Schenk 2014

JOURNAL OF SPACECRAFT AND ROCKETS
Vol. 51, No. 3, May–June 2014
Review of Inflatable Booms for Deployable Space Structures:

Packing and Rigidization
Mark Schenk,∗ Andrew D. Viquerat,† Keith A. Seffen,‡ and Simon D. Guest§

University of Cambridge, Cambridge, England CB2 1PZ, United Kingdom
DOI: 10.2514/1.A32598
NASA in the 1960s [1] and the Inflatable Antenna Experiment

(IAE) in the mid-1990s [2]. The relatively low technology readiness
I. Introduction level (TRL) of space inflatables does not reflect the extensive
NFLATABLE space structures, or “space inflatables,” are research and development that has taken place over the years, and
Downloaded by UNIV OF CALIFORNIA SAN DIEGO on February 2, 2015 | http://arc.aiaa.org | DOI: 10.2514/1.A32598
I promising candidates for a wide range of space applications.

Distinguishing qualities include their low volume requirements when
inflatables remain a promising technology for a wide range of space
applications. Of particular relevance are inflatable cylindrical
stored for launch, low system complexity, and a simple deployment structural elements, often referred to as booms; these can make up
mechanism to form lightweight, large-scale space structures. Well space trusses [3], support the reflector of an inflatable antenna [2], or
known inflatables missions include the Echo balloons launched by form the structural framework for solar arrays [4] and solar sails [5].
Mark Schenk is a Research Fellow at the Surrey Space Centre. His research interests lie at the interface of
structures and mechanisms, with a focus on deployable space structures. After completing an M.Sc. in mechanical
engineering at Delft University of Technology, he obtained a Ph.D. in structural mechanics at Cambridge University.
He also worked as a Research Associate in deployable structures at Cambridge.
Andrew Viquerat is a Research Fellow at the Surrey Space Centre. The primary focus of his research is the design
and analysis of deployable structures for space applications. He has an undergraduate degree in engineering from the
University of Sydney, an M.S. from Stanford University and a Ph.D. from Cambridge University. He has previously
held positions at Cambridge University as a Research Associate and at Boeing Australia as a structural analyst.
Keith Seffen is a Senior Lecturer in Structural Engineering at Cambridge University. His Ph.D. from Cambridge
considered the deployment dynamics of elastically folded structures. His current research focuses on novel, shape-
changing lightweight structures, with applications in aerospace, biology, and electronics.
Simon Guest is a Reader in Structural Mechanics at Cambridge University. Following a Ph.D. working on
deployable structures, his research has continued to revolve around both developing and understanding
unconventional structures and mechanisms.
Received 22 January 2013; revision received 28 October 2013; accepted for publication 26 November 2013; published online 21 April 2014. Copyright © 2013
by the American Institute of Aeronautics and Astronautics, Inc. All rights reserved. Copies of this paper may be made for personal or internal use, on condition that
the copier pay the $10.00 per-copy fee to the Copyright Clearance Center, Inc., 222 Rosewood Drive, Danvers, MA 01923; include the code 1533-6794/14 and
$10.00 in correspondence with the CCC.
*Research Associate, Department of Engineering; m.schenk@cantab.net.
†
Research Associate, Department of Engineering; viquerat@cantab.net.
‡
Senior Lecturer, Department of Engineering; kas14@cam.ac.uk.
§
Reader, Department of Engineering; sdg13@cam.ac.uk.
762
SCHENK ET AL. 763
Inflatable booms form part of a wider family of lightweight depending on their location within the wrapped membranes, the
deployable structures, including rigid-link mechanisms such as the booms were necessarily either z-folded or spiral-wrapped. Further-
ATK ADAM (ABLE Deployable Articulated Mast) [6], coilable thin more, in a combined deployment of inflatable booms, certain packing
shell members such as a STEM (Storable Tubular Extensible methods might be desirable to control deployment sequencing or
Member) [7] or bistable composite booms [8], and telescopic masts improve the combined packing ratio.
[9]. The structural performance of a particular type of boom can be In this section, different stowage methods for inflatable booms for
evaluated in a number of ways, including specific bending stiffness space structures are reviewed. The main categories are coiling/
and buckling strength, or via a combined performance index [10]. wrapping, folding, and telescopic conical stowage. The packing
A boom’s performance at a system level must also be considered scheme’s effect on stowage, deployment, and structural properties of
by taking into account the particular deployment method and the the inflated booms are discussed, and the analysis methods are
specific mission requirements. Some of the main advantages inflat- highlighted.
able booms have over their competitors include a high packaging
efficiency with minimal stored strain energy, low system complexity, A. Coiling and Wrapping
and a simple deployment mechanism.
A common stowage method is to first flatten the uninflated boom,
Although space inflatables solve many of the traditional problems
before rolling it into a coil or wrapping it around a hub; see Fig. 1. In
in engineering space structures with regard to volume and mass
the “coiled” configuration, the inflation gas enters at the base of the
minimization, they come with their own set of challenges. These
boom, and as the boom is inflated, the coiled section is pushed along
include finding efficient packing schemes, ensuring that the structure
and unfurls. In the “wrapped” configuration, the gas enters from the
will deploy reliably and predictably, and enabling robust structural
hub, and the stowed boom swings out from the base during inflation;
performance after deployment. Following deployment, space inflat-
this configuration was used by Katsumata et al. [14] for embedding
ables often undergo a rigidization process to provide long-term
structural rigidity. This circumvents issues with punctures due to inflated booms in a wrapped membrane.
micrometeorites or space debris and negates the requirement to store Steele and Fay [15] described the inflation of coiled cylinders with
supplementary inflation gas. A further challenge is the ground testing an analytical model, using experimental observations to provide
of large inflatable structures, which is complex and costly [11]. As a a simple expression for the torque at the unrolling point (i.e., the
result of these challenges, space inflatables have, for the most part, transition between the unfurled and coiled configuration [16]). The
remained the subject of conjecture and experimentation and have coiled geometry was modeled as an Archimedean spiral, which
been employed in only a handful of (mostly experimental) missions. allows the inertia of the coiled section to be described as a function of
This paper focuses on two key aspects of the design of inflatable deployment. Scenarios with constant internal pressure, and with
booms for space structures: packing methods and rigidization pressure decreasing linearly with the volume (to simulate fixed-
techniques. A third important aspect is deployment control, which volume deployment), were analyzed. The use of retardation devices,
serves to improve reliability and predictability of deployment paths, such as Velcro strips, was recommended to reduce the final unrolling
reduce the reaction loads to the satellite during deployment, and velocity and resulting impact. In their analysis, the tube is supported
thereby minimize the vibrations after deployment. An overview of on an infinite plane, rather than freely deployed in space. Fang and
deployment control techniques is provided by Grahne and Cadogan Lou [17] modeled the deployment of a self-rigidizable inflatable
[12], and the subject is not covered in this review. Instead, attention is boom with embedded tape springs [18] by representing the rolled
given to the inherent deployment characteristics of different packing boom as a system of rigid links connected by flexible rotational
schemes. springs and dampers. Deployment studies of unrolling booms using
The paper is laid out as follows. First, a series of boom packing finite-element analysis have also been published; see for example
techniques is described, which are categorized into coiling, folding, Wang and Johnson [19].
and conical stowage methods. The discussion of boom folding meth- The mechanics of coiling/wrapping the boom before inflation are
ods is particularly broad, ranging from straightforward z-folding to subtle; due to the difference in coiling radius between the two sides of
more advanced origami patterns. Next, the review of rigidization the flattened boom, it will locally buckle and wrinkle, and as the
techniques summarizes the vast literature on the subject, grouping the coiled diameter increases, the coil may form a polygonal cross
techniques by their mechanical, chemical, or physical process of section. The phenomenon is colloquially referred to as “50-pencing”,
rigidization. A brief discussion concludes the review. after the Reuleaux polygon used for the British 50 pence coin. As
observed experimentally by Katsumata et al. [20], the local wrinkling
and buckling can affect the deployment of the coiled booms by
II. Boom Packing Methods forming fold lines that pinch the tube, thereby limiting the flow of
inflation gas. The deployment behavior of the coiled booms then
The choice of packing method is a crucial consideration in the
shows similar instabilities as seen in z-folded tubes, as discussed in
design of inflatable booms for space structures. Foremost, the structure
the next section. Satou and Furuya [21] also observed local buckling
must be compactly stowed during launch, as may be quantified by the
in the wrapping of membranes.
packing efficiency (the relative volume fraction of the stored configu-
Coiling is a simple, effective, and compact method to package an
ration) or the deployment ratio (deployed/stowed boom length). The
inflatable boom with minimal residual creases, and deployment is
packing method determines the ventability of any residual air, as well
predictable in combination with simple retardation devices such as
as the strain energy stored in the stowed configuration; both affect the
Velcro strips along the length. However, the method suffers from poor
initial dynamics of the deployment. The boom deployment charac-
ventability of residual gas during launch, and connection to other
teristics, in particular the predictability of the deployment path, are key
components is complicated by the tip rotation. For the wrapped
in design and are also greatly influenced by the choice of packing
configuration, the boom must swing around its base during
method. When deployable booms form part of a larger inflatable
deployment, which could cause problems with entanglement.
structure, the packing methods must account for any extra loads during
deployment from the overall structure, so that the deployment path
avoids entanglement or other damage. Depending on the packing B. z-Folding
method, retardation mechanisms may be necessary to dissipate the An important category of methods for packing cylindrical booms
kinetic and strain energy involved in the deployment. After de- is the use of fold patterns. The simplest folding pattern is the z-fold
ployment, the packing method still exerts its influence through residual (alternatively known as zigzag, concertina, or accordion fold),
creases, stresses, or material cracking at fold lines and vertices. whereby the boom is flattened before being simply folded back
The required packing schemes may be determined by the purpose and forth at regularly spaced intervals at discrete lines or hinges.
of the booms and their role in the overall structural design. For The discrete nature of the folding creates a discontinuous structure,
example, Natori et al. [13] considered assemblies of wrapped where the airflow is restricted between sections, resulting in a
membranes, using embedded inflatable booms for deployment; structure sensitive to small changes in shape, with an unpredictable
764 SCHENK ET AL.
Wang and Johnson [19], and Katsumata et al. [20]). Miyazaki and
Uchiki [27] compared finite-element simulations of a single z-fold
with microgravity experiments and found close agreement.
A modification to the z-fold was proposed by Katsumata et al. [20]
and replaces the single fold line with a number of additional folds that
provide a small opening between the folded sections of the boom; see
Fig. 2b. Experiments showed a smoother inflation pressure and flow
rate as well as a more uniform deployment. In the finite-element
analysis, the conventional and modified z-folds were constructed by
a) b) simulating the actual shaping operations. The resulting wrinkles and
Fig. 1 The a) coiling, and b) wrapping packing and deployment method. residual stresses in the stowed configuration played an important part
in the inflation of the cylinder; the stored strain energy opens up the
inner fold line, enabling a better flow of gas with fewer peaks in
deployment path. The 28-m-long booms of the IAE were folded this inflation pressure [20]. In summary, the modified z-fold provides an
way before flight testing; see Fig. 2a. For the IAE, it was intended to improved gas flow through the fold, at the expense of greater fold
first deploy the booms mechanically to approximately the correct complexity and reduced packing efficiency.
position before releasing the inflation gas. Trapped residual air and Experiments, numerical simulations, and flight testing on the IAE
strain energy stored in the folds, however, resulted in a premature and
have confirmed that the z-folding scheme is inherently unstable

