Water Supply

Collection, Treatment
&
Distribution
PREFACE

Without water there is no life. It is a precious asset and is essential for every human activity.
Water is the heritage of all, and its value must be realized by everyone. It. is the duty of each one
of us to use Water sparingly and carefully. For that; water supply is generally conceded to be
more an art than science of providing potable water in enough quantity to meet the necessary
demands for the proper existence of modern communities.

This book is intended to present the currently accepted theories, design principles and practices
of water supply. This book provides sufficient material, ranging from the simple to the very
complex, for the under-graduate and post-graduate courses in the field of water supply. This
book also provide a useful design aid for the practicing engineer and a convenient reference
source.

This book has been designed so that it can .be continuously improved, and any important
suggestions can be easily incorporated in subsequent editions.

We sincerely hope that this book will be of help and guidance to all interested in the problems of
water, a product so vital to human life and his abiding interest for future.

Finally we would like to express our grateful thanks to each one shared in the preparation of this
book, wishing them all success and happiness.

Dr. Mohamed S. EL-Khouly

Dr. Aisha Zaki Maged

Dr. Rasha M. S. El-Khouly

 Table of Contents

Chapter 1 Introduction ................................................................................................................... 1

1-1 The Engineer’s Role ............................................................................................... 1

1-2 Water Borne Diseases ............................................................................................. 2
1-3 Supply and Demand ............................................................................. ………………3
1-4 Hydrologic Cycle ................................................................................................... 4

Chapter 2 Necessary Criteria for Water Supply .................................................................................. 7

2-1 Design Period Of Water Supply Structures ................................................................... 7

2-2 Prediction Of Population .......................................................................................... 9
2-2-1 Arithmetical Method ............................................................................................... 9
2-2-2 Geometrical Method .............................................................................................. 10
2-2-3 Graphical Extension Method .................................................................................... 10
2-2-4 Graphical Comparison Method ................................................................................. 11
2-2-5 Decreasing Rate Of Increase Method ......................................................................... 12
2-3 Classification of Water Consumption ......................................................................... 14
2-3-1 Domestic Use ....................................................................................................... 14
2-3-2 Municipal or Public Use:......................................................................................... 15
2-3-3 Industrial and Commercial Use: ................................................................................ 15
2-3-4 Factors Affecting Rate Of Water Consumption ............................................................. 15
2-3-5 Fluctuations in Rate of Consumption ......................................................................... 16
2-3-6 Future Consumption .............................................................................................. 18
 Chapter

1
Introduction

W
ater supply is the science of providing potable water in enough quantity to meet
the demand necessary for the proper existence of modern communities. In
addition to the fact that water is essential to meet the physiological needs of the
human body, it is equally essential for the personal cleanliness, fire protection and
removal of waste materials in sewerage system.

1-1 The Engineer’s Role

The civil engineer has traditionally been concerned with water supply and
wastewater disposal. This field then developed in to the science of sanitary
engineering, in which the engineers in co-operation with biologists and chemists
play a major role in preventing the spread of water borne diseases as shown in
Fig. (1-1).

Fig.(1-1) Engineering measures to prevent Water-Borne diseases

1
 The responsibilities of the engineer start with the provision of an ample supply of
potable water, i.e. a water free from:

a- Suspended matter,

b- Color,

c- Taste and odor,

d- Objectionable dissolved matter,

e- Bacteria indicative of pollution,

f- Aggressive constituents.

1-2 Water Borne Diseases

Water, being one of the best channels of disease conveyance, lays a great
responsibility on the art of water treatment and distribution. From the
epidemiological point of view drinking water way be an effective vehicle for the
widespread of infection diseases caused by bacteria such as typhoid, paratyphoid,
cholera, and bacillary dysentery, or by virus such as poliomyelitis and other
enteric viruses. Many diseases have been alleged to have been contracted from the
waters of swimming pools. Sinus infections, enteric fever, skin diseases, etc, may
be transmitted by swimming pools water. Fortunately, most of the pathogenic
microorganisms loose their vitality in natural waters, however some can exist for
long periods in natural waters in form of visus, cycts or spore.

