fiber (jute), Nov 19, Mater. Today.:
Proc. (2020), https://doi.org/10.1016/j.matpr.2020.10.339.
[125] S.R. Naraganti, R.M. Pannem, J. Putta, Impact resistance of hybrid fiber reinforced concrete containing sisal fibers, Ain Shams Eng. J. 10 (2) (2019) 297–305.
Jun 1.
[126] S. Nazar, J. Yang, B.S. Thomas, I. Azim, S.K. Rehman, Rheological properties of cementitious composites with and without nano-materials: A comprehensive
review, J. Clean. Prod. 272 (2020), 122701. Nov 1.
[127] S. Niyasom, N. Tangboriboon, Development of biomaterial fillers using eggshells, water hyacinth fibers, and banana fibers for green concrete construction,
Constr. Build. Mater. 283 (2021), 122627. May 10.
20
[128] B.G. Olukunle, N.B. Uche, A.O. Efomo, A. Gideon, J.K. Joshua, Data on acoustic behaviour of coconut fiber-reinforced concrete, Data Brief. 21 (2018)
1004–1007. Dec 1.
[129] C. Onésippe, N. Passe-Coutrin, F. Toro, S. Delvasto, K. Bilba, M.A. Arsène, Sugar cane bagasse fibers reinforced cement composites: thermal considerations,
Compos. Part A: Appl. Sci. Manuf. 41 (4) (2010) 549–556. Apr 1.
[130] O. Onuaguluchi, N. Banthia, Plant-based natural fiber reinforced cement composites: A review, Cem. Concr. Compos. 68 (2016) 96–108. Apr 1.
[131] M.T. Paridah, A.B. Basher, S. SaifulAzry, Z. Ahmed, Retting process of some bast plant fibers and its effect on fiber quality: A review, BioResources 6 (4) (2011)
5260–5281. Sep 4.
[132] S. Pirmohammad, M.H. Mengharpey, Influence of natural fibers on fracture strength of WMA (warm mix asphalt) concretes using a new fracture test specimen,
Constr. Build. Mater. 251 (2020), 118927. Aug 10.
[133] B. Poletanovic, J. Dragas, I. Ignjatovic, M. Komljenovic, I. Merta, Physical and mechanical properties of hemp fiber reinforced alkali-activated fly ash and fly
ash/slag mortars, Constr. Build. Mater. 259 (2020), 119677. Oct 30.
[134] K. Poongodi, P. Murthi, Impact strength enhancement of banana fiber reinforced lightweight self-compacting concrete, Mater. Today.: Proc. 27 (2020)
1203–1209. Jan 1.
[135] K. Poongodi, P. Murthi, R. Gobinath, Evaluation of ductility index enhancement level of banana fiber reinforced lightweight self-compacting concrete beam,
Mater. Today.: Proc. 39 (2021) 131–136. Jan 1.
[136] P. Preethi, M.G. Balakrishna, Physical and chemical properties of banana fiber extracted from commercial banana cultivars grown in Tamilnadu State,
Agrotechnology (2013) S11.
[137] P.G. Quedou, E. Wirquin, C. Bokhoree, Sustainable concrete: potency of sugarcane bagasse ash as a cementitious material in the construction industry, Case
Stud. Constr. Mater. 14 (2021), e00545. Jun 1.
[138] E. Quiñones-Bolaños, M. Gómez-Oviedo, J. Mouthon-Bello, L. Sierra-Vitola, U. Berardi, C. Bustillo-Lecompte, Potential use of coconut fiber modified mortars to
enhance thermal comfort in low-income housing, J. Environ. Manag. 277 (2021), 111503. Jan 1.
[139] B.E. Ramachandran, V. Velpari, N. Balasubramanian, Chemical durability studies on basalt fibers, J. Mater. Sci. 16 (12) (1981) 3393–3397 (Dec).
[140] G. Ramakrishna, T. Sundararajan, Studies on the durability of natural fibers and the effect of corroded fibers on the strength of mortar, Cem. Concr. Compos. 27
(5) (2005) 575–582. May 1.
[141] M. Ramli, W.H. Kwan, N.F. Abas, Strength and durability of coconut-fiber-reinforced concrete in aggressive environments, Constr. Build. Mater. 38 (2013)
554–566. Jan 1.
[142] N. Reddy, Y. Yang, Fibers from sugarcane bagasse. Innovative Biofibers from Renewable Resources, Springer,, Berlin, Heidelberg, 2015, pp. 29–30.
[143] J.M. Reis, Fracture and flexural characterization of natural fiber-reinforced polymer concrete, Constr. Build. Mater. 20 (9) (2006) 673–678. Nov 1.
[144] M. Rinawa, P. Chauhan, D. Suresh, S. Kumar, R.S. Kumar, A review on mechanical properties of natural fiber reinforced polymer (NFRP) composites, Mater.
Today.: Proc. (2021), https://doi.org/10.1016/j.matpr.2021.07.275.
[145] G. Ruano, F. Bellomo, G. Lopez, A. Bertuzzi, L. Nallim, S. Oller, Mechanical behaviour of cementitious composites reinforced with bagasse and hemp fibers,
Constr. Build. Mater. 240 (2020), 117856. Apr 20.
[146] A. Rubio-López, T. Hoang, C. Santiuste, Constitutive model to predict the viscoplastic behaviour of natural fibres based composites, Compos. Struct. 155 (2016)
8–18, https://doi.org/10.1016/j.compstruct.2016.08.001.
[147] V.A. Rybin, A.V. Utkin, N.I. Baklanova, Alkali-resistant coating for basalt fibers, Prot. Met. Phys. Chem. Surf. 49 (6) (2013) 689–692 (Nov).
[148] N. Saba, M.T. Paridah, M. Jawaid, Mechanical properties of kenaf fiber reinforced polymer composite: A review, Constr. Build. Mater. 76 (2015) 87–96. Feb 1.
[149] M.P. Sáez-Pérez, M. Brümmer, J.A. Durán-Suárez, Effect of the state of conservation of the hemp used in geopolymer and hydraulic lime concretes, Constr.
