Alexander The Great

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e arson L o n g m a n office o r to: Pen g u in R e a d e rs M a rk e tin g D e p a rtm e n t. P earson E d u c a tio n .
E d in b u rg h G ate, 1 larlow . Essex C M 2 0 2JE. E n gland.
C on ten ts
page
In tro d u c tio n v
C h a p te r 1 T h e G reek W orld I
C h a p te r 2 A M acedonian P rin c e 5
C h a p te r 3 T h e Y oung K in g 10
C h a p te r 4 First Battles in Asia 15

C h a p te r 5 Face to Face w ith D arius 20
C h a p te r 6 S outh to Egypt 24
C h a p te r 7 K ing o f Asia 29
C h a p te r 8 To the Ends o f th e E arth 35
C h a p te r 9 T h e Last Years 43
C h a p te r 10 A fter A lexander 48
A ctivities 52
Introduction
Alexander cried when Anaxarchus talked about the number of worlds

beyond the stars. H e explained his tears: ‘There are so many worlds, and
I have not yet conquered even one.'
A lexander becam e king o f M acedonia 336 years before the b irth

o f C hrist, at the age o f twenty. W ith in ten years, he was the ru ler
o f the biggest em pire that the w o rld had ever seen. His lands
stretched from G reece in the west to India in the east, covering
nearly tw o m illion square kilom etres.
B ut A lex an d er died w h en he was only th irty -tw o . H e had no
chance to rule the em pire that he had created so quickly.
H e was very successful and very y o ung. T h e great R o m a n
general Julius Caesar lived three centu ries later. H e read about
A lexander and cried, because at th e age o f th irty -tw o Caesar had
achieved n o th in g and A lexander had c o n q u ered an em pire.
A bout th ree-q u arters o f a m illion Asians lost th eir lives because
o f A lexander’s great m arch east. In m any lands, he is rem em bered
as a bloodthirsty m urderer, n o t as a c o n q u e rin g hero. B ut he m ade
close friends as well as enem ies a m o n g th e people that he
conquered . H e m a rrie d three Asian w o m en , and filled his arm y
and his c o u rt w ith Asian m en. H e believed that a m ix o f G reek
and Asian traditions could create a strong em pire that w ould
co n tin u e for m any years.
A lexander’s em pire did n o t, in fact, last long. B ut he jo in e d East
and West for the first tim e, and after this, ideas spread m ore freely
b etw een co u n tries. A lth o u g h he lived m o re than 2,300 years ago,
A lexander the G reat shaped the w orld that w e live in today.
T h e E m p ire o f A lex a n d er th e G reat
N. J M acedon ia
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VI
Vll
C h ap ter 1 T h e G reek W orld
O n his black w arhorse B ucephalas, A lexander, k in g o f M acedonia,

rode at th e h ead o f his army. U n lik e m o st o f his soldiers, he had
no beard. His skin was fair and his lig h t-co lo u red , wavy hair grew
long and low o n his neck. H e was in India, and p ro u d o f the past
few years. Finally, he had proved th at he was th e greatest general
in history. A nd he n o w ru led th e greatest em pire that the w orld
had ever seen.
His soldiers had jo in e d h im from m any parts o f the w orld. T h e re
w ere T hracians, M acedonians an d G reeks from southeastern
E urope; Scythians, Bactrians and Sogdians from central Asia; and
Indians, rid in g th e ir e n o rm o u s, a rm o u re d w ar elephants. It seem ed
that n o o n e co u ld stop th e m arch o f this extraordinary army.
C ertain ly n o t th e Persians, w h o had o n ce ru led m u ch o f Asia b u t
w ere n o w com pletely defeated by A lex an d er th e Great.
Tw o cen tu ries earlier, th e Persians’ enem y in E urope was
G reece, n o t M acedonia. In those days, and d u rin g A lexanders
lifetim e, G reece was n o t a country. It was a collection o f
in d e p e n d e n t city-states w h ich shared a language, a religion and a
way o f life. A thens and Sparta w ere tw o o f th e m ost fam ous city-
states, b u t th ere w ere alm ost 1,500 others. T h e y w ere n o t only
found in th e area that w e call G reece today. G reek people lived in
coastal areas all aro u n d th e M ed iterran ean and the Black Sea.
N aples in Italy, M arseille in France and Izm ir in Turkey all started
life as G reek city-states.
By 500 b c * , th e G reek city-states in Asia had lost th eir
in depen d en ce. T h e y w ere u n d e r th e co n tro l o f th e Persian E m pire
and had to pay h ig h taxes to th e Persian king, D arius I. In 499 b c,
* bc: before the b irth o f C hrist
1
they fo u g h t for th e ir in d ep en d en ce, w ith th e help o f the
A thenians. U nfortunately, they suffered a serious defeat.
As p u n ish m e n t fo r this tro u b le-m ak in g , D arius decided to
c o n q u e r th e w h o le o f present-day G reece. In 490 b c , he sent an
en o rm o u s arm y to A thens, b u t the A thenians defeated it at the
B attle o f M a ra th o n . A fter th e b attle, a m essenger called
Pheidippides ran straight h o m e to A thens to tell everyone the
g o o d news. From M arath o n to A thens was a distance o f 42.195
kilom etres — th e sam e distance is called a ‘m a ra th o n ’ today in
m em o ry o f th at great ru n .
W h e n K in g D ariu s died, his son X erxes c o n tin u ed the w ar
against G reece. In 480 b c he sent an o th e r army, even larger than
his father’s one. It defeated th e Spartans at T h erm o p y lae (w hich
m eans ‘Gates o f F ire’) and m arched tow ards A thens. T h e A thenians
had to leave th e ir city to escape th e Persian army. W hile the
A thenians w ere away, the Persians destroyed th e buildings on the
A cropolis, the religious p art o f the city. To th e G reeks, this was
unforgivable.
B ut the G reeks so o n m ade th e Persians pay for th e ir crim es.
A thenian ships beat th e Persians at sea in the B attle o f Salamis, and
th en the arm ies o f all G reece fou g h t side by side to defeat the
Persians at Plataea. So o n th e Persian arm y re tu rn e d to Asia. T h e
danger had passed. B u t th e G reeks never fo rg o t that they had
nearly b eco m e p art o f th e Persian Em pire.
A lthough they had fo u g h t to g eth er in th e Persian Wars, the
city-states c o n tin u e d to be in d e p e n d e n t from each other. Som e
w ere ru led by a king, o r a small g ro u p o f n o b lem en. O thers,
like A thens, w ere dem ocracies and w ere ru le d by the people.
U nlike o u r dem ocracies today, th e ord in ary p eople m ade all
the political decisions. A t least forty tim es a year, they cam e
to g eth er in e n o rm o u s n um bers to discuss and vote o n m atters o f
g o v ern m en t —w h e th e r to go to war, w h e n to have public holidays,
o r how to reduce th e n u m b e r o f accidents at sea. W om en could
2
n o t vote, b u t th e o rdinary m en o f these G reek dem ocracies had
real pow er.
R e lig io n was an im p o rta n t p art o f G reek life. T h e re w ere m any
G reek gods. Z eus was the k in g o f th e gods, and he used th u n d e r
and ligh tn in g to p unish th e p eople o n earth and send messages to
them . H e had m any children, and they to o w ere gods. H is son
D ionysus was g od o f th e forces o f nature; his d au g h ter A th en e was
co n n ected w ith learning; and th ere w ere m any m ore.
All over th e G reek w orld, p eople used to visit special places to
ask the gods for advice. T h e y asked w h e th e r they should start a
new business o r choose a wife; as city officials, they asked w h e th e r
they should build a n ew tem ple o r go to war. C o m m u n ica tin g
th ro u g h religious officials, the gods gave th em com plicated
answers th at co u ld often be u n d ersto o d in different ways.