Most of these diseases nowadays, have been greatly reduced, and even completely
checked in some countries largely due to the safety of water supplies.

1-3 Supply & Consumption

In estimating water demand a distinction must be made between supply, that is the
water entering the distribution system, and consumption, that is the water actually
used by consumers. The difference between these represents losses from the
distribution system. Another term that needs definition is ―water unaccounted
for‖, i.e. the difference between supply and metered consumption (or in the case

2
 of some domestic consumers, estimated consumption). This figure includes losses
from the distribution system, unmetered consumption for certain public purposes-
such as fire-fighting and street cleaning-and water which although used by
consumers is unrecorded due to under-reading of the meters. The term ―demand‖
refers to the amount of water used when it is freely available. It can be applied to
the consumption of individual consumers or to the total supply entering the
distribution network at the treatment works, in which case it includes losses from
the distribution system and other unaccounted-for water.

As well as losses from the distribution system, there are also losses on consumers’
premises. These are recorded on consumers’ meters and may thus be considered
to be part of consumption. On some systems, however, where domestic consumers
are not metered, estimates of losses may include both leakages from the
distribution system and on consumers’ premises. This should be borne in mind
when comparing figures for domestic per capita consumption on systems with and
without domestic meters.

Effect of Price on Demand

In forecasting future water demand it is usually assumed that water will continue
to be available at the same price (in real terms) as in the past. Evidence suggests
that the effect of price on demand is relatively small, so that it is probably safe to
neglect this in most instances.

The scope for using price to regulate demand may, in any case, be limited by the
need to encourage adequate use by the poorer sections of the community, without
Imposing too great a financial burden on them. For instance, a criterion sometimes
used in assessing ability to pay is that expenditure on .water should not exceed 5
per cent of total disposable family income for the poorest 15 per cent of
consumers. For more wealthy consumers expenditure on water will generally
form a small percentage of total disposable income, and to produce any
appreciable reduction in consumption a large price increase would be needed.
This could be considered to be inequitable if the resulting price were significantly
above the marginal cost of providing additional supplies.

3
A- Upper Estimate, combining high population forecast, high growth in per capita consumption
and no reduction in losses.

B- Best estimate

C- Lower estimate, combining low population forecast, low growth in per capita consumption
and reduction in losses

4
1-4 Hydrologic Cycle
Hydrology is the science dealing with the properties, distribution and behavior of
water in nature, precipitation into the form of rain, snow or sleet occurs when
moisture is transferred from the atmosphere to the earth. The factors involved in
this phenomenon include: sun shine, temperature, barometric pressure, prevailing
winds, and mountain barries, relative position of land and water areas, altitude and
cyclonic storms.

The hydrologic cycle links up all parts of the hydro sphere-the oceans, seas, lakes,
streams, ground-water, soil moisture and atmospheric vapor-into a single whole.

Water evaporating from the surface of oceans, seas and land enters the
atmosphere in the form of vapor, which later condenses and produces rain or
snow. Part of the rain and melted snow seeps into the soil. The rest forms what is
called surface runoff, which flows down slopes and gathers in ravines and gullies
into numerous rivulets that discharge into rivers. Rivers are continuously fed by
ground water, whose reserves are renewed when soil moisture percolates
downwards to the zone where the pores of rocks and sediments are completely
saturated with water. Part of the ground water rises to the surface in the form of
springs or is drained by rivers.

Lakes and seas are replenished not only by precipitation but also by river water. In
this way, evaporation losses are continuously offset. The soil moisture that is
evaporated or is transpired by plants enters the atmosphere in the form of vapor.

The hydrologic cycle is a continuous global process. Many natural phenomenon

are involved in it, among them are soil formation, plant growth and the shaping of
the terrain by erosion. Water use for various economic and domestic purposes also
enters into the hydrologic cycle.