Build. Mater. 285 (2021), 122853. May 24.
[150] M. Samrat, F. Raul, A. Yusuf, S. Ulku, Banana fibers variability and fracture behavior, J. Eng. Fibers Fabr. 3 (2008) 39–45.
[151] E. Sassoni, S. Manzi, A. Motori, M. Montecchi, M. Canti, Novel sustainable hemp-based composites for application in the building industry: Physical, thermal
and mechanical characterization, Energy Build. 77 (2014) 219–226. Jul 1.
[152] D. Sedan, C. Pagnoux, A. Smith, T. Chotard, Mechanical properties of hemp fiber reinforced cement: Influence of the fiber/matrix interaction, J. Eur. Ceram.
Soc. 28 (1) (2008) 183–192. Jan 1.
[153] W.M. Shaban, K. Elbaz, J. Yang, B.S. Thomas, X. Shen, L. Li, Y. Du, J. Xie, L. Li, Effect of pozzolan slurries on recycled aggregate concrete: Mechanical and
durability performance, Constr. Build. Mater. 276 (2021), 121940. Mar 22.
[154] S. Shibata, Y. Cao, I. Fukumoto, Press forming of short natural fiber-reinforced biodegradable resin: Effects of fiber volume and length on flexural properties,
Polym. Test. vol. 24 (8) (2005) 1005–1011, https://doi.org/10.1016/j.polymertesting.2005.07.012.
[155] J. Sim, C. Park, D.Y. Moon, Characteristics of basalt fiber as a strengthening material for concrete structures, Compos. Part B: Eng. 36 (6–7) (2005) 504–512.
Jan 1.
[156] A.K. Sinha, S. Bhattacharya, H.K. Narang, Abaca fiber reinforced polymer composites: a review, J. Mater. Sci. (2020) 1–9. Nov 25.
[157] G. Song, Improving comfort in clothing, Woodhead Publ. Ser. Text. (2011) 61–78.
[158] W. Stelte, et al., Coir from Coconut Processing Waste as a Raw Material for Applications Beyond Traditional Uses, BioResources 18 (1) (2023), https://doi.org/
10.15376/biores.18.1.Stelte.
[159] N. Sultana, S.Z. Hossain, M.S. Alam, M.M. Hashish, M.S. Islam, An experimental investigation and modeling approach of response surface methodology
coupled with crow search algorithm for optimizing the properties of jute fiber reinforced concrete, Constr. Build. Mater. 243 (2020), 118216. May 20.
[160] H. Syed, R. Nerella, S.R. Madduru, Role of coconut coir fiber in concrete, Mater. Today.: Proc. 27 (2020) 1104–1110. Jan 1.
[161] Tampi R., Parung H., Djamaluddin R., Amiruddin A.A. Reinforced concrete mixture using abaca fiber. InIOP Conference Series: Earth and Environmental
Science 2020 (Vol. 419, No. 1, p. 012060). IOP Publishing.
[162] B.C. Thomas, Y.S. Jose, A study on characteristics of sisal fiber and its performance in fiber reinforced concrete (no. xxxx), Mater. Today, Proc. 51 (2021)
1238–1242, https://doi.org/10.1016/j.matpr.2021.07.312.
[163] B.S. Thomas, J. Yang, K.H. Mo, J.A. Abdalla, R.A. Hawileh, E. Ariyachandra, Biomass ashes from agricultural wastes as supplementary cementitious materials
or aggregate replacement in cement/geopolymer concrete: A comprehensive review, J. Build. Eng. (2021), 102332. Feb 25.
[164] B.S. Thomas, J. Yang, A. Bahurudeen, S.N. Chinnu, J.A. Abdalla, R.A. Hawileh, H.M. Hamada, "Geopolymer concrete incorporating recycled aggregates: A
comprehensive review", Clean. Mater. 3 (100056) (2022).
[165] B.S. Thomas, Jian Yang, A. Bahurudeen, A.Abdalla Jamal, A.Hawileh Rami, H.M. Hamada, S. Nazar, V. Jittin, D.K. Ashish, Sugarcane bagasse ash as
supplementary cementitious material in concrete–A review, Mater. Today Sustain. 15 (2021), 100086.
[166] A. Verma, V.K. Singh, Human Hair: A Biodegradable Composite Fiber–A Review, Int. J. Waste Resour. 6 (2) (2016), https://doi.org/10.4172/2252-
5211.1000206.
[167] E. Villar-Cocina, E.V. Morales, S.F. Santos, H. Savastano, M. Frías, Pozzolanic behavior of bamboo leaf ash: characterization and determination of the kinetic
parameters, Cem. Concr. Compos 33 (2011) 68–73, https://doi.org/10.1016/j.cemconcomp.2010.09.003.
[168] A.S. Wahyuni, F. Supriani, A. Gunawan, The performance of concrete with rice husk ash, seashell ash and bamboo fiber addition, Procedia Eng. 95 (2014)
473–478. Jan 1.
[169] R. Walker, S. Pavia, R. Mitchell, Mechanical properties and durability of hemp-lime concretes, Constr. Build. Mater. 61 (2014) 340–348. Jun 30.
[170] Y. Wang, S. Hu, Z. He, Mechanical and fracture properties of geopolymer concrete with basalt fiber using digital image correlation, Theor. Appl. Fract. Mech.
112 (2021), 102909. Apr 1.
[171] C.L. Webber III, H.L. Bhardwaj, V.K. Bledsoe, Kenaf production: fiber, feed, and seed. Trends in New Crops and New Uses, ASHS Press,, Alexandria, VA, 2002,
pp. 327–339.
[172] J. Wei, C. Meyer, Improving degradation resistance of sisal fiber in concrete through fiber surface treatment, Appl. Surf. Sci. 289 (2014) 511–523. Jan 15.
[173] WGBC, 2021. What is green building? https://www.worldgbc.org/what-green-building (Accessed 26 April 2021).
21
[174] Wikipedia, 2021a. https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Fiber-reinforced_concrete, 2021 (accessed 24/04/2021).

