St Mary’s University

Learning Management System (LMS)

Faculty of Business and Economics
Department of Management
Tutorial Note and Work Sheet
Note: This is a brief and comprehensive note aimed at preparing students for Higher Education Exit Exam.
This cannot be taken as a full-length teaching material or module. The full-length teaching materials or
modules are available on St. Mary’s University LMS or available upon the request of the course instructor.

Course Name Business Research Method

Research is most frequently used terminology in different academic and business

institutions. Research as conscious and creative human activity involves discovering and
learning new things. Where there is a problem there is always a research. It is an
essential tool for understanding the events and structures of the social world. Research
can mean different things to different people. People have defined research differently
according to their perception. Here under we will see different definitions and
Course perceptions of individuals about research.
Description

Course Objective

CHAPTER
ONE Introduction
Notes and Research is most frequently used terminology in different academic and business
Illustration
institutions. Research as conscious and creative human activity involves discovering and
examples learning new things. Where there is a problem there is always a research. It is an
essential tool for understanding the events and structures of the social world. Research
can mean different things to different people. People have defined research differently
according to their perception. Here under we will see different definitions and
perceptions of individuals about research.

1.1 Research defined

Different authors in many ways have defined the word research. Research commonly
refers to a search for knowledge. Some people consider research as a movement from
known to unknown. It is indeed a voyage of knowledge. For some people on the other
hand research implies an art of scientific investigation to the state of nature or
phenomenon. Authors are increasingly adding new names and definition for different
kinds of research. Some of the major definitions given by scholars are:

1. “Research is a systematized effort to gain new knowledge.”

2. Research is also defined as a movement- movement from known to unknown.
3. Research is the application of human intelligence in a systematic manner to a
problem whose solution is not immediately available.
4. “Research comprises of defining and redefining problems, formulating hypothesis
or suggested solutions; making deductions and reaching conclusions; and at last
carefully testing the conclusions to determine whether they fit the formulating
hypothesis”
5. “Research is an honest, exhaustive, intelligent searching for facts and their
meanings or implications with reference to a given problem. The product or
findings of a given piece of research should be an authentic, verifiable and
contribution to knowledge in the field studied.” He has emphasized the following
characteristics of research in his definition:
 It is an honest and exhaustive process.
 The facts are studied with understanding.
 The facts are discovered in the light of problem. Research is problem-centered.
 The findings are valid and verifiable.
  Research work should contribute new knowledge in that field.

In sum, any research endeavor demands the pursuit of scientific process in purposive
manner and any research undertaking needs to be systematic (follow logical sequence not
belief or common sense approaches).

1.2 Business Research

It is defined as the systematic and objective process of gathering, recording, and

analyzing data for aid in making business decisions (Zikmund, 2003).

Business research can be described as a systematic and organized effort to investigate a

problem encountered in the work setting that needs a solution (Sekaran, 2006: pp 5)

Business research is the application of the scientific method in searching for the truth
about business phenomena (Zikmund et al., 2008). These activities include defining
business opportunities and problems, generating and evaluating alternative courses of
action, and monitoring employee and organizational performance. Accordingly, the
objective is to facilitate the managerial decision making process for all aspects of a
business- finance, marketing, and personnel and so on.

Business Research= marketing research+ Financial research+ Operations/production

Research+ Human recourses research + Materials management research+ Risk
Management research+ other business functions research.

When Is Business Research Needed?

The need to make intelligent, informed decisions ultimately motivates an organization to

engage in business research. Not every decision requires research. Thus, when
confronting a key decision, a manager must initially decide whether or not to conduct
business research. The determination of the need for research centers on (1) time
constraints, (2) the availability of data, (3) the nature of the decision to be made, and (4)
the value of the research information in relation to costs.

1.2 Objectives of research

The broader objectives of research are:

A. Theoretical Objective

Those researches whose objectives are theoretical formulate the new theories, principles
or laws. Such type of research is explanatory because it explains the relationships of
certain variables. These researches contribute some basic knowledge to the human
knowledge. The researches in different disciplines i.e., Physics, Chemistry, Mathematics
etc. have the theoretical objective.

B. Factual Objective

Those researches whose objective is factual find out new facts. This objective is by nature
descriptive. These researches describe facts or events which happened previously. Such
type of research is done in history.

C. Application Objective

The research having application objective does not contribute a new knowledge in the
fund of human knowledge but suggests new applications. By application we mean
improvement and modification in practice. For example if anyone gives a new application
of electricity then such type of research has application objective.

Motivation of doing research (self-reading)

Research is not a trouble-free duty rather it is time consuming, tiresome and expensive
undertaking. Despite these all difficulties many people especially in academic institute
would like to carry out research at least once in their life. What are the possible motives
of individuals to undertake research work?

The possible motives for doing research can be either one or a combination of the
following:

• Desire to get degree with its consequential benefit. The graduate and postgraduate
students are required to carry out research project as a partial fulfillment to obtain their
master and Ph.D. Degree. Research is therefore, a prerequisite to complete their study.

• Desire to get respect and promotion (to own respect in society). In academic and
research institutions publication is crucial for promotion and academic rank. “Publish or
perish” is a phrase commonly used in experienced and well-established academic
institutes. This implies an individual should carry out a research activity and publish his
findings in scientific or international journal in order to get respect and academic rank. If
not the individual will "perish" meaning no proportion or academic rank and hence no
respect is possible for that individual in the academic environment
• Desire to face a challenge in solving the unsolved problem. Concern over a
particular problem initiates a researcher.

• Desire to get intellectual joy of doing some creative work.

• Directive of government. Government sometimes gives directives to its employees

to carry out a particular study and investigation for better decision-making ground. Ideally
any policy before implementation requires detail study and analysis of its impact on
different parts of the society.

• Employment condition. Some employers set as criteria at least one publication in

international journal.

1.3 Science and Scientific Research

For clear understanding of the term research, we better know the meaning of scientific
method. The two terms, research and scientific methods are closely related. The
researcher is not interested in particular results; rather he is interested in the repeatability
and validity of results and their application to more complicated and general solutions.

Research methodology and technique are mostly different from one science to another or
can be different from research to research. The philosophy common to all research
methodology and technique is called Scientific methods.

As Pearson (1968) put it, “the scientific method is one and the same in the branches
(science) and that method is the methods of all logically trained minds”

Two general traits characterize the scientific methods are:

 Validity: validity is the characteristic used describe research that measures
what it claims to measure.
 Reliability: reliability is the characteristic of a research methodology that
allows it to be repeated again and again by any researcher-always with the
same results. Scientific working in their laboratories carefully controls all
aspects of their experiments and reports them in detail so that other scientists
can attempt the same study and confirm the results.

1.4 Types of research

The field of research has various methods. Based on the nature, subject and purpose of
the research, two or more methods of research can be combined in a single research
study. The following methods of research have been identified.
1) Fundamental Research: Fundamental Research also known as pure research
or basic research is concerned with the development of theoretical frame for a
particular phenomenon for which so far no generalized principles are
available. It aims at solving puzzling problems or questions of a theoretical
nature that have little direct impact on activities, performance or policy
decisions. This type of research is aimed at generalizations and formulation of
a theory. Research concerning some natural phenomenon or pure mathematics
are examples of fundamental research. Research studies, concerning human
behavior carried with a view to make generalizations about human behavior
are also examples of fundamental research. It can be concluded that the
fundamental research is directed towards finding information that has a broad
base of applications and thus, adds to the already existing organized body of
scientific knowledge. In other words, it is intended to expand the body of
knowledge in a field or to provide knowledge for use of others.

2) Applied Research: In all public/private sector organizations, the

administrators/Business managers are often demanded to find solutions to
various problems and make appropriate decisions. Applied Research aims at
finding solutions for the problems that demand immediate solution or
permanent answers. Researches to identify social, economic or political trends
that may affect a particular institution or evaluation research are examples of
applied research. The most important aim of applied research is to find out a
solution for some pressing practical problems or guiding a specific decision.

3) Conceptual Research: Conceptual research is related to some abstract idea(s)

or theory. It is generally used by philosophers and thinkers to develop new
concepts or to reinterpret existing concepts.

4) Empirical Research: is data-based, coming up with conclusions that are

capable of being verified, by observation or by experiment. They are also
known as experimental type of research. In this kind of research, the
researcher should collect enough data to prove or disprove the hypothesis.
Empirical research is appropriate when proof that certain variables affect
others variables in some way is sought. It is considered that evidence
gathered through experiments or empirical studies provides the most
powerful support possible for a given hypothesis.