Thermal energy and gravitation are the cycles motive forces. Heat causes
evaporation, condensation of water vapor and other processes. Terrestrial
gravitation is the force that makes raindrops fall and rivers flow. These two forces
often operate together. For example, atmospheric circulation is influenced both by

5
 thermal processes and gravitation.

The main phases of hydrologic cycle are:

a- Evaporation and transpiration.

b- Precipitation.

c- Runoff, both surface and underground.

Fig. (3-1) is simplified pictorial expressions of the hydrologic cycle.

Fig. (1-2) The hydrologic cycle and water sources

6
 Chapter

2
Necessary Criteria for Water Supply

A
master plan for the future development of a city or a town is a pre—requisite to any
study of public utility projects. For the proper design of water supply system for a
city or a town a basic study and knowledge of the population, present and future,
water consumption and source of supply should be at hand. Among needed data are
the following:

a- Design period, for which the proposed system and its component structures and
equipments are to be adequate.

b- Design population, to be served in the future and population density in the

different districts.

c- Design flow, in terms of per capita water consumption.

d- Fire demand.

e- Source and water quality.

2-1 Design Period of Water Supply Structures

Water supply systems must be designed to serve the future population as well as
the present population. In waterworks the periods of design ranges from 30 to 50
years in the future. An estimate of the future population at such years in the future
has an important bearing upon the amount of funds that may be invested in
construction of waterworks.

In fixing upon a period of design, consideration is given to the following factors:

a- The useful life of the structures and equipments employed, taking into account
obsolescence as well as wear and tear.

7
 b- The ease of extending or increasing the works including a consideration of their
location.

The anticipated rate of growth of the population, with due regard to increases in
industrial and commercial needs.

The rate of interest that must be paid on bonded indebtedness.

The performance of the works during their early years when they are not loaded to
full capacity.

The longer the useful life, the greater the difficulty of extensions, the smaller the
rate of growth, the lower the race of interest, and the better the early
performances, the farther into the future can the design be projected with
economic justification. The length of periods often employed in practice are
indicated in the table (2-l).

Table(2-1) : Design Period for Water Supply Structures

Design
No. Type of structure Special characteristics
period years
Large dams, reservoirs, intakes and
1. Hard and costly to enlarge 40 - 50
conduits.
Easy to extend:
- When growth and interest are
Wells, distribution system and water
2. low 20 - 25
purification units as filter plants.
- When growth and interest are 10 - 15
high
Main supply pipelines and main 20 - 25
Replacement of smaller pipes is
3. distribution pipes more than 300 = in
more costly in long run.
diameter.
Distribution network less than 300 u in Requirements may change rapidly
4. 20 - 40
diameter. in a limited area
5. Pumping station structures Hard and costly to enlarge 40 – 50
6. Pumping station equipment Easy to change 10 -15
7. Electrical measuring equipment. Easy to change 10 – 15
8. Automatic control equipment Easy to change 5 – 10
9. Discharge measuring equipment. Easy to change 5 - 10

8
2-2 Prediction of Population
Populations increase by births, decrease by deaths, and increase or decrease by
immigration. Each of these elements is influenced by social and economical
factors. Other factors, such as wars and disasters, have also come into play.

Several methods are used for the estimation of population in the future, but it
should be pointed out that judgment must be exercised by the engineer as to which
method is moat applicable. A study of the city past records of growth, the
possibilities of future development and expansion of the city, industrial and
commercial activities will all enter into the estimation of future population. The
following methods are used for the prediction of future population:

2-2-1 Arithmetical Method

Is based on the assumption that the rate of increase of population is constant. For
example, if the population increased from 1000 to 1100 in the past decade, it
would increase by an increment of 1100 to 1200 in the next decade. When plotted
it is of course, a straight line. The annual or decennial increment may be obtained
from the increase as shown by the last census period.

