ALLAMA IQBAL

OPEN UNIVERSITY ISLAMABAD

STUDENT NAME:

USER ID:

COURSE CODE: 8604-2

SEMESTER: AUTUMN 2023

ASSIGNMENT NO.2

QUESTION.NO.1

A good research contains both tools, qualitative as well as

quantitative for data collection. Write detailed description of
 one qualitative and one quantitative tool along with their
comparative strength and weaknesses.

Let's explore one qualitative and one quantitative research tool,

along with their comparative strengths and weaknesses:

Qualitative Data Collection Tool: In-Depth Interviews

Description: In-depth interviews are a qualitative research method that
involves open-ended, one-on-one conversations between the
researcher and the participant. The goal is to gather detailed and
nuanced information about the participant's experiences,
perspectives, and beliefs. The interviews are typically semi-
structured, allowing for flexibility in probing and exploring relevant
topics.
Strengths:
1. Rich and In-Depth Data:
 In-depth interviews provide rich and detailed insights into
participants' thoughts, emotions, and experiences, allowing
for a thorough understanding of complex phenomena.
2. Flexibility:
 The semi-structured nature allows the researcher to adapt the
interview questions based on the participant's responses,
leading to more profound exploration of topics.
3. Personal Connection:
 The one-on-one format fosters a personal connection between
the researcher and the participant, creating a comfortable
environment for sharing sensitive or personal information.
4. Contextual Understanding:
 In-depth interviews excel in capturing the context and
nuances surrounding a participant's experiences, providing a
holistic view of the subject matter.
Weaknesses:
1. Time-Consuming:
  Conducting and transcribing in-depth interviews can be time-
consuming, especially when dealing with a large number of
participants.
2. Subjectivity:
 The interpretation of qualitative data is subjective and can
vary between researchers, potentially leading to bias in
analysis.
3. Limited Generalizability:
 Findings from in-depth interviews may not be easily
generalizable to larger populations due to the small and often
non-random sample sizes.
Quantitative Data Collection Tool: Surveys
Description: Surveys involve the systematic collection of data from a
sample of individuals using standardized questionnaires. The
questions are typically closed-ended and structured, allowing for the
quantification of responses. Surveys can be conducted through
various modes, including online surveys, paper-and-pencil surveys,
or face-to-face interviews.
Strengths:
1. Efficiency:
 Surveys are an efficient way to collect data from a large
number of participants simultaneously, making them suitable
for studying broad trends in a population.
2. Quantifiable Data:
 The closed-ended nature of survey questions facilitates
quantitative analysis, enabling statistical comparisons and the
identification of patterns.
3. Generalizability:
 Surveys can provide data that is generalizable to a larger
population when using a representative sample, enhancing
the external validity of the findings.
4. Comparative Analysis:
 Surveys allow for the comparison of responses across
different groups, variables, or time periods, aiding in the
identification of relationships and trends.
Weaknesses:
1. Superficial Insights:
 Surveys may provide limited depth in understanding complex
phenomena as they often rely on pre-determined response
categories.
2. Social Desirability Bias:
 Participants may provide socially desirable responses,
leading to potential bias and a lack of authenticity in the data.
3. Lack of Flexibility:
 The standardized nature of survey questions limits the ability
to explore unexpected or unanticipated responses, potentially
overlooking important insights.
4. Dependence on Questionnaire Design:
 The quality of survey data heavily depends on the clarity and
appropriateness of the questionnaire design, and poorly
designed surveys can result in misleading conclusions.
Comparative Summary:
Common Ground:
 Both in-depth interviews and surveys are valuable tools for data
collection in research, each offering unique strengths and
weaknesses.
 Both methods require careful planning, ethical considerations, and
rigorous analysis to ensure the validity and reliability of the data.
Differences:
 In-depth interviews focus on qualitative, narrative-rich data,
emphasizing depth and context.
 Surveys are quantitative tools, emphasizing breadth, efficiency, and
the ability to generalize findings.
Choosing Between Them:
 The choice between qualitative and quantitative methods depends on
the research questions, the nature of the phenomenon under study,
and the goals of the research project. Combining both methods,
known as mixed-methods research, can provide a more
comprehensive understanding of a research problem.
References:
• Lectures of Tutor During Workshop
• Books
• Different Videos of YouTubes
• Newspaper
• Library

QUESTION.NO.2

Differentiate between probability and non- probability sampling.

Explain all kinds of probability sampling with examples.