5) Experimental Research: In this type of research, one or more variables are

manipulated under conditions, which permit the collection of data, which
show the effects. Experiments will create situation so that a researcher can
 obtain the particular data needed and can measure the data accurately.
Experiments are artificial in the sense that the situations are created for testing
purposes. Since it gives the researcher control over the factors, the artificiality
is the essence of the experimental method.

6) Quantitative / Qualitative Research: Quantitative research aims at

measurement of a phenomenon. It is based on the measurement of quantity or
amount. This is applicable to the problems that can be expressed in
quantitative terms. For example, a study of poverty in terms of number of
persons below a particular consumption level region-wise, sex-wise, age-
group wise and educational qualification-wise might fall under this category.
Qualitative research is the study of qualitative aspects such as culture and
behavior. Such qualities cannot be measured precisely and directly. Qualitative
studies also attempt to explain the reasons for a particular behavior. Attitude
or opinion research i.e. research aimed at finding out how people feel or what
they think about a particular subject or institution is also qualitative research.
Using qualitative research one can analyze the various factors which motivate
people to behave in a particular manner or which make people like or dislike a
particular thing.

7) Descriptive Research comprises survey and fact finding inquiries of different

types. The main objective of descriptive research is describing the state of
affairs as it prevails at the time of the study. The most distinguish feature of
this method is that the researcher has no control over the variables here. S/he
has to only report what is happening or what was happened. Majority of the
ex post facto research projects are used for describe studies in which the
researcher attempts to examine phenomena such as the consumer’s
preferences, frequency of purchases, shopping etc. despite the inability of the
researchers to control the variables, ex post facto studies may also comprises
attempts by them to discover the cause of the selected problem. The methods
of the research adopted in conducting descriptive research are survey
methods of all kinds, including co relational and comparative methods.

8) Exploratory Research: This type of research is conducted with a view to

clarify and define the existence and nature of a problem. It may be single time
exercise or series of studies carried out formally or informally by the
researcher to understand the depth and width of the problem. It provides the
basic information relating to the subject matter of the study. Exploratory
studies are meant to provide quantitative or qualitative or combined
scenarios. In these studies, three inter-related activities such as (a) diagnosing
a situation (b) scanning the alternatives and (c) discovering new ideas exist.
 The objective of exploratory research is the development of hypotheses rather
than their testing. Exploratory research has the goal of formulating problems
more precisely, clarifying concepts, gathering explanations, gaining insight,
eliminating impractical ideas, and forming hypotheses. Exploratory research
may develop hypotheses, but it does not seek to test them.

9) Causal Research: Causal research focuses on the cause and effect relationship
between different factors or variables.
Causal research appropriate for the following purposes:

 To understand which variables are the cause (independent variables) and

which variables are the effect (dependent variables) of a phenomena
 To determine the relationship between causal variables and the effect to be
predicted.

10) Analytical Research: This kind of research aims at critical assessment of the
given phenomenon or problems expressed in facts, figures and narrative
information. It helps in listing out the finer aspects of the subject as well as
critical, controversial and significant gaps in the given subject. The researcher,
after attempting a critical evaluation of the subject tries to suggest ways and
means to improve the situation.

11) Conclusion Oriented Research: A researcher may perceive a problem that

hinders the development of a region. S/he finds a solution to such a problem
that may draw the attention of the citizens and the policy makers. The
researcher voluntarily picks up the problem, designs the inquiry as s/he
proceeds to analyze the situation. The researcher is free to pick up a problem,
redesign the enquiry as he proceeds and is prepared to conceptualize as s/he
wishes.

12) Decision Oriented Research: This type of research is related to the problem
assigned by the management. The administrator already perceives the
problem and s/he is interested in finding a solution to the problem. The
researcher has to thoroughly discuss the problem and formulate the research
questions. S/he has to come up with the information necessary for decision
making by the management. The researcher in this case is not free to embark
upon research according to her/his own inclination.

13) Motivation Research: This is a field in the organization behavior. Sociologists,

Cultural Anthropologists and Psychologists are concerned with the study of
human behavior in different situations. Motivation research requires in-depth
 interviews designed to discover underlying motives and desires of the people.
This is an important type of qualitative research.

14) Some other types of research: There are a few other types of research, which
are the variations of one or more of the above-mentioned approaches. Some of
them are mentioned below. Their typology is based on either the purpose of
the research or time required to accomplish the research objectives or the
environment in which research is conducted or on the basis of some other
factors.
i. On the basis of the Time required to complete the research
 In one-time research, the research is confined to a single-time period. In
the longitudinal research, the research is carried out over several time
periods.
 Longitudinal studies are time series analyses that make repeated
measurements of the same individuals, thus allowing the researcher to
monitor the change of behavior.
ii. On the Basis of the Environment in which the research is carried out
research can be;
 Field Research is a research carried out in the field. Such research is
common in social science, agricultural science, history and archeology.
 Laboratory Research is a research carried out in the laboratory. These
are commonly experimental research. Such researchers are common in
medical science, agricultural and general natural sciences.
 Simulation Research use model to represent the real world. Simulation
is common in physical science, economics and mathematics
iii. Depending upon the starting point of the research, two types of research
have been identified.
 In deductive research, the researchers start with a tentative conclusion
and conduct an investigation to test its accuracy.
 In inductive research, the researchers start with a question and gather
evidence upon which they can build a conclusion
1.1. Ethics in Research
Research ethics refers to the application of moral standards to decisions made in
planning, conducting, and reporting the results of research studies. Mitchell (1998) has
identified four practical ethical principles that shape morality in Business research. They
are truthfulness, thoroughness, objectivity and relevance.

 The truthfulness principle means that it is unethical for researchers to

purposefully lie, deceive or in any way employ fraud. Deliberately
misrepresenting the purpose of a study, not informing the subjects of the
dangers of participation, hiding the identity of the sponsor of the study, or
inflating or understating the findings of a research project are all examples of
 research that fails the truthfulness principle.
 The thoroughness principle demands that researchers not 'cut corners' in their
designs. It means being methodologically thorough. It means 'doing good
science' by following all the steps in a study. It also means that all results and
findings are reported - both good news and bad. Researchers are morally
obligated to include the following in the study reports.
 Definitions for all key concepts used in the study
 Selection of appropriate samples or group participants, including full
descriptions
 Identification of all limitations of the research design
 A description of the analysis design
 The objectivity principle refers to the need for the researcher to remain
objective and impartial throughout all aspects of the study. 'Doing good
science' means that the researcher does not bias the study in any way. The
researcher should avoid interjecting personal feelings or biases into the design
of a study. S/he should use probability methods to select a sample, word
questions in such a way as to avoid any hint of leading the respondents to give
a desired answer, and not allow the researcher's own values to color the
results. There are many scholars who say that remaining neutral is the proper
role for a researcher while conducting research for public and NGO
organizations. Some scholars say that it is impossible to do so. These
researchers might employ such qualitative methods such as ethnography, case
analysis, grounded theory, and action or participatory research methods.
 The relevance principle is the last ethical research principle discussed by
Mitchell. It means that research should never be frivolous or done because
researcher wants to punish the persons or groups involved in the subject
organization. He states that research in a democracy, has a moral
responsibility to be understandable to people and useful. Kumar (1996, 192)
has summarized the need for relevance as follows: "If you cannot justify the
relevance of the research you are conducting, you are wasting your
respondents' time, which is unethical.

Other Ethical Issues in Research

There are many ethical behaviors that the researcher should display while conducting
research; but there are three specific ethical responsibilities on the part of the researcher
which can be classified as ethics towards clients, towards respondents and towards
profession.

1. Ethics towards Client: Ethics towards client demand that the research
supplier should not share the results of the research with any other firms,
 particularly the competitors of the client. As the client has funded this
research, so the client has the sole right to take benefit of the results of the
research. As such, the findings of the research should not be shared with
anyone else.

2. Ethics towards Respondents: Ethics towards respondents demand that the

data provided by the respondents (subjects) of the research should be kept
confidential and should not be reported with the name of the respondents.
Right of anonymity of the respondents should be safeguarded.
3. Ethics towards Profession: Ethics towards profession require that the
researcher should be true professional. The researcher should follow the code
of conduct of the research profession. The researcher is morally obligated to
provide unbiased research design, honest and objective fieldwork and
appropriate and meticulous analysis regardless whether the clients knows
about these standards or not and whatever the client’s expectations are. The
researcher should also perform all research activities completely as agreed
upon with the client. For example, if it was agreed upon that 1300
questionnaires will be distributed to collect data, the questionnaires should
not be less than 1300, otherwise it will amount to cheating and dishonesty.