In the sixth c e n tu ry BC, for exam ple, th e A thenians sent officials
to the G reeks’ m ost im p o rta n t religious centre, D elphi. T h ey asked
the god A pollo h o w they should p ro tect them selves from attack by
the Persians, and w ere told that they w ould be safe from the
Persians b e h in d a wall o f w o o d . A fter m u ch discussion, the
A thenians d ecided th at th e ‘wall o f w o o d ’ m ean t ships. T h ey built
warships and learn t to sail th em . A few years later, they defeated
the Persians at sea.
T h e G reeks believed that th e greatest heroes, like H ercules,
w en t to live w ith th e gods w h e n they died. O rd in ary people w en t
to a dark place b elo w th e earth called th e U n d erw orld.
E ach G reek city-state was u n d e r th e p ro tectio n o f one o r m ore
o f the gods. E ach o f these gods usually h ad a tem ple, built in a style
that has b een co p ied in th e W estern w o rld for alm ost 2,500 years.
To keep th e ir gods happy, th e p eople o f th e city held regular
religious celebrations. T h e y b ro u g h t gifts, and p erfo rm ed special
songs and dances.
T h e G reeks are rem em b ered for th e ir love o f th e theatre, w h ich
they p e rfo rm e d in celebration o f th e g od D ionysus. T h e plays o f
3
great w riters like E u rip id es are still p e rfo rm ed today. O th e r form s
o f literature w ere p o p u lar too. The Iliad an d The Odyssey by
H o m e r w ere lo n g po em s w h ic h told stories ab o u t the heroes o f
the Trojan War. O th e r G reeks w ro te beautiful love poem s and the
W estern w o rld s earliest w orks o f history.
Philosophy was invented in G reece, and th e w o rk o f Plato and
A ristotle is still im p o rta n t today. T h e G reeks also m ade m any
discoveries in m athem atics and science. H ippocrates, a d o c to r o f
the fifth cen tu ry b c , is n o w called ‘th e fath er o f m e d ic in e’. M edical
students all over th e w o rld have to prom ise to follow his rules for
lo o k in g after patients.
T h e G reeks th o u g h t it was im p o rtan t to exercise b o th their
m inds and th e ir bodies. T h e y w ere great adm irers o f physical
beauty in m en as well as w o m en . T h e social cen tre o f a typical
G reek city was its gym nasium , w h ere rich citizens to o k physical
exercise. E very fo u r years, th e city-states sent th e ir best sportsm en
to th e city o f O ly m p ia fo r th e O ly m p ic G am es. T h ere,
com petitio n s w ere h eld in ru n n in g , ju m p in g , fighting, horse-
riding, ch ario t racing and spear throw ing. T h e greatest sportsm en
at the O ly m p ic G am es becam e heroes o f th e G reek w orld, and
w ere celebrated in poem s by w riters like Pindar.
B ut th e c o m p e titio n b etw een G reek city-states was n o t always
peaceful. T h ere w ere often wars too. E x cep t in Sparta, G reek
arm ies did n o t have professional soldiers; th e soldiers w ere usually
farm ers. Fighting to o k place in the su m m er m o nths, and the
soldiers w en t h o m e in th e au tu m n to lo o k after th e ir fields. T h e
wars w ere usually a b o u t land. N o city w an ted o th e r cities to
control to o m u ch land o r b eco m e to o pow erful. A t the en d o f the
fifth cen tu ry b c, A thens and Sparta w ere at w ar for tw enty-seven
years. It was a tim e o f great suffering all over th e G reek w orld.
A t that tim e, M acedonia in the n o rth was n o t an im p o rta n t part
o f G reece. In fact, m ost G reeks did n o t th in k th at M acedonia was
p art o f G reece at all. T h e M acedonians spoke a strange fo rm o f
4
G reek th at o th e r G reek speakers had difficulty understanding.
M acedo n ian n o b lem en liked h o rse-rid in g , h u n tin g , eating m eat
and d rin k in g w ine. T h e y did n o t share o th e r G reeks’ interest in
literature, science and philosophy.
M acedonia was ru le d by a royal fam ily th a t believed they w ere
relatives o f th e great g od Z eus. T h e k in g lived in Pella, M aced o n ia’s
capital city. T h e palace was as beautiful as th e finest buildings in
G reece, and th e M aced o n ian kings w an ted th e ir co u n try to be
m ore G reek. T h e y w elco m ed several im p o rta n t G reeks there,
including m any w h o w ere escaping th e wars. T h e w rite r P indar
and the d o c to r H ip p o crates w ere guests o f th e M acedonian kings,
and E uripides w ro te o n e o f his greatest plays in Pella.
A nd th en , in 359 b c , A lex an d er’s father P hilip becam e king, and
M acedonia’s relationship w ith the rest o f G reece changed for ever.
C h ap ter 2 A M a ce d o n ia n P rin ce
A lthoug h A lex an d er’s achievem ents w ere extraordinary, in m any

ways his father, K in g Philip, was responsible for his success.
W h e n Philip becam e k in g o f M acedonia, he threw all his
energy in to increasing his pow er. H e c o n q u e re d the lands east o f
M acedonia, w h ic h w ere rich in gold. W ith this gold, he was able
to pay for a fu ll-tim e, professional army, w h ic h gave him a great
advantage over th e p a rt-tim e arm ies o f th e G reek city-states to his
south. It was a w ell-train ed , w ell-organized army, and soon it had
defeated all M a c e d o n ia ’s neighbours. W h e n he died, P h ilip ’s
em pire covered m ost o f m o d e rn -d a y M acedonia, G reece, Albania,
Bulgaria and E u ro p ean Turkey.
In M acedonia, m e n w ere allow ed to have m ore than one w ife
at the sam e tim e. Philip had six wives. His first wife, his queen and
the m o th e r o f A lexander, was called O lym pias. O lym pias was a
princess from th e n eig h b o u rin g state o f E pirus. She had a strong
5
character and a q u ick tem per. If she had a serious argum ent w ith
som eone, th at p erso n was unlikely to stay alive for long. T h ere
w ere m any stories a b o u t h e r w ild b eh av io u r and h er love o f the
god D ionysus. In th e G reek w orld it was n o rm al to kill a few
animals as gifts to th e gods. B u t w h e n O lym pias organized
religious celebrations, thousands o f anim als w ere killed as gifts to
D ionysus; th e n O lym pias and h e r friends drank th e anim als’ blood.
T h ey played w ith poiso n o u s snakes too; it was said that O lym pias
liked to sleep w ith a snake in h er bed.
It is n o t surprising, w ith parents like this, that A lexander was
brave and adventurous. His teachers to o h elp ed to m ake h im a
strong and successful leader. His first teach er was a relative o f
O lym pias —a m an called Leonidas. A lexander hated him . Leonidas
m ade A lexander exercise w ith o u t having breakfast, and gave him
only a small snack for his evening m eal. H e even checked
A lexander’s school bags, so O lym pias could n o t hide food in them .
A lexander loved m usic and literature, b u t his favourite hobby
was h un tin g . H e h u n te d w ith dogs, and he was always fond o f
them . M any years later he even nam ed a city in India after his pet
dog Peritas. A h u n te r also n eed ed a horse, and A lexander’s horse
was one o f th e m ost fam ous in history. A G reek frien d o f Philip
b o u g h t it for an e n o rm o u s sum o f m o n ey an d gave it to Philip as
a present. A lexander, aged twelve, w e n t w ith his lath er to see this
gift. It was a pow erful black w arhorse, b u t it was w ild. It ju m p e d
and kicked and tu rn e d . N o b o d y was able to rid e it. W h e n Philip
ordered his m e n to take the horse away, A lexander asked his father
to wait. H e tu rn e d th e horse tow ards th e sun, so it could n o t see
its ow n shadow. It im m ediately becam e less frig h ten ed. W h isp erin g
in its ear, A lexander gently clim bed o n th e h o rse ’s back and rode
it proudly ro u n d the field. E veryone was full o f ad m iration. Philip,
it was said, had tears in his eyes as he w atch ed his sm iling son.