unpredictable, though ultimately successful, deployment [2,22]. during deployment. A further drawback of z-folding is the poor
The z-folded boom is well studied, and Smith and Main [23] ventability when folded: any residual air has to travel the length of the
summarize several modeling efforts. Semi-analytical models have
boom to be vented. Once launched into space, the trapped air exerts
been developed to capture the dominant dynamic characteristics,
a pressure and will impart an initial velocity to the structure as it
where the assumption is that local bending effects, which initially
deploys, which must be included in any deployment modeling [19].
exist as a result of the folding and later appear because of local
These problems are offset by the simplicity of the z-fold technique
buckling, dominate the overall deployment mechanism. This as-
as well as its space heritage. Furthermore, there are applications
sumption results in a system of rigid links and nonlinear hinges to
where z-folding is essential, such as for booms embedded along
model deployment [23,24]. One of the fundamental challenges is the
the perimeter of a spiral-wrapped membrane [13]. In these cases, the
proper assignment of rotational spring stiffnesses to each hinge,
modified z-fold may provide a more stable deployment [20] at the
which will depend on fold angle, pressurization, and boom geometry.
These can be determined experimentally or approximated by expense of more complex folds with higher residual stresses.
considering the bending stiffness of inflated cantilevers [25]. As
summarized by Smith and Main [23], the analytical models indicate C. Origami Folding
that the deployment of the z-folded boom is inherently unstable. This A number of folding schemes for cylindrical booms have been
is supported by several finite-element studies (e.g., Salama et al. [26], proposed, based on origami patterns, which provide a promising
a)
b)
Fig. 2 Z-folded booms: a) deployment of the IAE (image credit: NASA); and b) a standard and a modified z-fold designed to facilitate gas flow (image
after Katsumata et al. [20]).
SCHENK ET AL. 765
method to compactly stow inflatable booms. Whereas z-folding 2. Residual Creases