This method is of limited value but is moat applicable to old and very large cities
which are prevented from increasing in area by surrounding cities and also to
small cities, with no manufactures, which depend upon a well developed farming
territory.

dp
  constant  k a
dt
dp  k a dt
pn tn

 dp  k  dt
p1
a
t1

 p n  p1   k a Tn  t1 
p
k a 
t
p
  p n  p1   t n  t1 
t

p
pn  p1  tn  t1  (2-1)
t

9
 where:

P1 = population at period t in capita.

Pn = population at period t in capita.

tn – t1 = time increment at which population increase happens (in years)

2-2-2 Geometrical Method

In which a constant percentage of growth is assumed for equal periods of time.
For example if the population increased from 1000 to 1100 during the past decade
it would increase 10 per cent to 1210 during the next decade.

dp
 p
dt
dp
  kgp
dt
pn n t
dp
 p g t dt
p1
 k
1

ln p pp
1
n
 k g t t1n
t

ln p n - ln p1  k g t n  t1 

ln p n  ln p1  k g tn  t1  (2-2)

where:

P1 = population at time t 1 in capita.

Pn = population at time t n in capita

 ln p
Kg = constant coefficient =
t

(tn-t1) = time increment at which population increase happens (in years).

2-2-3 Graphical Extension Method

This method assumes that the population—time curve of the past records may
extend into future by following the trend of increase in the past, i.e. by eye guided
judgment based on know ledge of probable conditions as indicated in Fig. (2.l)

11
 fig. (2-1) Graphical extension method

2-2-4 Graphical Comparison Method

Is based on the assumption that the future population will increase in the same
way as similar larger cities have increased in the past after reaching the present
population of the investigated city. In this method the population—time curves are
plotted as indicated in Fig.(2.2)with the curves for all cities passing through the
same point, represented by the present population of the city for which the
prediction is to be made.

11
 Fig. (2-2) Compression method

Projections based on studies of migrations, natural in creases, future employment

and economic conditions and on other predicted factors may be used to modify
the results of this method.

2-2-5 Decreasing Rate of Increase Method

If populations were not subject to all the unpredictable factors such as, the influx
of workers when new industries settle in the area, the loss of residents due to
curtailment of military activities, or changes in business or transportation

12
facilities, they would be characterized by a growth curve which is applicable to all
forms of life within limited boundaries. The curve has an S-shape and shows that
initial growth takes place at increasing rates, midspan at approximately uniform
rates, and final growth at a decreasing rate as a limiting value is approached.

Estimates made on the basis of a decreasing rate of increase assume a variable rate
of change.

Mathematically, the decreasing rate of increase Fig. (2.3) may be formulated as

follows:

 kd' s  p 
dp
dt

where S is the saturation or limiting value.

pn n t
dp
 (s  p)  kd t dt
'

p 

 s  pn 
 ln    k d' t n  t 
 s  p 
s  pn
 e  k d t n  t  
'

s  p

p n  s  s  p e  k d t n t 
'
(2-3)

Where:

S = Population at saturation stage or limiting value.

Pn = Population at time t n in capita.

Po = Population at time t o in capita.

tn-to = time increment at which population increase happens (in years).

K’d = constant coefficient

 s  pn 
 ln  
 s  p 
kd 
'
(2-4)
tn  t 

13
 Fig. (2-3) Decreasing rate of increase method

2-3 Classification of Water Consumption

The water supplied, to a city can be classified according to its use as follows:

2-3-1 Domestic Use

Domestic includes all water used in and around residences:

i- Subsistance: drinking, cooking 6-8 lit/c/d.

ii. Sanitary demands 40-80 lit/c/d.

Adding (i) and (ii) a factor of safety we get a domestic demand of 50-100 lit/c/d

14
 and the max. may go up to 150-200 lit/c/d.

2-3-2 Municipal or Public Use:

This use ranges from 20-40 lit/c/d. This includes fire protection, street cleaning,
snow flushing and unmetered public buildings and water wasted due to leakage.
This average is over the whole year regardless of the peak which is provided with
storage water.

2-3-3 Industrial and Commercial Use:

This use ranges from 25-150 lit/capita/day, depending on how many industries
depend on the public water supply for their water consumption as there may be
some factories which have their own water supply system.