A lexander kept th e horse, w h ich he called Bucephalas, and for the
n ex t tw en ty years m an and horse w ere rarely separated.
6
H e turned the horse towards the sun.
As P h ilip b ecam e ric h e r and m o re pow erful, he hired
philosophers, artists, m usicians and eng in eers from all over the
G reek w orld. H is c o u rt at Pella was an exciting place for a you n g
p rin ce to gro w up. A lex an d er co u ld talk to p eo p le w h o had lived
in Egypt, and m ade friends w ith a m an w h o h ad b ee n a g o v ernor
in the Persian E m pire. M aced o n ia was n o w w e ll-c o n n ec ted in the
w id er w orld.
Philip was to o busy leading his arm y to spend m u c h tim e w ith
his son. B u t h e m ade sure that A lex an d ers teacher d u rin g his
teenage years w o u ld be th e best th at m o n ey co uld buy. W h e n
A lexander was th irte e n , his father h ired A ristotle, a student o f the
great p h ilo so p h er Plato. A t th at tim e, A ristotle was an u n k n o w n
teacher w ith th in legs and small eyes. H e also h ad one o f the
sharpest and m ost q u estio n in g m inds in history. A ristotle later
w ro te m any im p o rta n t w orks o f philosophy. H e was one o f the
first people to use scientific m eth o d s to learn m o re ab o u t plants
and animals. H e studied th e stars and th e w ay th at the sea shapes
the land. H e w ro te ab o u t politics and literature. T h e list o f his
interests and achievem ents is extraordinary.
N o b o d y know s h o w m u c h he tau g h t A lexander. A ristotle later
w ro te that it was a waste o f tim e teach in g political science to a
y o u n g m an, because ‘he has n o ex p erien ce o f life, and still follows
his e m o tio n s’. Was he describing his pupil A lexander here?
Perhaps. B u t as A lexander grew up, like his teacher he never
stopped asking questions. W h e n e v e r Pella had visitors from o th e r
parts o f the w orld, A lexander learn t as m u c h as h e could from
them . A lexander, like A ristotle, had a h u n g e r for know ledge.
A lexander was n o t A risto tle’s only p u p il in M acedonia. A ristotle
also tau g h t th e sons o f leading n o b lem en , an d a m o n g th em w ere
m any o f A lex an d er’s future com m anders: Ptolem y, Perdiccas,
Seleucus, N earchus, and A lexander’s best frien d H ephaistion. T hese
friends, like th e horse Bucephalas, follow ed A lex ander loyally to
the ends o f th e earth.
A lexander grew up quickly in to a responsible and intelligent
y o u n e m an. W h e n he was sixteen, he was allow ed to take charge
o f the g o v ern m en t w hile Philip was away w ith the army. Soon
after this, a trib e to th e east o f M aced o n ia started to cause trouble,
and A lexander h im self led a small arm y to defeat it. T h e n , w h e n he
was eigh teen , h e co m m an d ed p art o f his fa th e r’s great arm y at the
Battle o f C haeronea. In this battle th e M acedonians finally
defeated th e G reek city-states and forced th e m to accept Philip as
th eir leader.
Philip started to m ake plans to free th e G reek cities in Asia from
Persian rule. A lexander felt that he w o u ld have an im p o rta n t part
to play in his fa th e r’s w ar against Persia. T h e future looked good.
B ut th e n his fath er fell in love.
E uryd ice was th e d au g h ter o f a M aced o n ian noblem an. She was
y o ung and very beautiful. S o o n P hilip was p lanning th eir
w edding.
O lym pias was very angry because, as P h ilip ’s n ew wife, E urydice
w ould be m o re pow erful th an she was. A n d i f E urydice had a son,
he could be ch osen as k in g instead o f A lexander. A t the w edding,
there was a big argum ent. A lexander attacked his father, although
no one was h u rt. A lexander and his m o th e r left the c o u rt
im m ediately; A lex an d er soon re tu rn e d , b u t his m o th e r w en t to live
in her h o m e country, Epirus.
W ith o u t his m o th er, A lexander was very nervous about his
position at co u rt. T h e n he heard new s th at m ade h im even m ore
w o rried . In p rep aratio n for his w ar o n Persia, Philip was in contact
w ith the k in g o f C aria, o n th e w estern edge o f th e Persian E m pire,
and the tw o rulers w an te d to arrange a fam ily m arriage. As w ell as
A lexander, P hilip h ad a n o th e r son, A lex an d er’s half-b ro th er
A rrhidaeus. H e had learn in g difficulties and could never be given
adult responsibilities. Philip suggested that A rrhidaeus should
m arry a C arian princess.
A lexander co u ld n o t und erstan d w hy his father w anted this
9
royal m arriage for A rrhidaeus and n o t for him . H e sent friends to
the C arian c o u rt to say that he w o u ld m ake a m u ch b etter
husband than his h alf-brother. T h e C arian k in g was pleased at first.
B u t Philip was very an g ry w h e n he heard w h a t A lexander had
done. H e did n o t w an t to waste A lexander o n a small co u n try like
Caria. A lex an d er’s friends w ere sent away from M acedonia, and
soon th e C arian k in g g o t w o rrie d and lost interest in a m arriage
w ith anyone in P h ilip ’s family. A lexander had ru in e d everything.
His position at c o u rt becam e even w eaker th a n before.
As Philip sent p art o f his arm y in to Asia to start the w ar against
Persia, he p lan n ed a n o th e r w edding. C leopatra, A lexander’s sister,
was m arry in g h e r uncle, th e king o f Epirus. All th e local rulers in
P h ilip ’s em pire w ere there. B u t O lym pias, w h o was C leo p atra’s
m o th e r as w ell as th e k in g o f E p iru s’s sister, was n o t at the
w edding. Since h e was jo in in g the royal families o f E pirus and
M acedonia w ith this n ew m arriage, Philip did n o t n eed O lym pias
and h er E pirote co nnections.
A fter th e w edding, Philip was w alking to th e celebrations w ith
A lexander and his d a u g h te r’s n ew husband. H is endless battles had
left him w ith o n e eye and a bad leg, b u t he was still full o f energy,
dream ing o f a successful w ar in Persia. Suddenly, a m an m oved
towards th em . It was o n e o f P h ilip ’s bodyguards. W ith o u t a w ord,
he pushed a knife in to P h ilip ’s chest.
T h e n he ran. B u t he fell as he trie d to get o n his horse, and
P h ilip’s o th e r bodyguards so o n killed him .
T h e re was n o h o p e for K ing Philip. H e was dead.
C hap ter 3 T h e Y o u n g K in g
We will never k n o w w hy Philip was killed. H e certainly had m any

political enem ies inside and outside his em pire w h o had the
m oney to pay for his m urder. Som e p eo p le at th e tim e said that
10
Philip an d his m u rd erer had argued a b o u t a lover. B ut it is m ore
likely th at O lym pias was responsible. Philip had n o t in clu d ed his
first w ife in his plans for M aced o n ia’s great future, so O lym pias,
q u ick -te m p e red and dangerous, had arran g ed his m urder. She
w ould have m o re p o w er as K ing A lex an d er’s m o th e r th an as K ing
P h ilip’s u n w a n te d wife.