consists of simple parallel folds repeated along the length of the Another area of interest is the effect of the residual creases on the
boom, origami patterns are more intricate and allow the booms to mechanical properties of the inflated cylindrical boom. During
“locally buckle” into the stowed configuration. Several examples of deployment, the material will have plastically deformed along its
cylinders folded according to origami patterns described in this fold lines, leaving residual stresses and geometric imperfections in
section are shown in Fig. 3. Unlike the z-folding, only single layers of the cylinder. Research into the effect of creases on the properties of
membrane material are folded, and the open cross section allows for thin membranes [39–43] has shown that residual creases can reduce
good ventability of residual gas and assists in a uniform deployment. the effective modulus of the membrane by up to two orders of
Furthermore, it is suited for rapid inflation as the deployment is magnitude for low stress levels [40]; the stiffness will increase
driven by the inflation gas exerting a force on the distal end of the nonlinearly as the folds are flattened out, and will approach the
boom. First, several general concepts and challenges involved in modulus of the constituent material for high tensile strains. The
engineering origami will be discussed, before reviewing proposed folding can also result in microcracking along the fold lines, which
fold patterns. will negatively affect the material properties. For example, in
aluminum–polymer–aluminum laminates, cracking of the outer
1. Rigid Foldability and Material Deformation layers exposes the polymer to environmental radiation. Senda et al.
An important concept in applying origami to engineering is the [29] found that the stiffness, evinced by the natural frequency, of a
notion of “rigid” origami. This assumes that the material does not rigidized (strain-hardened aluminum laminate) inflated folded boom
bend or stretch between the fold lines and can be modeled effectively was reduced to about one-third compared to an unfolded boom; no
as rigid panels connected by frictionless hinges [28]. A more relaxed analytical or numerical studies have been found to characterize this
definition is “isometric” origami, where the material can bend but not effect.
stretch. Most fold patterns for stowing cylindrical booms cannot
successfully be described using rigid origami and therefore require 3. Material Thickness
material strains during the deployment. The degree of deformation of Research in engineering origami has primarily focused on the
the facets during unfolding was shown to negatively impact the folding kinematics without taking into account any material
straightness of boom deployment [29]. thickness. However, some efforts have included the membrane
The modeling of material deformation during the deployment thickness in the calculation of fold patterns for membrane wrapping
of a folded cylinder has often been deliberately simple. For [44,45]. An important consideration is the thickness of a flat-folded
example, You and Kuribayashi [30] use a distortion factor; a vertex; this will be greater than the combined thickness of the layers
simple geometric incompatibility between adjoining folding unit due to finite curvature of the fold lines, as well as interaction of
cells is taken as a measure of the deployment strain. Guest multiple fold lines at a vertex, and will therefore strongly affect the
and Pellegrino [31] constructed “triangulated” folded cylinders packing ratio of the folded booms. The stresses will also be highest at
where the fold lines were described by three helical patterns. They the vertices, with the risk of introducing pinhole punctures. The
assumed that only one of the helices changes length during details of the folding behavior at the fold lines and vertices are
deployment, and its strain was taken as a measure of the total currently not fully understood.
deformation. This approach was refined in [32]; by modeling
the fold pattern as a pin-jointed bar framework (a fold line is 4. Stowed and Deployed Dimensions
represented by a bar, and a vertex by a pin-joint), any fold
The geometry of the stowed configuration is key in attaining a high
line could change length. The physical models discussed in that
packing efficiency for the inflatable boom and is determined by the
series of papers were constructed to have rigid panels connected
choice of fold pattern. During deployment, the outer diameter of the
by flexible hinges. When making similar folded cylinders
folded booms will vary; it may expand or contract to greater or lesser
from thin membranes, it is readily observed that the fold lines
extent, depending on the fold pattern. For example, the fold patterns
and facets may actually bend and twist during deployment.
described by Sogame and Furuya [46] are purposely designed to
Capturing these deformations requires a more refined numerical
expand both longitudinally and radially, and Kuribayashi [47]
modeling of the deployment, for example using the finite-element
method. describes an origami pattern where the large change in radius was
Interestingly, several of the fold patterns proposed for packing of desirable for its application as a medical stent. For deployable booms
cylindrical booms were in fact derived from stable inextensional in inflatable space structures, an increase in radius may be desirable
postbuckling patterns of thin-walled cylinders under axial compres- because it increases the bending stiffness of the boom after
sion [33–35] or combined axial–torsional loading [36]. It is important deployment, but it also introduces challenges with connections to the
to note that, while the folded buckling states are inextensional, they satellite and other booms.
are an isolated configuration and cannot fold or unfold without
material strains; using these patterns for deployable booms will 5. Fold Patterns
therefore necessitate some stretching of the material. This feature A wide range of origami patterns has been proposed for folding
may also be used to advantage by designing multistable booms, cylinders. Often, the geometric differences are subtle, and the impact
which are undeformed in the stowed configuration, a partly deployed, of the fold pattern on the boom deployment characteristics and
and fully inflated configuration [31,37,38]. material deformations remains largely unknown.
Fig. 3 Paper cylinders folded using the patterns described in this section; from left to right in the order of appearance in the article.
766 SCHENK ET AL.
Nonetheless, some general geometric features are noteworthy. Similar patterns were found for axially compressed thin-walled cones
First, the number of fold lines meeting at a vertex (i.e., the degree of a [50]. Tsunoda et al. [51] studied the packing efficiency and
vertex). An origami vertex requires minimally four folds, but microgravity deployment of inflatable booms using the Yoshimura
tessellations of degree-4 vertices rapidly become overconstrained, pattern. The number of circumferential folds impacts the stowed
and only a quirk of geometry enables folding [28,48]. Higher-order height as well as the strain energy stored in the folded boom. During
vertices provide a greater degree of flexibility, but adding folds to a deployment, the booms “meandered” axially but inflated uniformly.
vertex increases the local strains and risk of pinhole punctures. Senda et al. [29] showed that the hexagonal Yoshimura pattern does
Second, the basic elements of the fold pattern can either be tessellated not compare well with other fold patterns in straight-line deployment
to form a spiral along the length of the boom or form a ring around the and requires large deformations of the fold lines and facets.
circumference that is repeated axially [49]. A helical pattern may
have as benefit that deployment is coordinated along the length of the b. Bellows Folds.—An important category of fold patterns for
boom, rather than limited to individual sections, but also results in an cylindrical booms is derived from the patterns used for folding
axial twisting during deployment. Last, the packaging efficiency, bellows. Traditionally, bellows were designed to enable flexible
stored strain energy, and deployment characteristics are not only motion over a limited range of motion, but they can be adapted to
determined by the type of fold pattern but also by the number of times deploy from a flat to fully cylindrical configuration. A classic bellows
a fold vertex is repeated around the circumference of the cylinder pattern is shown in Fig. 5a; the pattern can be considered to derive
(i.e., the number of sides of the folded cylinder). These factors all from the Yoshimura pattern, by splitting the degree-6 vertices by a
contribute to the geometric richness of the origami patterns for distance d. This fold pattern was used for the Tetragonal Accordion
inflatable cylinders, and the example fold patterns in this section have Deployment Control System (TADECS), an inflatable rigidizable
been selected to illustrate several of these variations. At present, no boom for deorbiting applications [52]; see Fig. 5b. Lacour et al. [53]
consistent classification scheme exists for the origami fold patterns, describe the fold geometry, which was selected for its minimal total
and the boundaries between the presented categories are therefore fold length and available interior space in its stowed configuration.
necessarily blurred. An important novelty was the design of the deployment sequencing
device: a strut with a cloverlike device is placed inside the stowed
a. Yoshimura Pattern.—The classic fold pattern associated with cylinder, and during deployment, the folds slide over the flexible
folded cylinders is the Yoshimura pattern; the fold pattern is shown in petals, which snap back to retain the next folded layer.