[175] Wikipedia, 2021b. https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Jute_cultivation (accessed 26/04/2021).
[176] Wikipedia, 2021c. https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Cotton (accessed 03/08/2021).
[177] M. Yadav, A. Mathur, Bamboo as a sustainable material in the construction industry: An overview, Mar 5, Mater. Today.: Proc. (2021), https://doi.org/
10.1016/j.matpr.2021.01.125.
[178] P. Yan, B. Chen, S. Afgan, M.A. Haque, M. Wu, J. Han, Experimental research on ductility enhancement of ultra-high performance concrete incorporation with
basalt fiber, polypropylene fiber, and glass fiber, Constr. Build. Mater. 279 (2021), 122489. Apr 12.
[179] W. Yao, Z. Li, Flexural behavior of bamboo–fiber-reinforced mortar laminates, Cem. Concr. Res. 33 (1) (2003) 15–19. Jan 1.
[180] Your art library, 2021. https://www.yourarticlelibrary.com/culture/country-wise-production-and-distribution-of-jute-around-the-world/25543 (Accessed 28/
04/2021).
[181] Zaveri M. Absorbency characteristics of kenaf core particles, Master of Science, Department of Textile Engineering, North Carolina State University, USA; 2004.
[182] Y. Zeng, A. Tang, Comparison of effects of basalt and polyacrylonitrile fibers on toughness behaviors of lightweight aggregate concrete, Constr. Build. Mater.
282 (2021), 122572. May 3.
[183] C. Zhang, Y. Wang, X. Zhang, Y. Ding, P. Xu, Mechanical properties and microstructure of basalt fiber-reinforced recycled concrete, J. Clean. Prod. 278 (2021),
123252 (Jan).
[184] D. Zhang, K.H. Tan, A. Dasari, Y. Weng, Effect of natural fibers on thermal spalling resistance of ultra-high-performance concrete, Cem. Concr. Compos. 109
(2020), 103512. May 1.
[185] T. Zhang, Y. Yin, Y. Gong, L. Wang, Mechanical properties of jute fiber-reinforced high-strength concrete, Struct. Concr. 21 (2) (2020) 703–712 (Apr).
[186] C. Zhou, L. Cai, Z. Chen, J. Li, Effect of kenaf fiber on mechanical properties of high-strength cement composites, Constr. Build. Mater. 263 (2020), 121007.
Dec 10.
[187] C. Zhou, S.Q. Shi, Z. Chen, L. Cai, L. Smith, Comparative environmental life cycle assessment of fiber reinforced cement panel between kenaf and glass fibers,
J. Clean. Prod. 200 (2018) 196–204. Nov 1.
[188] W.H. Zhu, B.C. Tobias, R.S.P. Coutts, G. Langfors, Air-cured banana-fiber-reinforced cement composites, Cem. Concr. Compos. 16 (1994) 1–6.
Further reading
[1] A.G. Abbas, F.N. Aziz, K. Abdan, N.A. Mohd Nasir, M.N. Norizan, Kenaf fiber reinforced cementitious composites, Fibers 10 (1) (2022) 3. Jan 4.
[2] A.S. Wahyuni, F. Supriani, A. Gunawan, The performance of concrete with rice husk ash, seashell ash and bamboo fiber addition, Procedia Eng. 95 (2014)
473–478. Jan 1.
22