B ut in M acedonia, rule did n o t always pass to the dead k in g ’s
oldest son. A t th e tim e o f his fath er’s m urder, m any people did n o t
w ant A lexander as th e ir king. H e was still only tw enty — to o
young, they said, to take o n th e responsibility o f M acedonian rule.
H e was h a lf E pirote, n o t a tru e M aced o n ian , because his m o th e r
was from E p iru s. A n d his E p iro te m o th e r was w ild and
irresponsible —perhaps even h er h u sb an d ’s m urderer.
T h ere w ere tw o o th e r serious possibilities for the n ex t king.
O n e was G eneral A ttalus, E u ry d ice’s uncle, w h o w anted to rule
M acedonia th ro u g h E ury d ice and P h ilip ’s n ew baby son. T h e
o th e r was Am yntas.
T w en ty -th ree years earlier, A m yntas h ad b een a child o f tw o
w h en his father, K ing Perdiccas, h ad died. Philip was Perdiccas’s
younger b ro th e r and had ru led in th e place o f his baby nephew ;
w h e n A m yntas becam e an adult, Philip was so pow erful and
successful th at n o b o d y q u estioned his rig h t to co n tin u e ruling.
Amyntas was n o w tw enty-five. C o m p a re d to A lexander, he had the
advantage o f age and experience, and his b lo o d was equally royal.
H e was p o p u la r w ith th e n o b lem en o f M acedonia.
B ut A lexander stayed o n e step ahead o f his enem ies. H e ordered
the m u rd e r o f E u ry d ic e ’s baby, his o w n half-brother. G eneral
Attalus, w h o was w ith th e arm y in Asia, could do n o th in g to stop
him . S o o n A ttalus and A m yntas w ere m u rd ered too. T his was n o t
unusual — in those days th e ru le o f a n ew k in g alm ost always
started w ith a few m urders. A lexander red u ced taxes for the people
o f M aced o n ia and, since n o o th e r suitable kings w ere left alive,
they seem ed happy to accept h im as th e ir n e w ruler.
11
T h e situation was m o re difficult abroad. W h e n new s o f Philips
m u rd er spread aro u n d his em pire, th e tribes in th e n o rth and the
city-states in th e so u th d e cid ed to free them selves from
M acedo n ian rule. W ith in a few m o n th s o f his fathers death,
A lexander had to fight to keep th e em pire together.
H e first w e n t to th e G reek state o f Thessaly. T h e usual route was
along a n arro w valley in th e m ountains, b u t this was n o w guarded
by the Thessalians. A lexander decided th at it was to o dangerous to
take the M aced o n ian soldiers and w arhorses this way. Instead, he
created a n ew path. H e ordered th e soldiers to c u t steps in the
steep rockface o f a m o u n ta in o n the b o rd e r b etw een M acedonia
and Thessaly. A fter w eeks o f hard w ork, his arm y en tered Thessaly
by the n ew road, to o k th e Thessalians by surprise and defeated
th em easily. T h e Thessalians w elcom ed A lexander as th eir new
leader.
A m arch at lig h tn in g speed then to o k A lex an d ers arm y on a
to u r o f G reek city-states. O n e by one, they realized that battle
w ould end in disaster, so they quickly m ade peace w ith him
instead. O n ly Sparta refused to accept A lex an d er as th eir leader,
sending the message: ‘It is o u r fathers’ h ab it n o t to follow others
b u t to lead th em .’A lexander was n o t to o w o rrie d . T h e rest o f the
Greeks hated Sparta m ore than they hated M acedonia. H e could
m anage w ith o u t Spartan help.
T here w ere also problem s in th e n o rth . A fter his to u r o f G reece,
A lexander h ad to fight th e Thracians, w h o lived beside the R iv er
D anube. T h ey could n o t defeat A lexander’s w ell-trained arm y and
soon they w ere forced to accept M acedonian rule.
B u t bad new s follow ed. T h e M aced o n ian forces in Asia w ere
retreating; A ttalus, m urd ered o n A lex an d er’s orders, had been a
g o o d general, and his death had probably w eakened the arm y
there. In M acedonia itself, O lym pias was b eh av in g typically and
had m u rd ered E urydice. A nd in G reece, new s was spreading that
A lexander had b een killed o n th e D an u b e; th e city-state o f T hebes
12
was leading a n ew fight for in d ep en d en ce w h ic h was fast grow ing
o u t o f control.
A lexander k n ew that he had to act quickly. H e rushed his arm y
to T hebes and started a siege o f th e city. W h e n an unguarded gate
in the city wall was found, the M acedonians so o n forced th eir way
into the city.
A lexander called a m eetin g w ith th e n e ig h b o u rin g G reek city-
states, w h o had for m any years suffered bad treatm en t at the hands
o f p o w e r-h u n g ry T hebes. W h e n he asked th e m w h a t should
happen to T h eb es, they voted to destroy it com pletely.
T hebes cam e to a v io len t end. T h e city ’s riches w ere taken. A
few houses w ere left u n to u c h e d — 150 years earlier the T h eb an
w rite r P in d ar had w ritte n poem s for th e M aced o nian king, and
no w his house was safe — b u t the rest w ere b u rn t to the g round.
30,000 T heb an s, in clu d in g w o m en and children, w ere taken
prisoner and sold as slaves.
T h e terrib le new s soon spread aro u n d G reece. N o o th e r city-
state was interested in c o n tin u in g th e ir fight for indep en d en ce
now. E veryone rushed to prove that they w ere A lex ander’s greatest
allies.
A t last A lexander co u ld tu rn his a tte n tio n to Asia. It was tim e to
plan his w ar against the Persian Em pire.
A lexander called to g e th e r forces from m any lands —foot soldiers
from Illyria and T hrace, h o rsem en from Thessaly, warships from
A thens, archers from C rete, as w ell as th e highly trained
M acedo n ian army. To this he added doctors, long-distance
runners, engineers, religious m en , specialists in digging for gold
and jew els, and a h istorian called C allisthenes to record his great
achievem ents.
A lexander left his m o th e r O lym pias in charge o f M acedonia,
w ith his fath er’s loyal general A n tip ater to lead her army. T h e n he
m arched to th e D ardanelles, a n arro w piece o f w ater that separates
E urope from Asia in present-day Turkey.
13
W hile A lex an d ers se c o n d -in -c o m m a n d , G eneral P arm enion,
led the m ain arm y in to Asia by th e shortest sea crossing, A lexander
him self decided to see som e sights.
H is d estination was th e ru in e d city o f Troy, scene o f the
legendary T rojan War, w h ere G reeks and Asians had fought for the
first tim e. T h e G reeks believed that th e w ar h ad started 1,000 years
before the tim e of A lexander, w h en Paris, a T rojan prince, stole the
beautiful H e le n from h e r G reek husband M enelaus.
O f all the heroes o f th e Trojan War, th e greatest was Achilles. W h e n

he was a baby, his im m o rtal m o th e r had held his heel and covered
the rest o f his b o d y in the w ater o f th e leg en d ary R iv e r Styx. A fter
this, he could only be h u rt o n his heel.
Achilles g rew up h andsom e and brave. A t th e start o f the Trojan
War, his m o th e r gave h im a choice: he co u ld stay at hom e, live a
n o rm al life and die an old m an, o r he co u ld go to Troy, die y o ung
and be fam ous for ever. O f course Achilles chose Troy.
H e was th e fastest ru n n e r and the strongest fighter in the G reek
army. B u t he also had a quick tem per. A fter an a rg u m en t about a
female priso n er w ith his general, A g am em n o n , A chilles decided to
stop fighting in th e war. W ith o u t Achilles, th e G reeks w ere nearly
defeated. Patroclus, A chilles’s best friend, fo u g h t in A chilles’s
a rm o u r to give th e G reeks confidence; b u t soon he was killed by
the Trojan hero, H ector.