Fig. 4. (Throughout this paper, when showing fold patterns, solid and In Fig. 6 is shown the elementary unit of the bellows pattern, the
dashed lines denote mountain and valley folds, respectively, and the “reverse fold”. A number of these folds are arranged around the
two axial edges would be joined to form the cylinders.) The pattern is circumference of the boom, with the resulting ring repeated along
an inextensional postbuckling solution for axially compressed thin- the length of the cylinder. In a stress-free stowed configuration of the
walled cylinders (e.g., [33,35]). It is, however, a stable configuration, cylindrical booms, the successive reverse folds must form a closed
and the booms thus cannot fold further without material strains. cross section. As the bellows unfold (increasing dihedral fold angle
a)
b)
Fig. 4 The Yoshimura pattern: a) approximation of the inextensional postbuckling geometry of an axially compressed thin-walled cylinder (image from
Tarnai [35]); b) fold pattern and cross section of hexagonal Yoshimura pattern.
SCHENK ET AL. 767
a)
b)
Fig. 5 A bellows pattern: a) fold pattern and cross section of a tetragonal bellows pattern, used for the b) TADECS inflatable rigidizable boom for
deorbiting applications (images from Guenat and Le Couls [52]).
α ∈ 0; π), the cross section must deform to accommodate the Fig. 7b. The triangulated cylinders will be discussed in detail in
change in enclosed angle β ∈ π − 2φ; π of the reverse folds. The Sec. II.C.4.
difference between the enclosed angle in the fully stowed state and a
partly deployed state can be taken as a simple measure of the material c. Miura Folds.—This category of cylindrical folding patterns is
deformation. Although classic bellows patterns use single reverse derived from the classic planar Miura-ori pattern [55]; by varying the
folds at each corner, using two or more inversions can significantly angles of the reverse folds from row to row, a global curvature is
reduce the average deformation during deployment [37,54]. What is introduced. The use of these patterns for deployable structures was
more, the use of multiple inversion enables the design of patterns that introduced by Sogame and Furuya [46], who described the geometry
are stress-free in both the flattened, a partly deployed, and fully of the folded cylinders in their fully stowed configuration. Similar to
inflated state; note that this does not include bending stresses along the double-inversion bellows patterns, the convexity (i.e., mountain
the fold lines. Drawbacks of the use of multiple inversions include the or valley fold assignment) of successive reverse folds is alternated.
increase in fold lines joining at the vertices and the reduced packing In the Miura patterns, however, they are separated into degree-4
efficiency due to the increased number of overlapping layers. The vertices. The result is a star-shaped cross section, which imparts the
stowed height of the folded cylinder can be reduced by alternating the key feature that these booms expand both longitudinally and radially
orientation of the fold pattern in successive layers, thereby offsetting and therefore have a negative Poisson’s ratio. In Fig. 8 is shown a five-
the position of the flat-folded vertices; see Fig. 7a. Shown are a fold sided cylindrical Miura pattern, with φ1 3∕8π and φ2 7∕40π,
geometry optimized by Kane [37] for a minimal mean deformation where d1 ∕d2 sinφ1 − π∕n∕ sinφ1 π∕n to ensure that no
during deployment (fold pattern parameters: φ1 72.57 deg, more than four layers overlap within each ring [46].
φ2 27.57 deg). Kane [37] describes a wide range of modifications Senda et al. [29] studied the deployment characteristics of the
of the bellows patterns, including the triangulated cylinders formed Miura cylinders (there referred to as “star shape folding”). The tubes
by removing the spacing d between successive reverse folds; see were made of aluminum laminate film and were rigidized after
inflation by means of strain hardening. Experiments were performed
in a microgravity environment to study the deployment character-
istics of various folding geometries (see Fig. 9) and determine the
stiffness of the deployed and rigidized booms. The Miura cylinders
were shown to have better straight-line deployment than those folded
with the hexagonal Yoshimura pattern. This was ascribed to the
amount of material deformation during deployment; in the
Yoshimura cylinder, the fold lines and facets deform significantly.
It was argued that the star-shaped pattern provides an additional
geometric parameter that can be tailored to synchronize the modules
and expand the boom in a straight line. That link between the
geometry and the deployment characteristics, however, was not fully
elucidated. In fact, the patterns for the experiments were selected
through trial and error. In their finite-element analysis, Senda et al.
[29] studied the deformation of the folded boom subject to an applied
internal pressure; the stiffness of the folds was modeled using a spring
element. The Yoshimura cylinder was shown to be the hardest to
Fig. 6 Kinematics of a single reverse fold. deploy and involved the highest stress concentrations. The stiffness
768 SCHENK ET AL.
a)
b)
Fig. 7 Variations of the double-inversion bellows fold pattern.
Fig. 8 Five-sided cylindrical Miura fold pattern.
Fig. 9 Microgravity deployment tests of inflatable rigidizable booms, with a) a hexagonal Yoshimura pattern, and b) a pentagonal Miura pattern (images
from Senda et al. [29]).
SCHENK ET AL. 769
of the rigidized booms, quantified by their fundamental vibrational triangulated pattern was described; see Fig. 11. Here, the orientation
frequency, was experimentally found to be effectively independent of of successive folded layers was reversed to avoid relative rotation of
the fold pattern. The measured frequencies were, however, decreased the ends during deployment. An important feature of the helically
to between 1 and 2∕3 of that of an unfolded cylinder; this may be due triangulated patterns is that the fully stowed cross section is not
to residual creases, connection details at the base of the boom, and necessarily a regular polygon, and the vertices can therefore be offset
cracking of the thicker aluminum laminates at the creases. with respect to each other in successive layers, reducing the stowed
dimensions of the boom.
d. Helically Triangulated.—Among the best studied patterns is the Many of the fold patterns discussed previously can be recognized
helically triangulated cylinder; see Fig. 10. Guest and Pellegrino [31] in geometric studies such as Nojima [49], who described generalized
first describe the geometric relationships of the triangulated cylinder, flat-folding vertices and provided the closure conditions for the flat-
where it was assumed in the analysis that the folding is uniform folded stowed state. Most patterns can also be rotated to have the
throughout the cylinder, in contrast to experimental observations. By major fold lines oriented helically along the cylinder.
further assuming that only one type of fold line changes length,
geometric arguments enabled the design of triangulated cylinders e. Rigid Origami Cylinders.—Recent developments in the kinematics
that are free of stresses in both their stowed and deployed state. It was of rigid origami have led to the design of truly rigid-foldable tubes
shown that the deployment strains become smaller as the number of [59–61]. Unlike previously described folded cylinders, these can be
sides of the cylinder is increased; the tradeoff is the packing ratio. folded continuously from a fully flattened to an extended configu-
Guest and Pellegrino [32] refined the analysis by introducing a pin- ration with only bending at discrete fold lines; see Fig. 12. A crucial
jointed truss model of all fold lines in the cylinder, whereby all lines consideration, however, is that the proposed cylinders contain
undergo strain. It was shown that, during axial compression, the vertices with nonzero Gaussian curvature (apices and saddle points).
boom would collapse sequentially under a nominally constant load, The folded tubes therefore cannot assume a purely cylindrical
in a manner similar to a propagating instability [56], as illustrated in configuration without significant material strains, restricting their
Fig. 10b. Further refinements were added to the numerical model in suitability for inflatable booms. Note that, in the literature, the term
Guest and Pellegrino [57], including the effect of manufacturing “rigid origami cylinders” may also refer to the manufacturing
imperfections and a rotational stiffness along the folding hinges, process, rather than the deployment. For example, Wang and Chen
giving accurate simulations of the axial behavior of the cylinders. [62] and Wu [63] describe the rigid origami folding of a flat sheet into
Note that the effects of the inflation gas exerting an internal pressure a pseudocylindrical surface; once joined at the edges, the cylinder
were not taken into account in the analysis. The studied triangulated will be rigid and nonfoldable. The axial collapse of the cylinder can
cylinders had rigid facets with flexible hinge lines, which allowed for then be used for impact absorption by dissipating energy during
relatively compact mechanical models. However, for inflatable compression.
booms made of flexible membranes, the assumptions of straight fold In summary, the use of origami fold patterns is a promising ap-
lines will no longer hold. In a follow-up study by Barker and Guest proach for storing inflatable cylinders. Advantages include compact
[58], the inflation of annealed aluminum cylinders with a (nonhelical) stowage, good ventability, potential for straight deployment, and
a)
b)
Fig. 10 Fold pattern a) for a helically triangulated cylinder, and b) its progressive collapse mechanism under an axial compressive load (image after Guest
and Pellegrino [32]).
770 SCHENK ET AL.
suitability for rapid deployment due to the open cross section.