Probability Sampling vs. Non-Probability Sampling:

Probability Sampling: Probability sampling involves a selection
process where every element in the population has a known chance
of being included in the sample. This ensures that the sample is
representative of the larger population, and statistical inferences can
be made with greater confidence.
Non-Probability Sampling: Non-probability sampling, on the other
hand, relies on the subjective judgment of the researcher rather than
random selection. This method is less rigorous in terms of
generalizability, as the sample may not accurately represent the
entire population.
Types of Probability Sampling:
1. Simple Random Sampling:
 Description: Every individual in the population has an equal
chance of being selected.
 Example: Assigning each student in a school a unique
number and using a random number generator to select a
sample for a survey.
2. Stratified Random Sampling:
 Description: Dividing the population into subgroups (strata)
based on certain characteristics and then randomly selecting
samples from each stratum.
 Example: Dividing a city's population into age groups and
then randomly selecting individuals from each age group.
 3. Systematic Sampling:
 Description: Selecting every kth element from a list after
randomly selecting a starting point.
 Example: Randomly selecting a starting point in a list of
students and then selecting every 10th student for inclusion in
the sample.
4. Cluster Sampling:
 Description: Dividing the population into clusters, randomly
selecting some clusters, and then including all individuals
from the selected clusters in the sample.
 Example: Randomly selecting several classrooms from a
school and including all students in those classrooms in the
sample.
Non-Probability Sampling:
1. Convenience Sampling:
 Description: Selecting participants based on their
accessibility and convenience.
 Example: Conducting a survey in a shopping mall and
approaching individuals who happen to be present at that
time.
2. Purposive Sampling:
 Description: Selecting participants based on specific criteria
relevant to the research question.
 Example: Choosing expert witnesses for a court case based
on their expertise in a particular field.
3. Snowball Sampling:
 Description: Initial participants refer the researcher to other
potential participants, creating a chain.
 Example: Studying a rare disease by starting with one
known patient and asking them to refer other individuals with
the same condition.
4. Quota Sampling:
 Description: Selecting a predetermined number of
individuals with certain characteristics to ensure the sample
reflects the diversity of the population.
  Example: Ensuring that a survey on political opinions
includes a specified number of respondents from different
age groups, genders, and socioeconomic backgrounds.
Comparative Summary:
Probability Sampling:
 Strengths:
 Enhanced representativeness.
 Facilitates statistical inference.
 Weaknesses:
 Resource-intensive.
 Requires a complete list of the population.
Non-Probability Sampling:
 Strengths:
 Cost-effective and quick.
 Useful in exploratory research.
 Weaknesses:
 Limited generalizability.
 Potential for bias and subjectivity.
Researchers often choose between probability and non-probability
sampling based on the research objectives, available resources, and
the level of representativeness required for their study. Both
approaches have their merits and limitations, and the choice depends
on the specific needs of the research.
References:
• Lectures of Tutor During Workshop
• Books
• Different Videos of YouTubes
• Newspaper
• Library

QUESTION.NO.3
Develop a research proposal on following topic: “Comparison of 8th
grade students’ achievements in mathematics at elementary
level in Rawalpindi and Islamabad”.

**Research Proposal**

**Title: Comparison of 8th Grade Students' Achievements in

Mathematics at Elementary Level in Rawalpindi and Islamabad**

**1. Introduction:**

1.1 Background:
- Mathematics education is a critical component of a student's
academic development. Understanding the factors influencing
students' achievements in mathematics is essential for educational
policymakers and practitioners.

1.2 Rationale:
- Rawalpindi and Islamabad, as neighboring cities, share similarities
and differences in terms of educational infrastructure,
socioeconomic status, and educational policies. This study aims to
compare the mathematics achievements of 8th-grade students in
these two cities, shedding light on potential factors impacting
academic performance.

**2. Objectives:**

- To compare the mathematics achievements of 8th-grade students in

Rawalpindi and Islamabad.
- To identify potential factors influencing the observed differences in
achievement.

**3. Research Questions:**

 - How do the mathematics achievements of 8th-grade students in
Rawalpindi compare to those in Islamabad?
- What factors may contribute to any observed differences in
mathematics achievement between the two cities?

**4. Literature Review:**

- Review existing literature on factors influencing mathematics

achievement in diverse educational settings. Explore studies on
regional variations in academic performance and the impact of
socioeconomic factors on student outcomes.

**5. Theoretical Framework:**

- Utilize a theoretical framework that combines elements from

educational psychology, sociology, and regional education studies to
guide the investigation into factors influencing mathematics
achievement.

**6. Methodology:**

6.1 Research Design:

- Employ a comparative cross-sectional research design to compare the
mathematics achievements of 8th-grade students in Rawalpindi and
Islamabad.

6.2 Sample Selection:

- Randomly select schools from both cities to ensure
representativeness. Include a diverse sample of students, considering
factors such as gender, socioeconomic status, and educational
background.