Achilles felt very sad and very guilty. It was his fault that his best
friend was dead. D ressed in n ew a rm o u r created by the gods, he
re tu rn e d to battle and did n o t stop fighting until he had killed
Patroclus’s killer, H ecto r. H e tied H e c to r’s b o d y to his chario t and
pulled it th ro u g h th e dust. B u t later in th e war, A chilles him self
was killed w h en Paris shot h im in th e heel w ith a p oisoned arrow.
14
This was a story that A lexander had read from his early ch ildhood.
H e was even th o u g h t to be a relative o f Achilles, th ro u g h his
m other, O lym pias, and th e royal fam ily o f E pirus. H is teacher
A ristotle had prepared for h im a special copy o f The Iliad, H o m e r’s
great p o e m ab o u t Achilles; this copy was so im p o rtan t to
A lexander th at he liked to rest his h ead o n it w h en he slept. For
m any years p eople had com pared A lexander and his best friend
H ephaistio n to Achilles and Patroclus. A nd n o w A lexander, like the
G reeks o f th e T rojan War, had co m e across th e D ardanelles to
attack th e p eo p le o f Asia.
As A lex an d er’s boat to u ch ed th e beach, he th rew his spear at the
g ro u n d as a sign th at this land was n o w his. W ith his friends, he
w alked up th e hill to the ruins o f Troy. H e gave gifts to the gods.
T h e n he and H eph aistio n ran —A lexander to th e to m b o f Achilles,
his best frien d to the to m b o f Patroclus. N e x t he w en t to the
tem ple o f A thene, w h ere he exch an g ed his o w n a rm o u r for a
shield w h ich , according to legend, had b een used in the Trojan
War. W ith his beautiful shield from th e Age o f H eroes, he w en t to
rejoin his arm y as th e n ew Achilles. W e can only w o n d er if he
th o u g h t ab o u t th e choice o f futures that A chilles had b een given
by his m o th er. Like Achilles, A lexander chose to fight battles and
live famously. D id he guess that, like Achilles, he w ould never
re tu rn to his h o m elan d o r live to m iddle age?
C h ap ter 4 First B a ttles in A sia
U ntil A lexander could prove that he was stronger than the Persian
E m pire, th e G reek cities in Asia refused to help him . H e had very
little food o r pay left for his m en. H e n eed ed to defeat the Persians
in battle quickly. B ut th e Persian co m m anders were discussing
o th e r plans.
At this tim e, th e soldiers in the Persian arm y w ere m ostly G reek.
15
People talk o t A lex an d ers G reeks’ defeating th e 'Persians’, b u t
there w ere 50,000 G reeks in th e Persian arm y and only 7,000 in
A lexand er’s.
In G reece, it was difficult to earn a living if you did n o t ow n
land. T h ere w ere p len ty o f slaves, so landow ners and businessm en
rarely w an ted to em ploy paid w orkers. T h e shipping business was
a possibility, b u t storm s at sea w ere c o m m o n and fortunes w ere lost
as often as they w ere m ade. F or many, th e m ost attractive choice
was a life in th e h ighly paid Persian army. T h e arm y was full o f
failed G reek farm ers and businessm en, y o u n g e r sons w h o ow ned
no land, and politicians w h o w ere n o t w elco m e j n th e city o f th eir
birth.
A G reek general called M e m n o n had b een responsible for the
M acedonians m ost recen t defeats. H e had g ro w n up on the island
o f R h o d e s, spent som e tim e living in M aced o n ia, and com e to Asia
fifteen years before A lexander. His w ife Barsine was Persian, and
he now o w n ed a large farm , a present from th e Persian king for his
loyal service.
M e m n o n n o w had a plan to defeat A lexander. T h e Persians
should n o t face th e M acedonians in battle, he advised. Instead, they
should b u rn th e ir o w n farm s and m ake sure A lex ander’s arm y
could get n o food. I f A lexander did n o t w in a battle, the G reek
cities w ou ld n o t help him . S oon his h u n g ry soldiers w o u ld have to
re tu rn to E urope.
T h e rest o f th e Persian co m m anders disagreed w ith M e m n o n .
Instead, they d ecided to defend th e ir c o u n try in battle.
T h e Persian arm y g ro u p ed on the east b ank o f the R iv er
Granicus. W h e n A lexander heard the new s, he realized his luck and
ordered his soldiers to m arch there as quickly as possible. Som e o f
A lexander’s advisers w arn ed h im that for religious reasons it was
n o t a good m o n th for a battle. A lexander acted typically: he created
a new m o n th .
A lexander and his arm y reached the G ranicus in late afternoon.
16
Alexander and his army reached the Granicus in late afternoon.
T h e Persians had ch o sen th e ir position well. T h e river was tw enty
m etres w ide and ran fast b etw een steep, m u d d y banks. If A lexander
ordered his arm y to cross th e river, it w o u ld be easy for the
Persians to c u t th e m d o w n in the m ud.
A lexander had read in the w o rk o f a G reek historian that the
Persians liked to cam p som e distance from th e ir chosen battle
g ro u n d and did n o t m arch before th e sun cam e up. T h e
M acedonians crossed th e river in th e early h o u rs o f the m o rn in g
and found it undefended. T hey n o w had the advantage o f surprise.
A lexander led his ho rsem en against th e enemy. T h e Persian
horsem en fo u g h t back, b u t they w ere badly organized because o f
the surprise attack. W h e n A lexander’s spear broke d u rin g the
fighting, a Persian co m m a n d e r saw his o p p o rtu n ity and struck
A lexander o n th e head. B u t A lexander was n o t h u rt, and before
the Persian co u ld strike again, a M aced o n ian called C leitus cam e
to pro tect his king. C leitu s’s sister had b e e n A lex an d er’s nurse as a
baby, and n o w C leitus saved his life.
As the fighting co n tin u ed , the Persians failed to organize a
strong defence. M an y o f th e ir com m an d ers w ere killed, several by
A lexander him self. S o o n th e Persians on h o rseb ack w ere
retreating.
As the M acedonians su rro u n d ed th e Persian camp, ab o u t 17,000
hired G reek fo o t soldiers trie d to defend it. T h e y m anaged to h u rt
A lexander’s horse, b u t th ere w ere m any m o re M acedonian
attackers. T h e y co u ld n o t h o p e to w in. 2,000 w ere taken prisoner,
and later sent to M acedonia as slaves; th e rest w ere killed.
A lexander used this cruel treatm en t as a message to o th e r Greeks:
‘Leave the Persian arm y and stop fighting y o u r o w n co u n try m en
- if you d o n ’t, y o u r suffering will be w orse than th e Persians’.’
After his success at th e G ranicus, th e G reek cities in Asia quickly
op en ed th e ir gates to A lexander. H e sent m essengers to all the
cities that he had already passed, telling th e m to becom e
dem ocracies, to create th e ir o w n laws, and to stop paying tax to
18
the Persian king. T his was a clever trick , because it m ade A lexander
popular w ith tax-payers. T h e tax to th e Persian k in g was n o t really
stopped; it was given a n ew nam e, and paid as a ‘gift’ to the
M aced o n ian arm y instead. B u t th e tric k was successful. T h e
P ersian -su p p o rted local rulers lost th e ir p o w er w ith o u t any danger
to the M aced o n ian army. T h e cities becam e dem ocratic, and
A lexander g rew so pop u lar that m any p eo p le in th e area started to
th ink o f h im as a god.