Furthermore, the plastic deformation along the fold lines provides a
resistive force during inflation. Challenges include accurate folding
of the booms, the design of a transition from the fold pattern to a fixed
connection, and quantifying the reduced strength after deployment
due to residual creases and microcracking at the fold lines. The
geometric richness of the fold patterns and the relationship with the
deployment characteristics and ultimate mechanical properties of
the inflated booms is relatively unexplored.
Accurate modeling of the deployment dynamics is complex
because it must cover local mechanical effects such as wrinkling and
plasticity, global effects such as shell buckling, and complex fluid–
structure interaction. Experimental investigations will therefore be
necessary to validate simplified modeling methods and to advance
the design and selection of suitable fold patterns.
D. Conical Folding
By introducing a slight taper, a conical boom is formed, which can

be inverted and everted at regular intervals, to form a compact
telescopic stowage configuration [64]; see Fig. 13. This approach is
distinctly different from previously discussed packing methods, as
the cross section remains largely undeformed throughout stowage
and deployment of the inflatable boom. Furthermore, folding does
not take place at discrete locations along the boom, but instead
the concentric folds will “travel” through the material during de-
ployment, dissipating energy through plastic deformation.
Inflatable conical booms were developed by L’Garde for the NASA
Fig. 11 Inflation of an aluminum triangulated cylinder (image from In-Space Propulsion project [5,66], and the concept was space-
Barker and Guest [58]).
qualified on the Cibola Flight Experiment, in combination with a sub-
T g rigidization technique [67]. To improve the straightness of
deployment, a mandrel can be placed at the narrow end of the conical
boom, providing a stiff surface for the material to roll on [64,65]. An
alternative conical boom stowage method, referred to as the
“Goodyear deployment scheme”, was mentioned by Johnson [68].
Here, the inverted section is rolled onto a drum inside the boom,
which provides a retardation force during deployment.
The precise mechanics of the conical boom deployment is not
elucidated in the literature and likely consists of a combination of
effects. Veal et al. [64] note that the boom elongation is resisted
by friction, which is reduced when inflation gas flows between the
folds. The outermost folds experience the greatest longitudinal force
and will therefore deploy first. Another mechanism is proffered by
Palisoc et al. [65], in which inflation presses the walls of the cylinder
against the outer layer, and so there is no relative motion between the
folded layers, leaving the outer layer free to “peel” away as the boom
deploys. In either case, the outer folds are most likely to deploy first.
Fig. 12 Rigid-foldable cylinder (image from Tachi [59]). It is important to note that the deployment characteristics will depend
on the amount of taper of the conical boom; for a large taper, there will
tip concentric folds
taper angle 2θ base

a) b)
Fig. 13 A telescopic-conical boom is alternatingly folded along concentric folds, resulting in a compact stowed configuration; a) cross-sectional view, and
b) inflation of a telescopic-conical boom (image from Palisoc et al. [65]).
SCHENK ET AL. 771
be no contact, and thus no friction, between the nested layers. sustained supply of energy as might be the case with thermally cured
Dynamic deployment of a strongly tapered conical boom with a resins. Reversibility of a rigidization process can allow for more
single inversion was modeled using finite-element analysis by Wang thorough ground testing of space hardware as well as permitting
and Johnson [19]. The mechanics of the deployment observed missions with multiple deployment/stowing cycles. Outgassing (the
depended on whether or not the inertia of the inflation gas was taken release of a gas or vapor stored in the material, especially once in
into account in the analysis. Similar dynamic deployments were vacuum) generally must be kept to a minimum. The performance
reported in Li et al. [69] for conical booms with multiple inversions. of rigidization techniques in this area varies widely. Uniformity of
Importantly, the deployment mechanism is significantly different cure is a concern for many resin- and radiation-based rigidization
from the minimally tapered and quasi-statically deployed booms in methods. Uneven curing or drying can lead to uneven shrinkage
Palisoc et al. [65]. and other distortions, changing the global shape of the structure.
The conical boom stowage method has several benefits: a Rigidizability in a variety of thermal environments is a characteristic
controlled and straight deployment, a load-carrying capacity during likely to increase the versatility of most missions.
deployment, the ability to attach a membrane at multiple points along Structural performance: The range of attainable deployed geome-
the boom length, good ventability of any residual air, and minimal tries can depend significantly on the type of rigidization technique.
initial deployment due to residual stresses. Veal et al. [64] also Deployed structural properties also vary widely depending on the
suggest that a tapered boom can reduce boom mass by as much as method chosen. Some composites can produce quite strong and rigid
40% without any loss in buckling strength, and that a tapered boom deployed structures, while for example stretched metal laminates
has a higher natural frequency than a cylindrical boom of same base
are fundamentally limited in load bearing capacity. Resilience in