6.3 Data Collection:

- Administer standardized mathematics tests to 8th-grade students in
selected schools.
 - Collect additional data through surveys to gather information on
students' socio-economic backgrounds, study habits, and access to
educational resources.

6.4 Data Analysis:

- Use statistical techniques, such as t-tests and regression analysis, to
compare mathematics achievement scores between Rawalpindi and
Islamabad.
- Conduct a multivariate analysis to identify potential factors
influencing achievement differences.

**7. Ethical Considerations:**

- Ensure informed consent from participating schools, teachers, and

students.
- Guarantee the confidentiality and anonymity of participants.
- Follow ethical guidelines for research involving human subjects.

**8. Significance of the Study:**

- This research will contribute to a better understanding of regional

variations in mathematics achievement in the Pakistani context. The
findings may inform educational policies and interventions aimed at
improving mathematics education in Rawalpindi and Islamabad.

**9. Timeline:**

- Outline a detailed timeline for each phase of the research, including

literature review, data collection, analysis, and report writing.

**10. Budget:**

- Provide an estimated budget covering expenses related to data

collection, analysis software, travel, and other relevant costs.
**11. Conclusion:**

- Summarize the importance of the study and the potential impact of its
findings on educational practices in Rawalpindi and Islamabad.

**12. References:**

- List all the references cited in the proposal.

This research proposal outlines the key components necessary for

conducting a study on the comparison of 8th-grade students'
achievements in mathematics in Rawalpindi and Islamabad.
Adjustments may be made based on specific institutional and ethical
requirements.

References:
• Lectures of Tutor During Workshop
• Books
• Different Videos of YouTubes
• Newspaper
• Library

QUESTION.NO.4.

Write the characteristics of a research report and explain different

parts of research report. Read APA manual 6th edition and enlist
the rules of references for research report.
Characteristics of a Research Report:

1. **Clarity and Precision:**

- A research report should be written in a clear and precise manner,
using language that is accessible to the intended audience.
Ambiguities and vagueness should be avoided.

2. **Logical Structure:**
- The report should follow a logical structure, with a clear
introduction, methodology, results, discussion, and conclusion. Each
section should flow logically from the previous one.

3. **Objectivity:**
- The language and tone of the report should be objective and
impartial. Personal opinions and biases should be minimized, and
findings should be presented based on the evidence.

4. **Accuracy:**
- All information presented in the report should be accurate and
supported by data. The methodology should be detailed enough for
the study to be replicable.

5. **Conciseness:**
- The report should convey information concisely, avoiding
unnecessary repetition or verbosity. Readers should be able to grasp
the key points without being overwhelmed by unnecessary details.

6. **Relevance:**
- Every section of the report should contribute to the overall research
goals. Irrelevant information should be excluded to maintain focus.

7. **Cohesiveness:**
- The report should have a cohesive narrative, with each section
connecting seamlessly to the next. Transitions between sections
should be smooth.
8. **Ethical Considerations:**
- Ethical considerations and procedures followed during the research
should be transparently addressed. This includes issues related to
participant consent, confidentiality, and other ethical standards.

Parts of a Research Report:

1. **Title Page:**
- Includes the title of the research, the author's name, institutional
affiliation, and other relevant details.

2. **Abstract:**
- A brief summary of the research, including the research question,
methodology, results, and conclusions.

3. **Introduction:**
- Presents the background and context of the research, the research
question or hypothesis, and the objectives of the study.

4. **Literature Review:**
- Reviews existing literature relevant to the research topic, providing
context and supporting the need for the current study.

5. **Methodology:**
- Describes the research design, participants, materials, and procedures
used in the study. It should be detailed enough for replication.

6. **Results:**
- Presents the findings of the study, often using statistical analyses,
tables, and figures to convey data.

7. **Discussion:**
 - Interprets the results, discusses their implications, and compares
findings to existing literature. Limitations and suggestions for future
research are often included.

8. **Conclusion:**
- Summarizes the key findings and their significance. It may also
suggest avenues for further research.

9. **References:**
- Lists all the sources cited in the report, following a specific citation
style (e.g., APA, MLA).

10. **Appendix:**
- Includes additional materials, such as raw data, questionnaires, or
supplementary information.

APA Manual 6th Edition - Rules of References:

When following the APA (American Psychological Association) citation

style, the 6th edition provides specific rules for formatting
references. Here are some key points:

1. **Author Format:**
- List the authors' last names followed by their initials. Use an
ampersand (&) before the last author's name.

2. **Publication Date:**
- Place the publication date in parentheses, followed by a period. For
books, use the copyright date. For journals, use the publication date.