CHAPTER Problem Identification and Research Proposal Writing

TWO

A. Problem Identification
What is a research problem?

A problem does not necessarily mean that something is seriously wrong with a current
situation that needs to be rectified immediately. A problem could simply indicate an
interest in an issue where finding the right answers might help to improve an existing

Notes and situation. Thus, a problem can be best described as any situation where a gap exists
Illustration between the actual and the desired ideal states.
examples
Sources of Research problem

There are some important sources of problems, which are helpful to a researcher for
selecting a problem. These include the following

 Professional experience (observation overtime )

 Inference from theory ( from a critical look into different theories
 Technological and social changes
The following points may be considered in selecting a research problem.

 A subject that is overdone should not be normally chosen, for it will be a difficult
task to throw any new light to such a case.
 Too narrow or too vague problems should be avoided.
 The subject selected for research should be familiar and feasible so that the
related research material or source of research is within one’s reach.
 The importance of the subject, the qualification and the training of researcher,
the cost, the time factor are the few points that must be considered in selecting a
problem.
Problem-Definition (Problem Statement)

A problem definition indicates a specific managerial decision area to be clarified or

problem to be solved. A problem statement is the description of an issue currently
existing which needs to be addressed. It provides thecontext for the research study and
generates the questions which the research aims to answer. The statement of the
problem is the focal point of any research. A good problem statement is just one
sentence (with several paragraphs of elaboration).

The problem statement is therefore the axis, which the whole research revolves around,
because it explains in short the aim of the research. The statement of the problem
involves the demarcation and formulation of the problem, i.e., who/what, where, when,
why.

What are key components of the statement problem?

Problem statements often have three elements:

1. The problem itself, stated clearly and with enough detail to establish why it is
important
 2. The method of solving the problem, often stated as a claim ora working thesis
3. The purpose, statement of objective and scope of the project being proposed.
These elements should be brief so that the reader can get the idea easily.

Criteria for Research Problem Statements:

o The statement of the problem should clearly indicate what isto be investigated.
o The actual statement may be in a declarative or in a question form.
o The statement should indicate the variables of interest and the specific
relationship between the variables that are to be studied
Defining the Problem (self-reading)

Defining the research problem is crucial and very hard part of a research process. It is
crucial because, the problem identified will provide us with the topic of the designed
research and the objective of the research. It is the most difficult and hard part of the
research study because; there is a cause and effect issue. It is commonly difficult to
distinguish effect of a problem from the cause of the problem. The researcher should be
certain that the problem identified is a cause but not an effect. There is a common say in
research that “The problem clearly stated is a problem half solved”. This signifies the
importance of properly defining the problem. A proper definition of research problem
will enable the researcher to find answers to question such as

 What kind of data and information are relevant and needed to be studied?
 What relationship is to be explored among variables?
 What technique has to be used to collect and analyze data? And so forth
Therefore, defining a research problem properly is a prerequisite for any study and a
very important step. Even it is more essential than its solution.

Techniques involved in defining a problem

The research problem should be defined in a systematic manner. The technique involved
in defining a research problem has a number of steps, which should be under taken one
after another.

i. Statement of problem in a general way: First of all the problem should be stated in a
 broad general way keeping with some practical, scientific and intellectual interest.
For that purpose the researcher must immerse him completely in the subject
matter, which he wishes to pose a problem.
In social science it is advisable to do some field observation and / or preliminary survey
(pilot survey). Then the researcher can himself state the problem or can seek guidance
of the subject expert.

ii. Understanding the nature of the problem: the next step is to understand clearly the
nature and the origin of the problem. The best way of understanding the problem
is:
 To discuss with those who first raised the problem in order to know how the
problem originally come in view.
 To discuss it with those who have a good knowledge of the problem
concerned or similar other problem.
iii. Survey the available literature. All available literature concerning the problem
must be studied and examined before defining research problem. This means the
researcher must be familiar with:
 The relevant theory in the area. Theory has got the following role in overall
research studies
 Theory provides patterns of the interpretation of data
 It links on study with the other
 It supplies frameworks within which concepts and variables
acquire special significance.
 It allows us interpret the large meaning of our findings for
ourselves and others
 Reports and records and other literature in the concerned area
 Rearview research works undertaken on related problem. This is important
especially to learn what data and other material have been used and are
available for operational purpose
Knowledge about these all will help the researcher to narrow the problem down himself.
Generally, survey literature will enable researcher to know
  If there are certain gap in the theory
 Whether the existing theory applicable to the problem and
consistent with each other.
 Whether the findings of the research do or do not follow a pattern
consistent with the theoretical expectation.
 Study on a related problem is also useful for indicating the type of
difficulty that may be encountered in the present study.
iv. Developing ideas through discussion: Discussion on a problem produces useful
information. Various new ideas can be discovered and developed through it. The
researcher should discuss his problem with colleagues and others who have
enough experience in the same area.Such practice is called ‘experience survey”
Peoples with rich experience are in a position to show the researcher different aspects of
his proposed study and their advice and comments are usually of high values.

v. Rephrasing the research problem (reformulation of the problem): Finally the

researcher at this stage should be able to reformulate the problem that has been
stated in broad and general way in to working proposition. The researcher should
narrow and break down the problem into its components variables and relationship.
That is, problem should be expressed as:
a) a relationship between two or more variable
b) the problem should be stated either in question form or hypothesis
form
Question form is appropriate mostly when the research is descriptive in nature. What
important is that when a researcher state the problem in question form the formulated
problem should be free from ambiguity and the relationship among variables should be
clearly expressed

E.g.,

 Does a relationship exist between income of university students and score on

their exams?
 Is there a relationship between employees' age and their productivity?
 Does a relationship exist between the men circumcision and sensitivity to HIV
 virus?
In above examples, the study’s main elements are identified in reasonably clear fashion.

The following points must be considered while redefining the research problem

 Technical terms and words or phrased, with special meanings used in the
statement of the problem, should be clearly defined.
 Basic assumptions or postulates (if any) relating to the research problem should
be clearly defined.
 A straightforward statements of the value of the investigation, i.e., the criteria for
the selection of the problem) should be provided
 The suitability of the time period and the sources of data available must also be
considered by the researcher in defining the problem.
 The scope of the investigation or the limits within which the problem is to be
studied must be mentioned explicitly in defining the research problem.
Evaluation of the problem

Before the final decision is made on the investigation of the problem, the feasibility of
the problem has to be tested with regard to personal suitability of the researcher and
social value of the problem. In short, the research problem should be evaluated in terms
of the following criteria.

Is the problem researchable?

Some problems cannot be effectively solved through the process of research.

Particularly, research cannot provide answers to philosophical and ethical questions that
do not show the relationship existing between two or more variable vividly. Therefore,
the problem must be stated in workable research question that can be answered
empirically.

Is the problem new?

As much as possible, the research problem needs to be new. One should not target his
investigation to the problem that had already been thoroughly investigated by other
researchers. To be safe from such duplication, the researcher has to go through the
record of previous studies in a given field. However, there are times where by a problem
that has been investigated in the past could be worthy of study. A researcher may repeat
a study when he wants to verify its conclusion or to extend the validity of its findings in
situation entirely different from the previous one.

Is the problem significant?

The question of significance of the problem usually relates to what a researcher hopes to
accomplish in a particular study. What is his purpose in undertaking to solve the
particular problem he has chosen? What new knowledge does he hopes to add to the
sum total of what is known? And what value is this knowledge likely to have? When
these all questions are answered clearly by the researcher, the problem should be
considered for investigation.

The researcher should show that the study is likely to fill the gaps in the existing
Knowledge to help resolve some of the inconsistencies in previous research or to help in
the reinterpretation of the known facts. The findings should become a basis for theory
generalization, or principles and should lead to new problems further research.

Is the problem feasible?

In addition to the above-stipulated points, the feasibility of the research problem should
also be examined from the point of view of the researcher’s personal aspects as stated
hereunder.

Researcher Competence: The problem should be in an area in which the researcher

qualified and competent. Before indulging into investigation of the problem, the
researcher has to make sure that he is well acquainted with the existing theories,
concepts and laws related to the problem. He must also possess the necessary Skills and
competence that may be needed to develop, administer, and interpret the necessary
data gathering tools. What is more, he needs to consider whether he has the necessary
knowledge of research design and statistical procedure that may be required to carry
out the research through its completion.

Interest and enthusiasm: The researcher has to make sure that the problem really
interests him. He must also be truly enthusiastic about the problem. If the problem is
chosen properly by observing these points, the research will not be boring; rather it will
be love’s labor.

Financial consideration: Research is an expensive endeavor, which requires a great deal

of money to invest. In this regard, the researcher should ascertain whether he has
necessary financial resources to carry on the investigation of the selected problem. An
estimate of the expenditure involved in the data gathering equipment, printing, test
material, travel, and clerical assistance to be specified. Furthermore, the possible
sources of fund must be consulted ahead of time.