radius; the mechanical characteristics of tapered inflatable booms the space environment is of key concern in missions that may
are analyzed by Veldman [70]. One important consideration is that, as span several years post-deployment. A low coefficient of thermal
the telescopic sections deploy, a plastic hinge travels through the expansion (CTE) is desired or required for structures supporting
material, which may result in undesired residual stresses and material precise instruments such as optics but can be less important for
damage. applications where a precise geometry is less crucial.
The suitability of a particular rigidization method for a given task
must be assessed in terms of these characteristics.
III. Materials and Rigidization Techniques
Inflation gas can be relied upon to provide post-deployment A. Ultraviolet Setting Resins
structural rigidity for a finite period of time. Inevitably, the inflation Much early work in the field of UV-Setting Resins was performed
gas will escape through tiny imperfections in the inflatable skin such by the U.S. Air Force and the Hughes Aircraft Company [79,80].
as pinholes that have appeared during manufacture, folding, or Later, the combination of a foam-driven inflation followed by the UV
deployment. The higher the inflation pressure, the faster this process hardening of a resin impregnated skin was examined [81,82] (the
will occur. Larger structures tend to require lower inflation pressures, intention being to use environmental UV radiation for curing). Later
perhaps only a few pascals, while smaller structures, especially strain again, Adherent Technologies Inc. demonstrated the use of UV
rigidized booms, may require pressures of 1 bar or more. In larger rigidization in inflatable isogrid booms, using both environmental
structures, if inflation pressures are sufficiently low, the mean free [83] (Fig. 14a) and lamp-based [84] sources of radiation (Fig. 14b).
paths of molecules in the gas will be long enough to make the The use of internal lamps operating at various wavelengths in
probability of their encountering a hole so small that the requisite rigidizing preimpregnated folded inflatable booms has been demon-
pressure will be maintained, perhaps only requiring occasional strated [52,85,86]. Lamps have also been used to successfully
replenishment from extra stores of gas. Nevertheless, for the majority cure a small non-inflatable gossamer structure during the parabolic
of missions lasting more than a few weeks, structural rigidity can only flight of the FOCUS (from “First Orbital Curing Experiment of
be maintained if the inflatable skin can be strengthened, or rigidized, University Students”) experiment [87]. The advantages of UV-driven
following deployment. A variety of materials have been proposed for rigidization include long storage life, low outgassing, and a wide
use in space inflatable rigidizable structures. This section describes variety of possible deployed shapes. Using solar radiation for curing
some of the materials and rigidization techniques either used or allows for the possibility of a purely passive rigidization process,
proposed for use in inflatable rigidizable booms and truss structures. while the use of lamps allows for a more precisely controlled cure at
Numerous reviews of inflatable rigidizable materials have the expense of greater system complexity and power consumption.
been published to date: Cadogan [71], Cadogan and Scarborough The choice of reinforcing fibers for use with UV-Setting Resins is
[72], Bernasconi and Reibaldi [73], May and Wereta [74], Forbes limited because, for a full cure, UV radiation must penetrate to all
[75], Defoort et al. [76], Freeland et al. [77], and Lou and Feria layers of the rigidizable laminate, limiting the types of fibers that can
[78]. The majority of these have been written by authors with
be used, as well as the wall thickness of the structure. Many high-
a commercial industrial background. The proposed methods of
tenacity fiber types, such as graphite, do not allow sufficient UV
categorizing inflatable rigidizable materials are equally numerous.
transmission. In addition, the polymer bladders used to contain the
In the following, materials are grouped by the particular methods
inflation gas can also prevent critical wavelengths from reaching the
used to rigidize them: Ultraviolet (UV) Setting Resins (both solar and
rigidizable structure. The possibility of uneven curing and warping
lamp cured), thermosetting resins, glass transition resins, gas cured
can be great when using environmental radiation as the curing agent.
resins, stretched metal laminates, evaporation/dehydration hardened
Finally, UV rigidization is irreversible, making the handling and
materials, shape memory polymers, rigidizing foams, photalyzing
ground testing of space hardware more difficult.
film with wire frames, and embedded structural components.
There are several generally desirable characteristics of inflatable
rigidizable booms that each rigidization method is able to address to a B. Thermosetting Resins
greater or lesser extent. Thermally cured composites are particularly attractive candidate
Stowage and handling: The ease of handling is important on the materials for space-rigidized inflatables because of the substantial
ground, as some specialized resin curing techniques make produc- heritage of similar composites for terrestrial applications and because
tion, handling, and storing laborious. The ease of stowage often of the resulting high-stiffness, high-strength structure. Thermally
depends on the thickness of materials and the complexity of accom- cured resins are compatible with a wide range of reinforcing fibers
panying equipment such as thermal insulation blankets. Storage life and can be used to create laminates with low outgassing, good space
is of key concern in missions in which deployment and rigidization resilience, and a low CTE. The source of heat for curing can be either
are not scheduled to occur immediately after launch. Many the sun [88–90] or a local source such as embedded heating
rigidization techniques now exhibit storage lives of several years. elements [91,92].
Rigidization process: The energy requirements for rigidization can Thermally cured composites come with the added advantages of a
vary from nothing for some passively cured resins to a substantial passive rigidization process if using solar radiation or a highly
772 SCHENK ET AL.
Fig. 14 Rigidization of UV-cured resins using a) solar radiation (image from Allred et al. [83]), and b) a string of curing lamps (image from Mahias et al.
[85]).
controlled curing process if using embedded heaters. There is almost D. Stretched Metal Laminates
no limit to the shape of the composite component of the inflatable Stretched metal laminates have the most extensive heritage of
booms; it can form the skin itself or a rigid superstructure built around deployment in space. Metal laminates consist of thin layers of ductile
an inflatable bladder [93]. Thermosetting resins have traditionally metals (usually aluminum) bonded to thin layers of polymers.
suffered from relatively short storage lives, although formulations Commonly used polymers are BoPET (Mylar) and Kapton. The
with storage lives of many years now exist [72]. It is also possible that metal component adds structural rigidity, while the polymer layer(s)
the retention of heat could prove difficult during deployment and act as a vapor barrier and improve toughness.
curing, although the use of a multilayered insulation (MLI) blanket Metal-polymer laminates are used to form the skins of inflatable
[71] can mitigate the problem. The cure process is irreversible, again deployable structures. Once the structure is fully deployed, the
making testing and handling of space hardware more difficult. Cure internal pressure is increased until the metal component in the