3. **Title Format:**
- Italicize the titles of books, journals, and periodicals. Capitalize the
first word of the title and subtitle (if any), as well as any proper
nouns.
4. **Journal Names:**
- Italicize the names of journals and provide the volume number in
italics, but not the issue number. Include the page range without the
"p." prefix.

5. **Page Numbers:**
- For books and other works with page numbers, use the abbreviation
"p." for a single page and "pp." for a range of pages.

6. **DOI and URL:**

- Include a DOI (Digital Object Identifier) for electronic sources when
available. If a DOI is not available, provide the URL. Do not end the
reference with a period after the DOI or URL.

7. **Capitalization:**
- Capitalize only the first word of a title, the first word of a subtitle,
and any proper nouns.

These rules ensure consistency and clarity in referencing within the APA
style. Always check the latest edition of the APA manual for any
updates or changes to the citation guidelines.

References:
• Lectures of Tutor During Workshop
• Books
• Different Videos of YouTubes
• Newspaper
• Library

QUESTION.NO.5

Discuss test as a research tool, its types, development and strength

as well as weaknesses.
**Test as a Research Tool:**

Tests are commonly used in educational and psychological research to

gather information about individuals' knowledge, skills, abilities,
attitudes, or other characteristics. Tests serve as systematic and
standardized tools for collecting data that can be analyzed to draw
conclusions and make informed decisions. They are employed in
various fields, including education, psychology, employment, and
clinical settings.

**Types of Tests:**

1. **Achievement Tests:**
- Measure what individuals have learned or acquired in a particular
domain, such as academic subjects.

2. **Aptitude Tests:**
- Assess individuals' potential to develop skills or abilities in specific
areas, often predicting future performance.

3. **Personality Tests:**
- Explore individuals' characteristics, behaviors, and traits to
understand their personality.

4. **Diagnostic Tests:**
- Identify specific strengths and weaknesses in individuals' knowledge
or skills to inform targeted interventions.

5. **Standardized Tests:**
- Administered and scored in a consistent and uniform manner to
ensure reliability and comparability across different individuals or
groups.

**Development of Tests:**
1. **Define Objectives:**
- Clearly articulate the purpose and objectives of the test. What
knowledge, skills, or traits are being measured?

2. **Item Generation:**
- Develop a pool of items (questions or tasks) that align with the
defined objectives.

3. **Item Review and Selection:**

- Review and select items based on criteria such as relevance, clarity,
and discrimination.

4. **Test Administration:**
- Administer the test to a sample population to gather data for analysis.

5. **Statistical Analysis:**
- Analyze the data using statistical techniques to evaluate item
performance, reliability, and validity.

6. **Revision and Validation:**

- Revise the test based on the analysis and conduct further validation
studies to ensure its reliability and validity.

7. **Norming:**
- Establish normative data by administering the test to a representative
sample to provide a basis for comparison.

**Strengths of Tests:**

1. **Objective Measurement:**
- Tests provide objective and standardized measurements, reducing the
potential for bias in evaluation.

2. **Efficiency:**
 - Tests allow for the efficient assessment of a large number of
individuals in a relatively short time.

3. **Quantifiable Data:**
- Test scores generate quantifiable data, facilitating statistical analysis
and comparisons.

4. **Reliability:**
- Well-designed tests demonstrate high reliability, indicating
consistency in measurement.

5. **Predictive Validity:**
- Some tests, especially aptitude tests, demonstrate predictive validity,
forecasting future performance.

**Weaknesses of Tests:**

1. **Limited Context:**
- Tests often provide a narrow snapshot of an individual's abilities,
overlooking broader contexts and real-world application.

2. **Cultural Bias:**
- Tests may exhibit cultural bias, disadvantaging individuals from
different cultural backgrounds.

3. **Test Anxiety:**
- Anxiety can affect test performance, potentially influencing results
and not accurately reflecting individuals' true abilities.

4. **Inflexibility:**
- Tests may not accommodate diverse learning styles, preferences, or
variations in individual experiences.

5. **Overemphasis on Memorization:**
 - Some tests may prioritize memorization over critical thinking or
problem-solving skills.

6. **Ethical Concerns:**
- Concerns may arise regarding the ethical use of tests, especially if
they lead to labeling or stigmatization.

7. **Limited Scope:**
- Tests may not capture all dimensions of a construct, leading to an
incomplete assessment.

While tests are valuable research tools, researchers must be aware of

their limitations and strive to address potential biases, ethical
concerns, and contextual constraints to ensure the validity and
reliability of the data collected. Additionally, combining test results
with other assessment methods can provide a more comprehensive
understanding of individuals' abilities and characteristics.

References:
• Lectures of Tutor During Workshop
• Books
• Different Videos of YouTubes
• Newspaper
• Library