A lexander m arched south in to C aria, w h ere he had in the past
ho p ed to m a rry th e d au g h ter o f his fa th e r’s ally, the C arian king.
At the border, he was m et by Q u e e n A da, w h o had been the w ife
o f an earlier king. N o w she was alm ost a p riso n er in h e r ow n
h o m e u n d e r th e n ew king, a Persian called O ro n tobates. She had
a strange suggestion for A lexander: he should b eco m e her adopted
son and take O ro n to b a te s’s place as th e tru e king.
B ut first he h ad to defeat K in g O ro n to b ates. O ro n to b ates and
G eneral M e m n o n , w h o was th e n co m m a n d e r o f the w h o le
Persian army, w ere p rep arin g a defence o f Halicarnassus (now
called B o d ru m , in T urkey). T h e city was fam ous for its M ausoleum
—the great to m b o f A d a’s brother, K in g M ausolus, w h ich was one
o f the Seven W onders o f the W orld. H alicarnassus had the strongest
city defences o n th e Asian coast, circled by walls and w ith a w ell-
built castle. Persian warships defended it by sea; A lexander, w h o
had sent his A th en ian warships h o m e a few m o n th s earlier because
they w ere so expensive, had no w arships at all.
T h e siege was difficult. T h e M acedonians broke part o f the city
wall, b u t th e Persians push ed th em back. M an y lives w ere lost from
b o th arm ies. In th e end, the Persians had to o few soldiers to
defend th e city. T h e y retreated to th e castle, w h ic h they held for a
year. B u t A lexander was able to m ove his forces in to the m ain part
o f the city. As Q u e e n A da’s ad o p ted son, A lexander becam e king
o f Caria.
P reparations n o w had to be m ade for the w inter. A lexander
19
decided to send h o m e to M aced o n ia all th e soldiers w h o had
m arried ju s t before th e start o f th e war. T his was a p o p ular
decision. A lex an d er’s arm y n o w loved th e ir leader m ore than ever.
A lexander left his ‘m o th e r’, Q u e e n Ada, in charge o f Caria. W ith
the rest o f th e army, he m arched to G o rd iu m (in central Turkey),
and w aited th ere for th e re tu rn o f th e new ly m arried soldiers.
D u rin g th e w in te r A lexander becam e interested in a local legend.
In the palace at G o rd iu m , w h ich had in the past b een the h o m e o f
the kings o f P hrygia, th ere was an old chariot. It was tied to a piece
o f w o o d by a com plicated k n o t th at n o o n e h ad ever m anaged to
untie. A ccording to legend, Asia w ould o n e day be ru led by the
person w h o co u ld u n tie th e knot.
A lexander d ecid ed th at he w o u ld u n tie th e k n o t. In front o f all
his soldiers, he m oved tow ards the ch ario t. A fter som e m inutes, the
k n o t was bro k en . B u t there w ere tw o different stories from the
people w h o w ere w atching. Som e said that A lex ander’s success
w ith the k n o t was real; o thers said th at they saw h im use his knife
to cut it. W e w ill never know. B u t that n ig h t th e gods seem ed to
send a sign o f th e ir su p p o rt w h e n th u n d e r and lig h tning filled the
sky. W ord spread am o n g his soldiers and the local people:
A lexander, w h o had u n tied th e G ordian K n o t, was the future ruler
o f all Asia.
C hap ter 5 Face to F ace w ith D a riu s
W hile A lexander was at G ordium , th e Persians started to m ake

m ore plans to defeat him . T h e M acedonians had n o warships; the
Persians had 300. It was tim e for the Persians to take advantage o f
th eir pow er at sea.
Led by G eneral M e m n o n , they to o k back th e G reek islands o f
C hios and Lesbos. T h e y planned to c o n tin u e by sea tow ards central
G reece, and they h o p e d that Sparta w o u ld soon lead a G reek
20
in d ep en d en ce m o v em en t against th e M acedonians. If the Persians
created e n o u g h problem s in G reece, A lex an d er w o uld have to go
hom e.
T h ey also decided, finally, to b u rn all th e fields before A lexander
reached th e m , so his arm y w o u ld have n o th in g to eat. M arch in g
south, A lexander fo u n d b u rn in g fields everyw here. T h e n , w h e n he
got to th e city o f Tarsus (in present-day so u th e rn Turkey), he
becam e ill w ith a h ig h fever, perhaps because o f a sw im in an icy
river. His docto rs feared for his life. B u t a G reek d o cto r called
Philip, w h o had lo o k ed after A lexander as a boy, suggested a
treatm en t th at m ig h t help. As th e d o c to r w e n t to prepare the
m edicine, A lexander was given a le tte r from G eneral P arm en io n ,
his seco n d -in -c o m m a n d ; it said th at Philip had b een paid by the
Persian k in g to kill A lexander. B u t w h e n P hilip re tu rn e d w ith the
m edicine, A lexander drank it im m ediately w ith o u t questioning his
d o c to r’s loyalty, and after several w eeks he g o t better. In A lexander’s
w orld, death by p oison was n o t u n c o m m o n and the ability to
k n o w frien d from enem y was very useful.
M e m n o n was n o t as lucky as A lexander. W h ile fighting on
Lesbos, h e suddenly becam e ill an d died. T his was a serious
pro b lem for th e Persians. W ith o u t M e m n o n and his know ledge o f
G reece, they did n o t feel co n fid en t that they could fight a w ar
successfully against th e M a ced o n ian s in E u ro p e. A lth o u g h
M e m n o n ’s plan had w o rk ed very w ell u n til th en , they decided to
change it com pletely.
T h e G reat K in g o f Persia, D arius III, to o k personal co ntrol o f
the situation. W e k n o w little ab o u t this king. A lth o u gh he had royal
b lood, he was n o t a close relative o f th e Persian kings th at had
ru led before him . H e had b een th e g o v ern o r o f A rm enia and
fo u g h t bravely in battles there; he had th e n b eco m e king o f Persia
after m any m em bers o f th e royal fam ily w ere poisoned by a
p o w e r-h u n g ry politician called Bagoas.
Persia itself was in present-day Iran, b u t th e G reat K ing
21
controlled all th e lands from E gypt to Pakistan, and from
U zbekistan to th e A rabian Sea. His riches w ere legendary, and he
received the tre a tm e n t o f a god. H e was p ro tected by a bodyguard
o f 10,000 soldiers; they w ere called th e Im m ortals because w hen
one m an died o r becam e ill, his p o sitio n was im m ediately filled by
a n o th e r m an.
T h e G reat K in g gave land to the m en th at served h im well. T h e
lan d -o w n in g Persians had a very com fortable w ay o f life that was
often a subject o f w o n d e r a m o n g th e G reeks. T h e y had soft carpets
o n th eir floors and beautiful gardens full o f flowers; they ate the
finest food, and h u ndreds o f servants lo o k ed after all th e ir needs.
B ut w ith o n e w ord, th e all-pow erful k in g co u ld take away th eir
good fo rtu n e fo r ever.
W ide, w ell-b u ilt roads c o n n e c te d th e G reat K in g ’s m ost
im p o rta n t cities, B abylon, Susa and Persepolis, w ith the far corners
o f his em pire. T h e best o f these roads was th e R oyal R o a d , w hich
led 2,300 kilom etres from Susa, in th e h eart o f the em pire, to
Sardis, on th e M e d ite rra n e an coast. E very tw enty-five kilom etres
along the route, th ere was a place to b uy food and stay the night.
O n ly th e G reek cities in the west o f th e Persian E m pire paid tax
in the fo rm o f m oney. E veryw here else, tax to th e G reat K ing was
paid in food; in silver and gold; and in horses, w ar chariots and
fighting m en. K in g D arius n o w p u t to g e th e r an e n o rm o u s army.