Time requirement: Research should be undertaken within a given scope of time, which
was allocated, with careful analysis of the prevailing situation. Each and every activity of
a research process requires time. Particularly, it is worthwhile to plan for the time that
will be needed for the development and administration of tools, processing and analysis
of data, and writing of the research report. While allocating time for research project,
care should be taken for the researcher’s other engagement or commitments, the
respondents’ accessibility, the expiry data of the required data.

Administrative consideration: The researcher has to pay to all administration matters

that are necessary to bring his study to its full administrative matters that are necessary
to bring his study to its full completion. In this regard the researcher should consider the
kinds of data equipment, specialized personnel. And administrative facilities that are
needed to complete the study successfully. The researcher must assure whether the
pertinent data are available and accessible to him.

2.2 The problem definition process

The problem-definition process involves several interrelated steps. Sometimes, the

boundaries between each step aren’t exactly clear. But generally, completing one step
leads to the other and by the time the problem is defined, each of these steps has been
addressed in some way. The steps are

1. Understand the business situation—identify key symptoms

2. Identify key problem(s) from symptoms
 3. Determine the relevant variables
4. Write research questions and/or research hypotheses, and research objectives
5. Determine the unit of analysis
9.Reference (Bibliography/ Literature cited)
All works cited in the proposal are listed either alphabetically or numerically at
the end of the document usually under the heading of “References or
Bibliography “
Some conservative authors would like to make distinction between references
and bibliography as mentioned below.
 References: are lists of literature, which have been cited in the text of a
document
 Bibliography: includes also items, which were not cited but are relevant to
the document.
There are several ways of making citation and recording references. The two
main systems of referring are:
A) Harvard System: This system uses author’s name, date, and page reference.
This system is used mainly by Anthropology, Social science and in life science
research. Harvard system is commonly used in business research.
B) Vancouver System:uses in-text number instead of an author, date, and page
reference. The same superscript or bracketed text number is given in the text each time
the source is sited. It is used in the applied science such as chemistry, physics and
mathematics. Example:
“In an investigation conducted in large factories, Gibbs 1 reported that
absenteeism was higher on the night shift than the day”
Or
“In an investigation conducted in large factories, it has been reported that
absenteeism on the night shift was measured and found to be significantly
higher…Gibbs1
Harvard System

1Gibbs, Jennifer M. (1993) ‘Absenteeism in SME’ s,International Small Business

Journal, 13 (1), pp. 13-26.
Sincethis system is used in business research it is presented in some detail below.
 The reference list must include all published works referred to in the text.
 Each reference to a periodical publication must include, in order, the
name(s) of the author(s), the year of publication, the full title of the article,
the publication in which it appears, and the volume and inclusive page
number
 Reference to a book must give the author or authors’ name(s), the year, the
title, the edition, if other than the first; the publisher, the city of
publication, and the number of the volume (if two or more).

Example of some of the common types of literature citation as J. Hussey & R.
Hussey (997) put it presented here as follows
i.) Citation
Citation under the Harvard system:
In an investigation conducted in large factories, Gibbs (1993) reported that
absenteeism was higher on the night shift than the day
Citing more than one authors
A number of research studies have been conducted into the effect of the recession
on small business (Smith, 1984; Anderson, 1990; Jones, 1995)…
ii. Referring or listing the cited works
A) Reference for books
Davidson, Alan. B. (1994), the Pursuit of Business, London, Chapman & Halls
B) Reference for Journal article
Porter, Michael E. (1994), competitive advantage of nations, Harvard Business
Review, 68(2), pp. 73-83
C) Other reference
It is possible to cite quote or paraphrase unpublished work if they are relevant to
the study.
Unpublished works are:
 Personal communication with experts (professionals).
 Unpublished data collected by other researchers
 Unpublished research works
  Public speeches
 Conferences discussion and the like
The researcher should not put such an unpublished work in reference list unless
it has been fully approved and a date set for its publication.
Unpublished references are not usually found or catalogued in libraries. And
such unpublished reference should be placed in the body of the text, not in the
reference list. Use parenthesis to enclose the complete name of the author, the
year (if available) and appropriate tattle, location, or other information needed to
establish the authenticity of the reference or help the reader locate it.
E.g.,
“ ……………….” (David Lee, Cornell University, 1995 personal Communication)
It is also possible to use numbered footnote and will be referred to by using the
number as a superscript at the proper position.
1. Appendix (Annex)
It is not mandatory to have this section. If the researcher thinks that having this
section will increase the quality of the research proposal he is free to do so.
Information types provided in this section are those additional details, which are
difficult to accommodate within the standard headings
Stuffs to be included in appendix:
 Detail Questionnaires and interview schedules
 Detailed experimental design (in experimental research)
 Detailed statistical procedures
 Samples of research materials (chemical and some biological materials)
 Survey and other geographic maps

CHAPTER Research Design

THREE

Notes and 3.1 Research Design: Meaning, Importance and Element

Illustration Research design is the conceptual structure with in which research is conducted. It
examples
constitutes the blue- print for collection, measuring, and analysis of data. Whatever is the
nature of the research design the following general rules should be followed in planning
and preparing a research design:
 Define the nature and scope of the problem
 Specify the related variables (specify the sources and types of information needed)
 Exclude the variable not relevant to the study
 Start with the logical hypothesis.
Generally, the research design includes an outline of what the researcher will do from
formulating the hypothesis and its operational implication to the final analysis of data.
The design decision should be oriented in answering the following question.
 What is the study about?
 Why is the study being made?
 Where will be the study being carried out? Here a researcher is expected to define
place and the research target population
 What types of data are required?
 Where can the required data be found and what techniques of data collection will
be used?
 What period of time will the study include?
 What will be the sample design?
 How will be the data analyzed?
 In what style will the report be prepared?
Need for research Design
Why we need to have a research design? Research design is necessary because:
 It facilitates the smooth sailing of the research operation
 It makes research project as efficient as possible and help to yield maximum
information with minimum expenditure, time and effort.
 It helps the researcher to organize his ideas in a form where by it will be possible
for him to look for flaws and inadequacies
 Design will be given to others for their comment and critical evaluation. In
absence of such course of action, it will be difficult for the critics to provide
comprehensive review of the proposed study.
Features of research design
Important features of a good research design can be summarized as follow:
  It is a plan that contain a clear statement of the research problem and specifies the
source and types of information relevant to the research problem
 It is a strategy specifying which approach will be used for gathering the data or the
relevant information
 Indicate the population to be studied and methods to be used in processing and
analyzing the data
 It also tentatively includes the time and cost budgets, since most studies are done
under these two constraints.
Important concepts relevant to research design
i. Dependent: If one variable depends upon or a consequence of the other variable is
called a dependent variable. Is a variable that is to be predicted or explained?
ii. Independent variable: is a variable that is expected to influence the dependent
variable.
iii. Extraneous variable: Independent variables that are not related to the purpose of a
study, but may affect the dependent variable are termed as extraneous variable.
E.g., if someone wants to test the relationship between intensity of light on the level of
productivity, other variables like age of workers, heat in the working place or personal
problem of worker may as well affect the level of productivity. Since they are not related
to the purpose of a study, they are called extraneous variable.
iv. Control: A good research design has to minimize the influences of extraneous
variable. To do so the researcher uses control as a remedy to minimize the effects
of extraneous variable. In experimental research control refers to restrain to
experimental condition.
v. Experimental and control groups: In experimental research when a group is
exposed to usual condition is called control group, but when a group is exposed to
special condition is an experimental group.
vi. Experiment: The process of examining the truth of a statistical hypothesis,
relating to some problem, is known us an experiment. E.g., examining the
usefulness of a newly developed drug is an example of an experiment. Experiment
can be comparative or absolute experiment. If we want to determine the impact of
newly developed drug against the existing drug is an example of comparative
experiment. But the previous example is an example of absolute experiment.
3.2 Forms of research Design
Research design is unique to a methodology. Two broad methodology groups can be used
to answer any research problem. These are experimental and non-experimental. The main
difference between these two methodologies lies in the control of extraneous variables
and manipulation of at least one independent variable by the intervention of the
investigator in experimental research.
Take for instance the previous example “The impact of intensity of light in the working
places on workers’ productivity”.
Here the researcher can manipulate the independent variable, i.e., intensity of light. The
researcher by changing light intensity in the working place can observe the level of
productivity and compare the result recorded.
But in non-experimental research, there is no intervention beyond that needed for the
purpose of measurement of the variable in question.
3.3.1. Research design for non-experimental research.
A) Design for Exploratory research study:
Exploratory research is a research aimed at identifying and formulating a research
problem or developing working hypothesis. The main purpose of such study is only
formulating a problem for further, precise investigation or of developing the working
hypothesis from an operational point of view.
The major concentration in such study is on the discovery of ideas and insights. An
exploratory study is often used as introductory phase of a large study and results are used
in developing specific technique for the larger study. The design for such study is
characterized by a great deal of flexibility. Since no clear hypothesis has been developed
about the problem, the following forms of research design can be used.
i. The survey of concerning literature. This is the most simple and fruitful method
of formulating precisely the research problem or developing hypothesis. Hypothesis
stated by earlier works may be reviewed and their usefulness be evaluated as a basis for
further research.
ii. Experience survey: This implies the survey of people who have practical
experience with the problem to be studied. The objective of such survey is to obtain
insight into the relationship between variables and new ideas relating to the problem.
iii. Analysis of insight (Examining analogous situation): is also important method
for suggesting hypothesis for research. It is particularly suitable in areas where there is a
little experience to serve as a guide. This method consists of intensive study of selected
instances of the phenomenon. For that purpose the existing records may be examined (if
any). The unstructured interview may be conducted. The question however is that what
type of examples (instances should be selected and studied?
The instances commonly chosen in social science are like
 Cases that provide sharp contrasts or
 Cases having striking features are considered to be relatively more useful
to identify problems
Example
 Reaction of stranger
 The reaction of marginalized people
 The study of individuals who are in transition
 The reaction of people from different social strata