Case Studies in Construction Materials

Uploaded by

Copyright:

Available Formats

Case Studies in Construction Materials

Uploaded by

Document Information

Original Title

Copyright

Available Formats

Share this document

Share or Embed Document

Sharing Options

Did you find this document useful?

Is this content inappropriate?

Copyright:

Available Formats

Case Studies in Construction Materials

Uploaded by

Copyright:

Available Formats

Case Studies in Construction Materials 19 (2023) e02244

Contents lists available at ScienceDirect

Case Studies in Construction Materials

A comprehensive review on the use of natural fibers in cement/

Fig. 1. : Classification of natural and manufactured fibers.

2. Natural fibers in cementitious composites

Fig. 2. : Optimum replacement percentage of various natural fibers in cement concrete.

2.1. Basalt fibers

2.2. Coconut fiber

2.3. Banana fiber

2.4. Sugarcane bagasse fibers

2.5. Hemp fibers

Fig. 7. : Mechanical properties of hemp fiber concrete [38].

2.6. Kenaf fibers

Fig. 8. : Compressive failure modes of kenaf fiber–reinforced concrete [186].

2.7. Bamboo fibers

materials. ([167]; Frias et al. [57]; [177,179]).

2.8. Jute fibers

2.9. Sisal fibers

2.10. Abaca fibers

2.11. Cotton fibers

2.12. Human hair fibers

3. Life cycle assessment of natural fiber-based cementitious materials

5. Pathways for future research

Declaration of Competing Interest

Data will be made available on request.

[174] Wikipedia, 2021a. https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Fiber-reinforced_concrete, 2021 (accessed 24/04/2021).

You might also like