O n ly the lands o n th e eastern borders o f th e em pire did n o t send
m en; they w ere to o far away to be useful.
T h e Persian arm y ’s strength lay in its w ell-train ed archers and
horsem en , because rid in g and archery w ere th e traditional hobbies
o f the Persian landow ners. Tens o f thousands o f these m en jo in e d
th eir king, b u t fo o t soldiers w ere less easy to find. D ariu s’s arm y
included a large n u m b e r o f teenage boys w ith n o ex p erience o f
battle. To help th em , th e K ing also called for th e hired G reek
soldiers w h o had b een fighting w ith M e m n o n at sea; he n eeded
th em no w for a great land battle.
22
H istorians at th e tim e w ro te that he had b etw een 300,000 and
600,000 m e n in his army, b u t n o t all o f th e m w ere soldiers. E ach
Persian h orsem an, for exam ple, had tw elve servants. A n d w h en the
king co m m an d ed th e army, his politicians, his wives and his
children cam e w ith him .
T h e M acedonians, w hose arm y only n u m b e re d ab o u t 50,000
m en, received reports that th e enem y had cam ped near the Syrian
b o rd er w ith C ilicia (so u th ern Turkey). T h e y m arched along the
M ed iterran ean coast tow ards th e Persian camp, covering the
distance in h alf th e usual tim e.
U n k n o w n to A lexander, the Persians had left th eir cam p and
were also m arching. W h ile the M acedonians follow ed the coast
road south, th e Persians follow ed th e inland road n o rth . A lthough
they w ere o n ly a few kilom etres away from each other, n eith er
arm y k n e w w h e re th e o th e r o n e was. Such confusion is hard to
im agine today, in a w o rld w h ere cam eras in space can be used to
spy o n every m o v em en t th at an arm y makes.
T h e M acedonians realized first that th e tw o arm ies had passed
each o th e r by m istake. T h e y had already had several days o f hard
m arching. N o w A lexander asked his soldiers to tu rn ro u n d and
m arch again.
A fter an evening m eal, they m arched n o rth in the dark, had a
short sleep, th e n m arched again at first light. A ro u n d m idday they
cam e to a river n ear th e to w n o f Issus. O n th e far side o f the river
stood th e Persian army, o n a flat piece o f land about tw o
k ilom etres w id e. To th e w est th e re was b each and the
M ed iterran ean Sea; to th e east there w ere m ountains. T h e fighting
area was to o n a rro w for D arius to take advantage o f his greater
num bers o f soldiers. It was a g o o d battlefield for the M acedonians.
A lexander, rid in g Bucephalas, led a charge o f h o rsem en across
the river tow ards th e enemy. T h e Persian h o rsem en rode to m eet
them , and th e battle began. In th e centre o f th e battlefield w ere the
M acedo n ian fo o t soldiers, w h o fo u g h t w ith six -m etre-lo n g spears.
23
A lth o u g h they w ere difficult to defeat o n flat ground, the
M acedonians w ere having problem s o n th e steep river banks. T h ey
w ere close to defeat at th e hands o f th e h ired G reek soldiers w h o
fo ught for th e Persians.
B u t ju st in tim e, A lex an d er’s h o rsem en broke th ro u g h the
Persian line and cam e to help th e foot soldiers. S oon the
M acedonians w ere w in n in g th e battle.
K ing D arius was w atch in g th e fighting from his chariot. As
A lexander and his M aced o n ian h o rsem en m oved towards him
from tw o sides, th e eyes o f th e tw o kings m e t for a m o m en t. T h e n
D arius, realizing th at th e battle was lost, tu rn e d his ch ario t and
quickly retreated.
C h ap ter 6 S o u th to E g y p t
D arius escaped over th e m ou n tain s o n h orseback, leaving his spear

in his chariot. B u t th e B attle o f Issus was a serious defeat for the
Persians. E n o rm o u s n um bers o f Persians died. T h e rest o f the
Persian arm y broke in to small groups, and m ost o f the hired
G reeks sailed h o m e in Persian warships.
K ing D arius lost m u ch m o re than his soldiers and ships. T h e
M acedonians fo u n d extraordinary riches left n ear the battlefield,
and even m o re at th e city o f D am ascus. T h e re w ere 220 kilogram s
o f silver, and as m any gold coins as A lex an d er’s father, K ing Philip,
had received in tax from his em pire in a w h o le year. T h ere w ere
piles o f cups, bow ls and boxes m ade o f gold. A lexander liked one
gold box so m u ch th at he d ecided to keep his favourite copy o f
The Iliad in it. T h e re w ere thousands o f servants, including 329
fem ale m usicians, 319 cooks and 70 w in e w aiters, w h o had com e
to lo o k after the G reat K ing w hile he co m m an d ed the army. And,
m ost im p o rta n t o f all, the M acedonians to o k p riso n er D ariu s’s
wife, m o th e r and children.
24
Darius, realizing that the battle was lost, quickly retreated.
A lexander m ade sure that th e Persian royal fam ily received royal
treatm ent. T h e y w ere given fine clothes an d jew ellery to wear, and
had a com fortable place to live. So o n D arius w ro te to A lexander
asking for his fam ily’s retu rn . B u t A lexander replied th at the royal
fam ily w o u ld only be freed if D arius called h im K ing A lexander o f
Asia.
‘I f you th in k you have a rig h t to y o u r em pire, stand and fight
for it,’ w ro te A lexander. ‘D o n o t ru n away, because I w ill com e
after you, w h erev er y ou go.’
A n o th e r p riso n e r was th e dead G eneral M e m n o n ’s beautiful
Persian wife, Barsine. She had lived for a sh o rt tim e in M acedonia
w h en her father, a Persian governor, had b e co m e u n p o p u lar w ith
the Persian king. In M acedonia, B arsine had k n o w n A lexander as
a boy. N o w he was a m an and she was his prisoner. A lexander fell
in love w ith h e r and they w ere close for th e n e x t five years.
A lexander n o w n e e d e d to take the ports in P h o enicia (present-
day Lebanon). M o st o f th e m w ere happy to w elcom e the
M acedonians and say goodbye to Persian rule, b u t the city o f Tyre
was different. Tyre sto o d o n an island a b o u t a kilo m etre o u t to sea
and was rin g e d by a wall fifty m etres high. Few cities w ere as
difficult to attack, b u t A lexander, as usual, w asted no tim e in
w o rry in g ab o u t th e difficulty o f his jo b .
H e told his en gineers to build a w id e road across the sea to the
island o f Tyre. U sing stone from coastal ruins to fill in the sea, the
first part o f this road was built quickly. B u t th e last 200 m etres cost
m any lives.
T h e Tyrians shot arrow s at th e M acedonians as th ey w orked, bu t
the M acedonians used sto n e-th ro w in g m achines to clear the
archers from th e ir sh o o tin g positions. T h e m achines w ere also used
to m ake holes in th e city walls, b u t th e walls w ere soon rebuilt.
W h e n th e Tyrians sailed b u rn in g ships in to en em y lines to destroy
the M aced o n ian s’ w o o d e n w ar m achines, th e M acedonians found
o th e r ways to destroy th e Tyrian defences. T h e M acedonians tried
26
to clim b the walls, b u t th e Tyrians show ered th e m w ith red h o t
sand that p o u re d inside th e ir a rm o u r an d b u rn t th e ir bodies
horribly.