iv. Examination of case histories: is one of the older methods of research in any branch
of science. Case histories that are similar in content are generally available and provide
very important area of investigation for exploratory study. However, the result of the
investigation of case histories is always to be considered as suggestive rather than
conclusive.
B). Research design for descriptive study:
Descriptive researches are those studies, which are concerned with describing the
characteristics or function of a particular individual, or of a group or a phenomenon. Most
of social researches come under this category.
This study involves the description of the extent of the association between two or more
variables. Although association can be used only to infer but not to establish a causal
relationship, they are often useful for predictive purpose.
Descriptive research in contrast to exploratory research is marked by the prior formulation
of specific research problem (question). Investigator already knows a substantial amount
about the research problem, may be as a result of exploratory study, before the project is
initiated. Thus, the researcher should be able to define clearly, what he wants to measure
and setup appropriate and specific means for measuring it.
In descriptive research the researcher needs to define not only what he wanted to measure
but also must find adequate method for measuring it along with a clear-cut definition of
population he wants to study. Since the purpose is to obtain complete and adequate
information, the procedure to be used must be carefully planned. Thus, the design in such
study must be rigid and must focus on the following:
  Formulating the objective of the study
 Design the method of data collection
 Select the sample of the study (sampling)
 Collect the data relevant for the study
 Processing and analysis of the data collected
 Reporting the findings
Such design appropriately referred to as a survey design since it takes into account all the
steps involved in a survey research.
3.3.2. Research design for experimental research
Experimental studies are those in which the researcher can control and manipulate at least
one of the independent variable and test the hypothesis of causal relationship between
variables.
Experimental design refers to the framework or structure of an experiment. The study of
experimental design has its origin in agricultural research. Planning of such design was
made first by Fisher (1960) when he was working at center of Agricultural Research in
England. Today, the experimental design being used in researches relating to
phenomenon of several disciplines.
Basic principle of experimental design
Fisher has enumerated three principles of experimental design.
1. The Principle of Replication: the experiment should be repeated more than once.
That is, each treatment is applied in many experimental units instead once. By
doing so the statistical accuracy of the experiment is increased. Replication is
introduced in order to increase the precision of the study.
Suppose the researcher want to examine the effect of new teaching method on students'
performance. The researcher can divide students' population into two groups, and one
treatment (old teaching method) will be given to one group and the new teaching method
to another group. After treatment the result is compared in both groups. Applying this
principle implies the students population is divided into more than one group and each
treatment is given more than once.
2. The Principle of Randomization: This principle of experiment is applied in order
to reduce the effect of extraneous factor by randomizing the application of
treatments. In other words, this principle indicates that we should design or plan
the experiment in such a way that the variation caused by extraneous factor can all
be combined under the general headings of “chance“. We can apply the principle
 of randomization to the above example.
To reduce the effect of extraneous variable, which is intelligence, a researcher can
randomly assign students in different groups or we can apply different treatments
randomly.
3. The Principle of Local Control: This is also anther important principle of
experimental design. This is used to measure and eliminate the variability caused
by extraneous variable. The extraneous factor, the known sources of variability, is
made to vary deliberately over as wide a range as necessary and this need to be
done in such a way that the variability it causes can be measured and hence
eliminated from the experimental error.
Here the researcher will try to fix the extraneous variable. The students are divided on the
basis of their IQ. Students in each IQ level are divided into two groups and each group is
given different treatment and results are compared. By doing so the effect of extraneous
variable (intelligence) is controlled.
Forms of Experimental design (independent reading)
The experimental design can be classified into two categories.
1) Informal Experimental Designs
2) Formal Experimental Design
Experimentation is a research method that allows evaluation of causal relationship among
variables. The purpose of experimental research is to allow the researcher to control the
research situation so that causal relationships among variables may be evaluated.
Experiments differ from other research methods in terms of degree of control over the
research situation in a typical experiment.
One variable (the independent variable) is manipulated and its effect on another variable
(the dependent variable) is measured while all other variables that may confound such a
r/ship are eliminated or controlled. The experiments either creates an artificial situation
deliberately manipulate situation.
3.3.3 Survey Research Strategy

Survey studies ask large numbers of people questions about their behaviours, attitudes,
and opinions. Some surveys merely describe what people say they think and do. Other
survey studies attempt to find relationships between the characteristics of the respondents
and their reported behaviours and opinions. For example, a survey could examine whether
there is a relationship between gender and people’s attitudes about some social issue.
When surveys are conducted to determine relationships, as for this second purpose, they
are referred to as correlation studies.
Survey is defined as a method of gathering primary data based on communication, either
verbal or written means, with a representative sample of individual.
Survey investigations attempt to describe what is happening or to learn the reasons for a
particular business activity. Most survey research is therefore descriptive research.
The principal advantage of survey studies is that they provide information on large groups
of people, with very little effort, and in a cost effective manner. Surveys allow researchers
to assess a wider variety of behaviours and other phenomena than can be studied in a
typical naturalistic observation study.
3.4 Time horizon

An important question to be asked in planning your research is ‘Do I want my research to

be a “snapshot” taken at a particular time or do I want it to be more akin to a diary or a
series of snapshots and be a representation of events over a given period?’ (As always, of
course, the answer should be ‘It depends on the research question.’) The ‘snapshot’ time
horizon is what we call here cross-sectional while the ‘diary’ perspective we call
longitudinal.
1. Cross-sectional studies
 the study of a particular phenomenon (or phenomena) at a particular time
 most research projects undertaken for academic courses
 Cross-sectional studies often employ the survey strategy
 Most field studies are cross sectional studies in nature

2. Longitudinal studies
 In longitudinal studies the basic question is ‘Has there been any change over a
period of time?’
 the ‘diary’ perspective
 Take more and time effort and cost more than cross-sectional studies.
 Help to identify cause-and-effect relationships
 Experimental designs are invariably longitudinal studies since data are
collected both before and after the manipulation.
 Field studies can be also longitudinal. For example, a study of the comparison
 data pertaining to the reactions of managers in a company toward working
women now and 10 years later will be a longitudinal study.
 Necessary if a manager wants to keep track of certain factors over a period of
time, to detect possible casual connections.

CHAPTER Sample Design and Sampling Procedures

FOUR

4.1 Definition of terms

 Population: Is the theoretically specified aggregation of survey elements from
which the survey sample is actually selected. A finite group is called population
whereas a non-finite (infinite) group is called universe
 Sampling Frame: Is the list of elements from which the sample is drawn
 Sample: A subset or some part of a larger population
 Sample design: Is a definite plan for obtaining a sample frame
 Sampling: Is the process of using a small number or part of a larger population to
make conclusion about the whole population.
 Element: Is unit from which information is collected and which provides the basis
of analysis
 Statistic: is a numerical method of measuring/determining the sample.
 Parameter: Is a characteristic of a population.
E.g., when we work out certain measurement like, mean from a sample they are called
statistics. But when such measure describe the characteristic of the population, they are
called parameter(s)
 Population mean () is a parameter
 Whereas the sample mean (x) is a statistics
Need for sampling

1. Budget and time Constraints (in case of large populations

2. Physical impossibility of checking all elements

Notes and 3. Destructive nature of some census

Illustration
examples 4. Adequacy of sample results: High degree of accuracy and reliability (if sample is
 representative of population)

Steps involved in sample planning (Sampling procedure)

The first thing that the sample plan must include is a definition of the population to be
investigated. This involves the following procedure

Defining population

Census Vs Sample

Sampling Design

SampleSize

Estimate Cost of Planning

Execute Sampling Process

Essentials of an ideal sample

An ideal sample should fulfill the following four basic characteristics.
 Representative-ness: An ideal sample must represent adequately the whole
population. It should not lack a quality found in the whole population.
 Independence: Each unit should be free to be included in the sample
 Adequacy: The number of units included in the sample should be sufficient to
enable derivation of conclusion applicable for the whole population. A sample
having 10% of the whole population can be considered.
 Homogeneity: The element included in the sample must bear likeness with other
element.