energies can be quite high, and if using solar radiation as the curing laminate slightly exceeds its yield stress; the polymer component
agent, it can be difficult to ensure a uniform cure. The predeployment remains elastic at all times. Once the inflation gas is vented or
thermal environment must also be carefully controlled to prevent escapes, the pressure loading is removed, and the structure attains a
premature rigidization. state of prestress in which the metal component is in compression and
the polymer is in tension. Metal laminate structures gain their rigidity
C. Glass Transition Resins locally through strain hardening of the metal and globally through the
Many materials (including polymers) exhibit a change in state removal of imperfections (fold lines, creases) in the laminate surface
called a glass transition, which always occurs below the melting point during yielding. The prestressing does, however, reduce the
and is not a phase transition. Crystalline polymers generally consist laminate’s compression carrying capability. Different combinations
of a portion that is purely crystalline and a portion that is amorphous. of layers have been tried, including metal–polymer–metal, polymer–
Although the crystalline component only loses its solid form during metal–polymer, and two-layer laminates [29,106].
melting, the amorphous component undergoes a change in mobility NASA began experimenting with metal laminates for space
at the glass transition temperature T g , resulting in a rubbery polymer. applications in the late 1950s [107] and later successfully launched
This property can be used to great advantage in inflatable booms by aluminum–Mylar laminate spheres for passive communication tests
creating a structure that self-rigidizes below a certain temperature and atmospheric density experiments: Explorer IX in 1961 [108],
once deployed. Explorer XIX in 1963 [109] (see Fig. 16a), and the larger Echo II
L’Garde Inc. has made extensive use of sub-T g resins in their boom in 1964 [1,106,110,111]. L’Garde (with the sponsorship of NASA
designs [3,5,94–97] and notably in their 20 m solar sail demonstrator Langley Research Center) experimented with metal laminate inflat-
[98,99]; see Fig. 15. They have experimented with resins with values able booms [112] and improved the structural performance of their
of T g of 50, 20, 0, and −20° C[100]. L’Garde performed flight
tests of sub-T g rigidizable Kevlar-reinforced technology on the
Cibola Flight Experiment [67]. Additional experimentation with sub-
T g resins has been performed by the U.S. Air Force (USAF), who
developed the RIGEX boom [101] making use of sub-T g resin, while
ILC Dover has proposed the use of sub-T g resins for a hexapod
structure [102] and has also experimented with sub-T g shape
memory polymers (SMPs) [4,103–105]. SMPs mimic the behavior of
shape memory alloys and will naturally reassume their preheating
shape when heated above their T g. This unusual behavior allows for
more intricate self-deploying structures than can be achieved using
inflation alone.
Although glass transition polymers are not generally as rigid as
thermosetting resins, the reversibility of the rigidization process
makes multiple-deployment missions possible and facilitates easy
ground testing of components. Before deployment, composites
making use of sub-T g resins will usually have to be heated to ensure
the necessary flexibility. Once full deployment has occurred,
rigidization happens passively as the structure cools. A complicating
feature of glass transition rigidized structures is the requirement to
keep the deployed structure below T g at all times and will most likely Fig. 15 Internal view of an inflatable boom with sub-Tg resin
require the use of an MLI blanket to protect the structure from solar impregnated fibers running in the hoop and axial directions (image from
radiation and other heat sources. Lichodziejewski et al. [5]).
SCHENK ET AL. 773
Fig. 16 Strain rigidization of metal-polymer laminates in a) the Explorer XIX satellite [109], and b) a z-folded spiral-wrapped boom (image from
Lichodziejewski et al. [113]).
booms by spiral wrapping [113]; see Fig. 16b. This wrapping reduces F. Solvent Boiloff Rigidization
the hoop stress in the boom, allowing axial yielding to occur more Inflatable structures making use of certain resins can be kept
fully (see Greschik and Mikulas [114] for a description of the effect of flexible by the use of softening solvents. The composite is covered
inflation on axial versus lateral creases in metal laminate cylinders). in a vapor barrier to prevent evaporation of the solvent during storage.
L’Garde has also launched a metal laminate sphere of its own [113]. If sections of the barrier are made permeable to the solvent, and
EADS Astrium have employed a kapton–metal–kapton laminate those same sections are folded or rolled up during storage, then
inflatable boom in their proposed “dihedral” wing deorbiting device rigidization will only occur after deployment. L’Garde experimented
[115,116], and Senda et al. [29] studied the inflation and rigidization with Hydrogels when building the (Inflatable Rigidizable Space
of aluminum-laminate origami-folded cylinders. Structure) IRSS truss [122,123], Fig. 17, which rigidizes via de-
Stretched metal laminates have seen such extensive use because hydration. Polyvinyl alcohol and even gelatin have been proposed as
they are simple to manufacture and handle, rigidize predictably, have suitable evaporation-rigidizable materials [79,124,125].
extremely low outgassing, can be stored almost indefinitely, and Solvent evaporation or boiloff rigidization appealed initially
suffer few radiation effects (although the choice of polymer will because of the simplicity of the process, the ready availability of
affect this). The rigidization process is also largely reversible, with suitable materials, and the energy free rigidization step. The method’s
some degradation in structural performance with each subsequent suitability for modern space applications is limited by the very large
deployment. The overall thickness of metal present in the laminate outgassing (>15% total mass loss) and the likelihood of uneven
must be limited to roughly 100 μm to prevent debonding. The drying and shrinkage.
thickness of the metal is also generally required to be greater than that
of the polymer to prevent autobuckling after yielding [112]. These G. Foam Rigidization
features limit the load-carrying capacity of stretched metal laminates Foams have been proposed for space rigidization in a number of
in general and restrict their use to applications in which structural ways. Foam can be released from a central location, filling the
loads are minimal. Stretched metal laminate structures are also structure and driving the deployment itself [126–128]; see Fig. 18.
limited in the variety of shapes they can be used to form; only simple Alternatively, the interior walls of the structure can be precoated with
geometric shapes can be used if there is to be a uniform stress state material that foams either under the action of a catalyst, by heating
throughout the structure. Inflation gas pressures must be carefully [75,129,130], or simply in the presence of a vacuum [81]. Finally,
controlled during the yielding process if bursting is to be avoided. In thermoplastic foams that are preformed, stored, and cooled on Earth
particular, for inflatable booms, the rigidization pressures will be before heating above the T g in space, which causes the foam to
greater than the pressure required for initial inflation of the structure, expand, have also been proposed [72].
and more inflation gas will be necessary than for competing Foams that harden once deployed can add structural rigidity to
rigidization techniques. their encasing booms or shells. There are fundamental difficulties in
E. Gas and Vapor Cured Resins