Adding all the above we get water consumption rate of 200 — 300 lit/c/d (in
Egypt 150-250 lit/c/d). In Egyptian villages the rate of consumption of water may
be down to 50-70 lit/c/d.

In Alexandria the rate of consumption is 250 lit/c/d. However, this might go up

high in some cities depending on the previously mentioned factors, for example in
Baltimore U.S.A. rate is 700 lit/c/d and in Chicago U.S.A rate is 1000 lit/c/d and
in Los Angelus U.S.A. 1500 lit/c/d.

In a normal city the ratio of consumption of water for these different uses may be
as follows in Table 2.3.

Table (2-3) : Ratio of Consumption of Water for These Different Uses

Percent of total
No. Classification
Normal range Average
1 Domestic 35 – 60 50
2 Commercial 20 – 15 15
3 Industrial 20 – 5 15
4 Public and un-account 25 – 20 20
Total 100 - 100 100

2-3-4 Factors Affecting Rate of Water Consumption

a- Size of community: The bigger size of community makes an in-increase in
industrial and municipal demands which increase rate of water consumption.

15
 b- Climate: Rate of water consumption increases with the increase in temperature-
consumption in summer is higher than in winter.

c- Standard of living: Rate of water consumption increase with higher standard of

living.

d- Water Pressure: Rate of water consumption increase with higher pressure of water
in the distribution system.

e- Quality of water: more water is consumed when quality of water is better.

f- Cost of water and extent of metering system: The existence of meters and high
costs of water limits the water consumption.

g- Sewerage facilities: encourage water consumption since there is no difficulty in its

disposal.

2-3-5 Fluctuations in Rate of Consumption

The rate of consumption is best expressed in liters per capita per day. During the
24 hours the rate of consumption is variable being maximum through the daytime
and minimum at night as indicated in Fig. (2-4). The annual average per capita per
day consumption is used for comparison between rates of consumption in
different cities. This is the total consumption in a year divided by the population
and the number of days in the year.

Seasonal or monthly variations are prominent in tropical and semitropical

countries like Egypt. The rate of consumption reaches a maximum during the
summer season owing to greater use of water for street and lown sprinkling etc. It
falls down during the succeeding months and becomes minimum during winter
season as shown in Fig.(2-5) The maximum monthly per capita per day
consumption is used as a basic for design of water works.

However, the fluctuation in the per capita consumption from day to day and
throughout any one day are of great important in design. The maximum
consumption during any one day in the year is called the maximum daily or the
maximum 24-hours consumption. The peak consumption during any moment of
the year, excluding fire drafts is called the peak or maximum hourly consumption.

Average rates of demand for various periods of time are summarized as follows in

16
Table 2.4.

Table (2-4) : Average Rates of Demand and for Various Periods of Time

Max. rate as % of average

No. Period
Normal range Average
1 Annual, average 100 100
2 Month, maximum 125 - 150 140
3 Day, maximum 150 - 180 180
4 Hour, maximum 180 - 300 250

Fig. (2-4) fluctuation of consumption for various periods of year

Fig. (2-5) Characteristic hourly consumption curve

The design of the distribution system is for the peak to provide for fire demand,
domestic, commercial and industrial uses at the same time.

17
2-3-6 Future Consumption
It is generally assumed that rate of use per capita is greater in large than in small
communities, and that as a community grows the per capita rate of use will
increase. This may be due, in part, to greater industrial demands and to increased
use for municipal. purposes.

Studies reported that the following expressions may be used to indicate,

approximately, the rate of increase of per capita rate of use with population:

For well-metered, average system:

 p 0.125 
% increase   2   1 100 (2-6)
 p1  

For completely metered, low—waste systems

 p  0.11 
% increase   2   1  100 (2-7)
 p1  

where:

P1 population at period t 1

P2 population at period t 2

t1 - t2 time increment at which population increase happens.

Or in average, the per capita use of water increases by about one-tenth (1/10) of
the percentage increase in population.

18