Sample size determination

A researcher is worried about sample size because of the fact that sample size (number of
elements in sample) and precision of the study are directly related. The larger the sample
size the higher is the accuracy. The sample size determination is purely statistical activity,
which needs statistical knowledge. There are a number of sample size determination
methods.
Personal judgments: The personal judgment and subjective decision of the researcher in
some cases can be used as a base to determine the size of the sample.
Budgetary approach is another way to determine the sample size. Under this approach the
sample size is determined by the available fund for the proposed study.
E.g., if cost of surveying of one individual or unit is 30 birr and if the total
available fund for survey is say 1800 birr , the sample size then will be determined
as,
Sample size (n) = total budget of survey /Cost of unit survey, accordingly, the
sample size will be 60 units (1800 / 30 = 60 units)
Traditional inferences: This is based on precision rate and confidence level. To estimate
sample size using this approach we need to have information about the estimated variance
of the population, the magnitude of acceptable error and the confidence interval
 Variance or heterogeneity of the population: It refers to the standard deviation of
the population parameter. The sample size depends up on the variance of the
population. If the population is similar (homogenous) small sample size can be
enough.
E.g., Predicting the average age of college students Vs predicting average
age of people visiting a given supermarket at a given day.
If information about variance is not available a researcher is expected to estimate it.
Estimation of the variance or standard deviation is not an easy undertaking. The
researcher can carry out either pilot study for the purpose of estimating the population
standard deviation or he can use the rule of the thumb. According to the rule of the thumb
standard devotion is one-sixth of the range
E.g., If the households yearly average income is expected to range between
1500 and 24000 birr, using the rule of the thumb the standard deviation
will be 1/6(22500) = 3750 hence range equal 22500 (24000-1500)
 Magnitude of acceptable error: The magnitude of error (range of possible error)
indicates how precise the study must be. It is acceptable error for that study. The
researcher makes subjective judgment about the desired magnitude of error.
E.g., to estimate the average income of household one may allow an error
 says  50
 Confidence interval: In most case (research) 95% confidence level is used. That is,
it is assumed that 95 times out of 100 the estimate from sample will include the
population parameter.
Choice of sample size is governed by:

1. the confidence you need to have in your data and thereby the findings

2. the margin of error that you can tolerate – that is, the accuracy you require for any
estimates made from your sample;

3. Variability observed in the target population, and to lesser extent

4. the types of analyses you are going to undertake

5. the size of the total population from which your sample is being drawn

Remarks

o sample size is almost always a matter of judgement as well as of calculation

o a minimum number of 30 for statistical analyses (central limit theorem)

Sample Size for Estimating Population Mean

( z // 22 ) 22 22
n
E 22

Sample Size to Estimate Population proportion

( z / 2 )2 p(1  p)
n
E2
n= our sample size
z= alpha value (1.96 if our confidence interval is 95% and etc)
p= the proportion (0.5)
e=level of precision (0.05)

If the population is well known, we can use the following formula as an additional
input.
n= N/1+N(e)2
Where,
n is the sample size
N is the total population
E is the level of precision
Sampling Techniques
Sampling techniques are basically of two types namely, non-probability sampling and
probability sampling.
A. Probability sampling

o the chance, or probability, of each case/element being selected from the

population is known and is usually equal for all cases

o Probability sampling is often associated with survey and experimental research

strategies.

o The process of probability sampling can be divided into four stages:

1. Identify a suitable sampling frame based on your research question(s) or

objectives.

2. Decide on a suitable sample size.

3. Select the most appropriate sampling technique and select the sample.

4. Check that the sample is representative of the population

Identification of Sampling Frame

• The sampling frame for any probability sample is a complete list of all the
cases/elements in the population from which your sample will be drawn.

Examples

o student telephone directory (for the student population),

o the list of companies on the stock exchange,

o the directory of medical doctors and specialists,

 o the yellow pages (for businesses)

1. Simple random sampling

It involves you selecting the sample at random from the sampling frame using either
random number tables or lottery system

To do so,

o Number each of the cases in your sampling frame with a unique number.

o Select cases using random numbers until your actual sample size is
reached.

2. Systematic sampling

Systematic sampling involves you selecting the sample at regular intervals from the
sampling frame. To do this you:

1. Number each of the cases in your sampling frame with a unique number.

2. Select the first case using a random number.

3. Calculate the sampling fraction.

4. Select subsequent cases systematically using the sampling fraction to determine

the frequency of selection.

If the population contains N ordered elements, and sample size of n is required or desired
to select, then we find the ratio of these two numbers, i.e., N/n to obtain the sampling
interval.
E.g., Say the population size N= 600 and the desired sample size is 60 (n
= 60), then the sample interval will be 600/60 = 10
Random number at the 10 interval will be selected, i.e., if the researcher
starts from the fourth element then 4th, 14th, 24thetc, elements will be
selected.

3. Stratified random sampling

It involves dividing the population into two or more relevant and significant strata based
on one or a number of attributes. To do so, you
 1. Choose the stratification variable or variables.

2. Divide the sampling frame into the discrete strata

3. Number each of the cases within each stratum with a unique number, as discussed
earlier

Select your sample using either simple random or systematic sampling, as discussed
earlier.

4. Cluster sampling

Cluster sampling is similar to stratified sampling as you need to divide the population into
discrete groups prior to sampling

o The groups are termed clusters in this form of sampling and can be based on any
naturally occurring grouping

o For cluster sampling your sampling frame is the complete list of clusters rather
than a complete list of individual cases within the population

Non Probability sampling

o the probability of each case being selected from the total population is not
known

o It is impossible to answer research questions or to address objectives that

require you to make statistical inferences about the characteristics of the
population

o limited resources or the inability to specify a sampling frame

o No appropriate statistical techniques for measuring random sampling error

o Often used in qualitative researches

Stages

1. Identify a suitable sampling frame based on your research question(s) or

objectives.
 2. Decide on a suitable sample size.

3. Select the most appropriate sampling technique and select the sample.

4. Check that the sample is representative of the population

Identification of Sampling Frame

o generally used when there is no suitable sampling frame

o In ability or any other plausible reason to prepare sampling frame

o the issue of sample size, except for quota sampling, is ambiguous

Deciding on a suitable sample size

o unlike probability sampling, there are no rules

o the logical relationship between your sample selection technique and the
purpose and focus of your research is important

o your sample size is dependent on your research question(s) and objectives – in

particular

o what you need to find out,

o what will be useful,

o what will have credibility and

o what can be done within your available resources

Selecting the most appropriate sampling technique and the sample

Non -probabilistic sampling techniques:

1. Quota sampling

 Based on the premise that your sample will represent the population as the
variability in your sample for various quota variables is the same as that in the
population.

 Selection of cases within strata is entirely non-random.

 Procedures:

1. Divide the population into specific groups.

2. Calculate a quota for each group based on relevant and available data.

3. Combine the data collected by interviewers to provide the full sample

2. Purposive sampling

o Purposive or judgemental sampling enables you to use your judgement to select

cases that will best enable you to answer your research question(s) and to meet
your objectives.

3. Snowball sampling

 Snowball sampling is commonly used when it is difficult to identify members of

the desired population, for example people who are working while claiming
unemployment benefit Procedures:

1. Make contact with one or two cases in the population.

2. Ask these cases to identify further cases.

3. Ask these new cases to identify further new cases (and so on).

4. Stop when either no new cases are given or the sample is as large as is
manageable

4. Self-selection sampling

• Self-selection sampling occurs when you allow each case, usually individuals, to
identify their desire to take part in the research. You therefore:

1. Publicise your need for cases, either by advertising through appropriate

media or by asking them to take part.

2. Collect data from those who respond

• Publicity for convenience samples can take many forms: articles and
advertisements in magazines, postings on appropriate Internet newsgroups and
discussion groups
 • Cases that self-select often do so because of their feelings or opinions about the
research question(s) or stated objectives

• Often appropriate when the purpose of the investigation is just exploratory.

5. Convenience sampling

 Convenience sampling (or haphazard sampling) involves selecting haphazardly

those cases that are easiest to obtain for your sample

 The sample selection process is continued until your required sample size has
been reached.