Gas and vapor curing techniques for space inflatables received a lot
of attention in the 1960s [79]. A variety of resins and catalysts has
been proposed, including a water-setting resin impregnated fiber
glass [117] and polyurethane polymers rigidized by volatile peroxide
vapor [118]. Experiments have also been performed on polyurethane
foam that rigidizes in a self-propagating reaction initiated by an
aerosol-delivered catalyst [119]. Gas curing also has been proposed
as a supplement to thermosetting resins [120,121].
The advantages of using a gas or vapor cured rigidizable structure
include a passive curing process and a wide variety of potential resin–
fiber combinations. However, the method has been largely neglected
in recent years because of the potential for outgassing of large
quantities of hazardous catalyst. Overall laminate thickness is also
likely to be limited if proper catalyst penetration is to be assured, and
on-ground handling of vapor cured resins can be difficult, especially Fig. 17 IRSS truss using Hydrogel rigidization [123]. Image courtesy of
when using water-setting resins. L’Garde.
774 SCHENK ET AL.
1. Inject liquid foam IV. Discussion

The development of space inflatables dates back to the dawn of
spaceflight in the 1960s and has been actively researched ever since.
Despite this, the TRL of most space inflatable technologies has re-
mained relatively low, with most flight missions limited to tech-
nology demonstrators, such as the IAE and the Cibola Flight
Experiment. It is possible that the perceived risk of using inflatable
structural components has outweighed the potential benefits. These
2. Allow gas to vent
benefits remain enticing, with a promise of high packaging efficien-
cy, low system complexity, low cost, and a simple deployment
mechanism. Nonetheless, several factors have contributed to the
limited uptake of space inflatables for flight missions.
First, the deployment sequence of space inflatables is often un-
predictable and is thereby seen to carry an inherent risk. Demon-
3. Foam expands and hardens into rigid strut strator missions such as the flagship IAE have unfortunately not
helped to improve this reputation. The predictability of deployment
of inflatable booms can be significantly improved by introducing
deployment control systems, at the expense of an increase in system

Fig. 18 Foam rigidization of a Kapton boom (figure after Griffith and complexity, and by careful design of the packaging method. In the
Main [127]). last decade, two promising packing methods have been explored:
origami patterns and conical-telescopic booms with concentric folds.
ensuring an even spread of foam during rigidization in space, and The NASA Sunjammer mission [135] will include the deployment of
outgassing of foaming byproducts could pose a problem. It has also inflatable conical-telescopic booms, which had previously been
been suggested that foams are unlikely to add to the structural per- flight tested on the Cibola Flight Experiment [67]. In Europe and
formance of fiber-reinforced composites in any meaningful way, Japan, the focus has been on using origami patterns to stow inflatable
although they may be appropriate for thin film or laminate booms [131]. booms, for example for an inflatable deorbiting system under
development by EADS Astrium [52,115]. Deployment tests under
H. Photolysable Structures
microgravity conditions have demonstrated the potential of the
origami folding approach [29].
Possibly the most exotic inflatable rigidizing structures were the Second, to ensure long-term structural performance of the space
U.S. Air Force’s OV1-8 (Fig. 19) and AVL-802 (Gridsphere) inflatable, the skin must be rigidized after inflation. This has proven
experiments [132], launched in 1966 and 1971. Both types were to be a significant hurdle in raising the TRL of inflatable structures.
spheres consisting of a thin film with an embedded wire mesh. On Of the rigidization methods discussed in this paper, those that employ
deployment, the thin film acted as a bladder that drew the wire frame physical or mechanical means to rigidize (metal laminates and sub-
out into a spherical shape. The wire provided a rigid frame for the T g resins) have been used most frequently in space missions. The
satellites. After a short while, the film photolyzed (vaporized) under reason is in part historical. Strain rigidization of metal laminates was
the effect of solar radiation, leaving behind the wire frame. What the method of choice for the NASA and U.S. Air Force observation
remained was a “passive communication satellite”, just as reflective and passive communication balloon satellites in the 1960s. The
to certain frequencies of electromagnetic radiation as a continuous relative success of these balloon missions gave metal laminates a
sphere, but with much lower aerodynamic drag. head start on the TRL ladder. Sub-T g resins have had some success in
space and will receive a boost with the launch of NASA’s Sunjammer
I. Embedded Structural Components solar sail [135]. Rigidization methods that employ chemical means
In the last category of rigidization, the structural performance of have, for the most part, remained the subject of research and experi-
the inflatable structure is derived from embedded components. mentation. In addition to the undesirable complexity these methods
NASA Jet Propulsion Laboratory has augmented metal laminate add at a system level, this has occurred because of high levels of
booms with tape springs to aid deployment and provide rigidization outgassing of solvents or curing agents, lack of uniformity of cure
[17,133,134]. The increase in mass of the inflatable booms is offset for large or complicated geometries (particularly when using solar
by the structural performance, during and after deployment. radiation to drive the cure), difficulty in handling prerigidized
chemicals on the ground, short storage life of chemicals, large energy
requirements for curing, and the limited skin thickness allowed
in some cases for a thorough cure. Many of these problems have
been overcome, but the TRL of the majority of these technologies
remains low.
Perhaps another reason for the limited use of inflatables in space is
the fact that the physical scaling laws for stiffness and strength appear
to favor the design of larger rather than smaller inflatable structures.
This is further compounded by taking into account the mass and
volume of the inflation system. To be competitive with alternative
deployable structure technologies, the inflatable structures may have
to be larger than any of those currently launched. This brings with
it new challenges associated with ground-testing of these large
inflatables.
Last, an important challenge of inflatable structures is attaining
and maintaining a high accuracy of deployed shape. Recent devel-
opments in active shape and vibration control using embedded
piezoelectric elements have promised improvements [136]. None-
theless, it may have to be accepted that space inflatable are funda-
mentally not well suited for high-precision applications. The surface
Fig. 19 The OV1-8 satellite with photolysable inflatable bladder accuracy required for reflectors or optical components exceeds the
embedded in a wire frame mesh (image credit: USAF). accuracy that can easily be obtained with inflatables. In addition, the
SCHENK ET AL. 775
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JOURNAL OF SPACECRAFT AND ROCKETS

Vol. 51, No. 3, May–June 2014

Review of Inflatable Booms for Deployable Space Structures:

Mark Schenk,∗ Andrew D. Viquerat,† Keith A. Seffen,‡ and Simon D. Guest§

NASA in the 1960s [1] and the Inflatable Antenna Experiment

I promising candidates for a wide range of space applications.

have confirmed that the z-folding scheme is inherently unstable

method to compactly stow inflatable booms. Whereas z-folding 2. Residual Creases

Fig. 8 Five-sided cylindrical Miura fold pattern.

suitability for rapid deployment due to the open cross section.

By introducing a slight taper, a conical boom is formed, which can

tip concentric folds

taper angle 2θ base

are fundamentally limited in load bearing capacity. Resilience in

E. Gas and Vapor Cured Resins

1. Inject liquid foam IV. Discussion

deployment control systems, at the expense of an increase in system

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