Sampling theory
Sampling theory is the study of the relationship existing between a population and sample
drawn from the population. Sample theory is applicable only to random samples. The
theory of sampling is concerned with estimating the property of the population from those
of the samples and also with gauging the precision of the estimate.
This sort of movement from particular (sample) towards general (population) is what is
known as statistical induction or statistical inference. In simple word from the sample we
attempt to draw inference concerning the population.
In order to be able to follow this inductive method, we first follow a deductive argument
that is we imagine a population and investigate the behavior of the sample drawn from
this population applying the law of probability
The methodology dealing with all this is known as sampling theory. Sampling theory is
design to attain one or more of the following objectives
 Statistical estimation: Sampling theory helps in estimating unknown population
parameters from knowledge of statistical measurement on sample studies. In other
words, to obtain an estimate of parameter from statistic is the main objective of
sample theory (estimate can be point or interval)
 Testing of hypothesis: It enables us to decide whether to accept or to reject the
stated hypothesis. That is, observed differences are actually due to chance or
whether they are really significant.
 Statistical inference: Sampling theory helps in making generalization about the
population from the studies based on samples drawn from it. It also helps in
determining the accuracy of such generalization
CHAPTER TYEPES OF DATA & METHOD OF DATA COLLECTION
FIVE

3.1. Sources of Data

Data needed for research can be grouped into two types; primarily and
secondary. Primarily data refers to information that is developed or gathered by
the researcher specifically for the research project. Secondary data has previously
been gathered by someone other than the researcher and/or for some other
purpose than the research project at hand. The term secondary data refers to data
not gathered for the immediate study at hand but for some other purpose.

i. Secondary Data
Any data which have been gathered earlier for some other purpose are secondary
data in the hands of the business researcher.

1. Characteristics of secondary data

The researcher must be very careful in using secondary data. He must make
minute scrutiny because it is just possible that secondary data may be unsuitable
or may be inadequate in the context of the problem which the researcher wants to
study. By way of caution, before using secondary data, we must see that they
possess following characteristics:

2. Reliability of Data: The reliability can be tested by finding out such things
about the said data?
3. Who collected the data?
4. What were the sources of data?
5. Where they collected by using proper methods?
6. At what time were they collected?
7. Was there any bias of the computer?
8. What level of accuracy was desired?
9. What it achieved?
10. Suitability of Data: Researcher must very carefully scrutinize the definition of
various terms and units of collection used at the time of collecting the data
from primary sources originally.
11. Adequacy of Data: If the level of accuracy achieved in data is found
Notes and
Illustration inadequate for the purpose of present enquiry, they will be considered as
examples inadequate and should not be used by the researcher.
 1. Types of Secondary Data
12. Internal data refers to data that has been collected within the firm. Such data
include sales records, purchase requisitions, departmental reports, production
summaries, financial and accounting reports, marketing, sales studies and
invoices. Obviously, a good marketing researcher always determines what
internal information is already available. Today, a major source of internal
data is database that contains information on customers, sales, suppliers, and
any other facet of business a firm may wish to track. Database marketing is
the term used to refer to uses of these internal databases to target marketing
programs directly to consumers.
i. Primary Data
Primary data are originated by a researcher for the specific purpose of addressing
the problem at hand. They are individually tailored for the decision-makers of
organizations that pay for well-focused and exclusive support.

Triangulation
Triangulation refers to the use of more than one approach to the investigation of a
research question in order to enhance confidence in the ensuing findings. By
combining multiple observers, theories, methods, and empirical materials, researchers
can hope to overcome the weakness or intrinsic biases and the problems that come
from single method, single-observer, single-theory studies. Often the purpose of
triangulation in specific contexts is to obtain confirmation of findings through
convergence of different perspectives. The point at which the perspectives converge is
seen to represent reality.

Types of Triangulation:

Denzin (1970) extended the idea of triangulation beyond its conventional association
with research methods and designs. He distinguished four forms of triangulation:
1. Data triangulation: which entails gathering data through several sampling
strategies, so that slices of data at different times and social situations, as well as
on a variety of people, are gathered?

2. Investigator triangulation, which refers to the use of more than one researcher in
the field to gather and interpret data.

3. Theoretical triangulation: which refers to the use of more than one theoretical
position in interpreting data?

4. Methodological triangulation: which refers to the use of more than one method
for gathering data?
CHAPTER
SIX AND DATA PROCESSING AND ANALYSIS
SEVEN

Overview of Data Processing and Analysis

The goal of any research is to provide information out of raw data. The raw data
after collection has to be processed and analyzed in line with the outline (plan)
laid down for the purpose at the time of developing the research plan. The
compiled data must be classified, processed, analyzed and interpreted carefully
before their complete meanings and implications can be understood.
6.1.Data Processing
Data processing implies editing, coding, classification and tabulation of collected
data so that they are amenable to analysis.
1. Editing:
Is a process of examining the collected raw data to detect errors and omission
(extreme values) and to correct those when possible?
 It involves a careful scrutiny of completed questionnaires or schedules
 It is done to assure that the data are:
 Accurate
 Consistent with other data gathered
 Uniformly entered
 As complete as possible
 And has been well organized to facilitate coding and tabulation.
Editing can be either field editing or central editing
 Field editing: consist of reviewing of the reporting forms by the
investigator for completing what has been written in abbreviation and/ or
in illegible form at a time of recording the respondent’s response. This
sort of editing should be done as soon as possible after the interview or
observation.
 Central Editing: it will take place at the research office. Its objective is to
correct errors such as entry in the wrong place, entry recorded in month.
2. Coding:
Refers to the process of assigning numerical or other symbols to answers so that
responses can be put in to a limited number of categories or classes. Such classes
Notes and
Illustration should be appropriate to the research problem under consideration. There must
examples be a class of every data items. They must be mutually exclusive (a specific
answer can be placed in one and only one cell in a given category set).
3. Classification
Most research studies in a large volume of raw data, which must be reduced in to
homogenous group. Which means to classify the raw data or arranging data in
groups or classes on the basis of common characteristics. Data classification
implies the processes of arranging data in groups or classes on the basis of
common characteristics. Data having common characteristics placed in one class
and in this way the entire data get divided in to a number of groups or classes.

4. Data according to attributes:

Data are classified on the basis of common characteristics, which can either be
descriptive (such as literacy, sex, honesty, etc) or numerical (such as weight, age,
height, income, expenditure, etc). Descriptive characteristics refer to qualitative
phenomenon, which cannot be measured quantitatively: only their presence or
absence in an individual item can be noticed. Data obtained this way on the basis
of certain attributes are known as statistics of attributes and their classification is
said to be classification according to attributes.

5. Classification according to Class interval:

Unlike descriptive characteristics the numerical characteristics refer to
quantitative phenomena, which can be measured through some statistical unit.
Data relating to income, production, age, weighted, come under category. Such
data are known as statistics of variables and are classified on the basis of class
interval. For example, individuals whose incomes, say, are within 1001-1500 birr
can form one group, those whose incomes within 500-1500 birr can form another
group and so on. In this way the entire data may be divided in to a number of
groups or classes or what are usually called class interval. Each class-interval,
thus, has an upper as well as lower limit, which is known as class limit. The
difference between the two-class limits is known as class magnitude. The
number of items that fall in a given class is known as the frequency of the given
class.

6.2.Data Analysis
Data analysis is further transformation of the processed data to look for patterns
and relations among data groups. By analysis we mean the computation of
certain indices or measures along with searching for patterns or relationship that
exist among the data groups. Analysis particularly in case of survey or
experimental data involves estimating the values of unknown parameters of the
population and testing of hypothesis for drawing inferences. Analysis can be
categorized as:
 Descriptive Analysis
  Inferential (Statistical) Analysis
6.2.1 Descriptive Analysis
Descriptive analysis is largely the study of distribution of one variable. Analysis
begins for most projects with some form of descriptive analysis to reduce the data
in to a summary format. Descriptive analysis refers to the transformation of raw
data in to a form that will make them easy to understand and interpret.

1. Tabulation
Tabulation refers to the orderly arrangements of data in a table or other summary
format. It presents responses or the observations on a question-by-question or item-by
item basis and provides the most basic form of information. It tells the researcher how
frequently each response occurs.

Need for Tabulation

 It conserves space and reduces explanatory and descriptive statement to a
minimum
 It facilitates the process of comparison
 It facilitates the summation of items and the detection of errors and omission
 It provides basis for various statistical computation
2. Percentage:
Percentage: whether the data are tabulated by computer or by hand, it is useful to have
percentages and cumulative percentage. Table containing percentage and frequency
distribution is easier to interpret. Percentages are useful for comparing the trend over
time or among categories.

3. Measures of Central Tendency

Measures of Central Tendency: describing the central tendency of the distribution with
mean, median, or mode is another basic form of descriptive analysis.

These measures are most useful when the purpose is to identify typical values of a
variable or the most common characteristics of a group. Measures of central tendency
are also known as statistical average. Mean, median, and mode are most popular
averages.

 The most commonly used measure of central tendency is the mean. To

compute the mean, you add up all the numbers and divide by how many
numbers there are. It's not the average nor a halfway point, but a kind of
center that balances high numbers with low numbers. For this reason, it's
most often reported along with some simple measure of dispersion, such as
the range, which is expressed as the lowest and highest number.
 The median is the number that falls in the middle of a range of numbers. It's
not the average; it's the halfway point. There are always just as many numbers
 above the median as below it. In cases where there is an even set of numbers,
you average the two middle numbers. The median is best suited for data that
are ordinal, or ranked. It is also useful when you have extremely low or high
scores.
 The mode is the most frequently occurring number in a list of numbers. It's
the closest thing to what people mean when they say something is average or
typical. The mode doesn't even have to be a number. It will be a category
when the data are nominal or qualitative. The mode is useful when you have
a highly skewed set of numbers, mostly low or mostly high. You can also have
two modes (bimodal distribution) when one group of scores are mostly low
and the other group is mostly high, with few in the middle.
4. Measure of Dispersion:
Measure of Dispersion: is a measurement how the value of an item scattered around the
truth-value of the average. Average value fails to give any idea bout the dispersion of
the values of an item or a variable around the truth-value of the average. After
identifying the typical value of a variable the researcher can measure how the value of an
item is scattered around the true value of the mean. It is a measurement of how far is the
value of the variable from the average value. It measures the variation of the value of an
item.

Important measures of dispersion are:

 Range: measures the difference between the maximum and the minimum value
of the observed variable.
 Mean Deviation: it is the average dispersion of an observation around the mean
value. E (Xi-X)/n
 Variance: it is mean square deviation. It measures the sample variability.
 Standard deviation: the square root of variance

5. Measure of asymmetry (Skew-ness):

Measure of asymmetry (skew-ness): when the distribution of items is happen to be
perfectly symmetrical, we then have a normal curve and the relating distribution is
normal distribution. Such curve is perfectly bell shaped curve in which case the value of
Mean= Median= Mode

Skew ness is, thus a measurement of asymmetry and shows the manner in which the
items are clustered around the average. In a symmetric (normal distribution) the items
show a perfect balance on either side of the mode, but in a skewed distribution the
balance is skewed one side or distorted. The amount by which the balance exceeds on
one-side measures the skew-ness.

Knowledge about the shape of the distribution is crucial to the use of statistical
measure in research analysis. Since most methods make specific assumption
about the nature of distribution. Skew -ness describes the asymmetry of a
distribution. A skewed distribution therefore has one tail longer than the other.
 A positively skewed distribution has a longer tail to the right
 A negatively skewed distribution has a longer tail to the left
 A distribution with no skew (e.g. a normal distribution) is symmetrical
6.2.2. Inferential Analysis
Most researcher wishes to go beyond the simple tabulation of frequency
distribution and calculation averages and/or dispersion. They frequently
conduct and seek to determine the relationship between variables and test
statistical significance.
When the population is consisting of more than one variable it is possible to
measure the relationship between them. Is there any association or correlation
between the two or more variable? If yes, then up to what degree?
This will be answered by the use of correlation technique.

1. Correlation
The most commonly used relational statistic is correlation and it's a measure of
the strength of some relationship between two variables, not causality.
Interpretation of a correlation coefficient does not even allow the slightest hint of
causality. The most a researcher can say is that the variables share something in
common; that is, are related in some way. The more two things have something
in common, the more strongly they are related. There can also be negative
relations, but the important quality of correlation coefficients is not their sign, but
their absolute value. A correlation of -.58 is stronger than a correlation of .43,
even though with the former, the relationship is negative. The following table
lists the interpretations for various correlation coefficients:
2. Regression
Regression is the closest thing to estimating causality in data analysis, and that's
because it predicts how much the numbers "fit" a projected straight line. The most
common form of regression, however, is linear regression, and the least squares
method to find an equation that best fits a line representing what is called the
regression of y on x. Instead of finding the perfect number, however, one is
interested in finding the perfect line, such that there is one and only one line
(represented by equation) that perfectly represents, or fits the data, regardless of
how scattered the data points. The slope of the line (equation) provides
information about predicted directionality, and the estimated coefficients (or beta
weights) for x and y (independent and dependent variables) indicates the power
of the relationship.
 Yi= Bo + B1Zi
Yi= Outcomes score for the nth unit (dependent variable)
B0= coefficient for the intercept
B1= Coefficient for slope
Zi= independent variable

Part I: True/False Items (0.5 pts each)

Write ‘True’ if the statement is correct and ‘False’ if it is incorrect in the space
provided.

1. There is a direct relationship between the gathered data and the conclusion made
in a research work.
2. Literature review is a primary source of information to conduct a research.
3. Researchers use similar methods to collect data from both primary and secondary
sources.
4. When compared to interview, questionnaire demands a reading ability of
respondents.
5. According to sampling theory, moving from particular sample towards general
population is known as statistical inference.
6. Broad generalization is preferable than the specific one for the sake of saving
time.
7. Structured interview method enables the interviewer to raise related questions for
clear expression.
8. Hypothesis is defined as a suggestion given by the respondents as a tentative
solution to the problem under study.

Part II: Multiple Choices (1.5 pts each)

Choose the correct answer among the alternatives given to each of the following
Course end
worksheets/ task questions and write the letter corresponding to your choices.
sheets
1. One of the following is not a primary source of information.
A. Focused Group Discussion C. Written Documents
B. Questionnaire D. Observation
2. Which one of the following data collection tool takes place in a face-to-face
interaction?
A. Questionnaire C. Interview
B. Observation D. All of the above
3. Unstructured interview allows the researcher……………………………
A. to raise supplementary questions
B. to provide clue response to the interviewee
C. to omit negative responses
D. to force the interviewee to respond by writing
4. Sampling procedure begins with ………………………………
A. choosing the sample C. estimating the cost
B. determining the sample size D. determining the population
5. One of the following is the first step in data processing.
A. Data analysis C. Data editing
B. Data tabulation D. Data coding

6. Observation as a primary source of information, specially deals with

………………
A. behavioral issues C. face-to-face interaction
B. written communication D. All of the above
7. Taking a sample is needed in order ……………………….
A. to conduct the study without cost
B. to manage financial and `time constraints
C. to undertake the study in the absence of available data
D. to reach at a conclusion without data analysis
8. All of the following concepts indicate the characteristics of an effective
(ideal)sample, except it’s………………………..
A. representativeness C. homogeneity
B. independence D. heterogeneity
9. In which of the following non probability sampling techniques does the researcher
to choose sample by his/her own judgment?
 A. Cluster Sampling C. Purposive sampling
B. Convenience sampling D. None of the above
10. The process of changing the original form of data into a more suitable manner for
analysis is technically termed as ………………………..
A. data presentation C. data interpretation
B. data transformation D. data collection
11. One of the following measures of central tendency used to indicate the average of
all the data values:
A. mean C. median
B. mode D. quartiles
12. A researcher ends his/her work by ……………………………..
A. analyzing data C. forwarding recommendation
B. making a conclusion D. reporting the research result
13. From research point of views, gathering evidence (data) from various sources
refers to …………
A. generalization C. triangulation
B. tabulation D. citation
14. In the design of data, which of the following group of activities are placed in their
sequential order? (from first to the end)
A. Data processing → data collection → data analysis
B. Data collection → data tool development → data analysis
C. Data analysis → data collection → data interpretation
D. Data tool development → data collection → data processing
15. The preliminary section of a research paper does not include……… .
A. references C. acknowledgements
B. title page D. table of contents

Part III: Matching (1.5 pts each)

Match the descriptions given under column "A” against their appropriate concepts stated
under column "B” and write the letter corresponding to your response in the space
provided.

Column "A" Column "B"

1. the characteristics of a population A) Sample

 2. the list of elements from which sample is drawn B) Sampling
3. the subset of a larger population selected for C) Sample design
study purpose D) Parameter
4. the plan for attaining a sample frame E) Statistics
5. the process of taking representative a representative F) Sampling Frame
part of larger population
Part IV: Work out questions (3 pts each)

1. Cost of surveying of one individual or unit is 70 birr and if the total

available fund for survey is 2800 birr.
Calculate the sample size.
2. If the households yearly average income is expected to range between 2500
and 36000 birr.
Calculate the Sample size by using the rule of thumb.

Good Work