As tim e w e n t on, A lexander was h elp ed by o th e r P hoen ician
cities, and by th e G reeks w h o lived o n C y p ru s and R h o d e s. M ore
th an six m o n th s after th e start o f th e siege, th e M acedonians and
th eir allies attacked th e island o n all sides w ith ships and m achines
o f war. Finally, A lexander and his soldiers m anaged to fight th eir
way over th e walls. T h e Tyrians d efended them selves bravely, b u t
the city was taken. 10,000 Tyrians w ere killed and 30,000 w ere
sold as slaves.
T h e results o f A lex an d er’s siege can still be seen. Tyre exists
today, b u t it is n o t o n an island. T h e coastline was changed for ever
by the road th at A lex an d er’s soldiers b u ilt across th e sea.
S outh o f Tyre, A lexander to o k th e city o f Gaza after a tw o -
m o n th siege. T h e w h o le m ale p o p u latio n was killed. T h e n
A lexander tied th e feet o f th eir dead king, Batis, to his ch ario t and
pulled it ro u n d th e city. H is hero Achilles h ad d o n e the same in
The Iliad, w ith th e b o d y o f P atroclus’s killer, H ector.
A lexander th e n m arch ed sou th to E gypt, a land rich in gold and
farm land. In later years, w h e n R o m e was all-pow erful and had a
city p o p u latio n o f o n e m illion, m ost o f th e R o m a n s’ food cam e
from th e valley o f th e N ile.
T h e E gyptians w ere understandably p ro u d o f th eir long history.
T h e ir religion an d th e ir w ritin g had b e g u n alm ost 3,000 years
before th e tim e o f A lexander, and th e ir fo rm o f g overnm ent had
too. T h e E gyptians had b u ilt extraordinary tom bs for th eir kings,
o r ‘p h arao h s’. T h e greatest o f these, th e to m b o f K hufu at Giza,
c o n tin u e d to be th e tallest b uilding in th e w orld until the
n in e tee n th century. B u t w h e n it was built in the tw enty-sixth
cen tu ry BC, th e G reeks had n o t yet even learn t h o w to w rite.
For centuries, E g y p t h ad b een o n e o f th e m ost pow erful
co u n tries in th e M id d le East, b u t in 525 b c it had fallen u n d er
27
Persian rule. Its p eo p le had never fully accepted this situation, and
had regularly fo u g h t for th eir in d ependence.
N o w they w elco m ed A lexander as th e ir n e w ruler. T h ey w ere
deeply religious, and they saw that A lexander had a b e tter attitude
than the Persian kings to th e E gyptian gods. T h e y gladly m ade him
th eir ‘p h a ra o h ’. As Pharaoh, he was believed to be a living god, son
o f the E gyptian c reato r-g o d A m un.
A fter spending tim e in E g y p t’s capital city M em phis (near
present-day C airo), A lexander travelled n o rth to th e m o u th o f the
R iv er N ile. T h e re he organized the b u ild in g o f a new city,
A lexandria. It was n o t th e only city o f th at nam e; o ne had already
b een built n ear Issus, and before he died A lexander built m ore than
tw enty others. B u t this A lexandria was perhaps his greatest gift to
the future. In th e cen tu ries that follow ed, it becam e one o f the
M ed iterran ean w o rld ’s m ost im p o rta n t centres o f learning and o f
political and e co n o m ic pow er.
Leaving m ost o f his arm y in A lexandria, A lexander travelled 200
kilom etres west along th e M ed iterran ean coast w ith a small group
o f soldiers. H e cam e to th e G reek city o f P araito n io n, th e n tu rn e d
south in to th e Libyan desert. T his tim e his destination was n o t an
enem y city - it was Siw ah, h o m e o f th e Libyan g o d A m m on.
Siwah, in Libya, was k n o w n all over th e G reek w orld as a place
w here people co u ld ask A m m o n for advice and receive an honest
answer. T h e answers w ere co m m u n icated to visitors by A m m o n ’s
religious officials. A m m o n was c o n n ected w ith th e Egyptian god
A m un and th e G reek g od Zeus.
It seems that A lexander had an im p o rta n t q uestion to ask the
god. B u t his jo u rn e y across th e desert to Siw ah alm ost cost him his
life. For fo u r days the travellers w ere lost in a sandstorm . T hey
drank all th e ir w ater and soon becam e very thirsty. B u t suddenly
there w ere clouds in th e sky and it started to rain - ‘n o t w ith o u t
the help of the gods’, according to A lex an d er’s friends. T hey
travelled at night, w h e n it was cooler, and soon they lost th eir way
28
again. T h is tim e, it was said, they w ere h elp ed by birds and snakes
w hich show ed th e m the rig h t direction. Finally, after m ore th an a
w eek in th e desert, they reached Siwah.
A lexander co m m u n icated privately w ith th e god A m m o n ,
possibly ab o u t his hopes o f b eco m in g K ing o f Asia. Later, in public,
the religious m e n o f Siw ah w elcom ed h im as ‘Son o f Z eu s’. Was
this ju st a G reek translation o f th e P h a ra o h ’s title, Son o f A m un?
O r had they heard that A lexander’s m o th e r O lym pias som etim es
told strange stories ab o u t a g od b ein g h e r so n ’s father? We do n o t
know. B u t certainly A lexander’s visit to Siw ah had a pow erful
effect on him . A ccording to his soldiers, he started to believe that
he truly was th e son o f th e great g o d Z eus. Like th e G reek hero
H ercules, he was m o re than h u m an ; because o f this, there was
n o th in g th at he co u ld n o t achieve.
C hap ter 7 K in g o f A sia
D u rin g th e siege o f Tyre, K in g D arius h ad w ritte n a n o th e r letter

to A lexander. H e had offered h im all th e lands w est o f the R iv e r
E uphrates, a fo rtu n e in gold, and m arriag e to his daughter; in
exchange, D ariu s had asked for peace and th e re tu rn o f his wife,
m o th e r and children. It was a generous offer, b u t A lexander had
refused it. D ariu s th e n realized th at he h ad n o choice - he had to
fight again.
W hile A lexander was in Egypt, D arius called to g eth er a new
army. Soldiers cam e from th e farthest corners o f his em pire, and it
was a w h o le year before th e arm y was ready to fight.
A lexander m arched from E gypt to Tyre and w aited. In his next
battle, he w an ted to defeat the Persians com pletely, and he could
n o t do this against an in co m p lete army. To entertain his bored
soldiers, he o rganized th e perfo rm an ce o f G reek plays and musical
concerts. T h e n finally th e M acedonians m arched east.
29
By b u rn in g th e E uphrates valley, th e Persians forced A lexander
to take th e o n ly o th e r possible ro u te east. T his b ro u g h t him to
D arius s ch o ice o f battlefield: G augam ela, in present-day Iraq.
D arius m ade sure that, unlike at Issus, th e battlefield was w ide
en o u g h for h im to take advantage o f his e n o rm o u s army. A lthough
A lexander had b e e n jo in e d by n e w soldiers from M acedonia,
G reece and th e Asian M ed iterran ean coast, these only to o k the
place o f th e m en w h o had died. A gainst A lexanders 7,000
horsem en and 4 0,000 fo o t soldiers, D a riu s’s had 3 0,000 horsem en
and 200,000 fo o t soldiers to send in to battle.
A t first A lexander p lan n ed to take th e Persians by surprise in the
early m o rn in g . B u t w h e n it becam e clear th at D arius was
expectin g th em , th e M acedonians to o k tim e to lo o k carefully at
the battlefield. In th e centre o f the field, they saw that spears had
b een stuck in th e g ro u n d to h u rt any horses th at ran at the enem y
lines. T h e y saw elephants, a frig h ten in g sight for m e n w h o had
never m et such e n o rm o u s animals before, and for th eir horses.
T h ey also n o tic e d th at uneven g ro u n d had b een flattened to help
the drivers o f th e fam ous Persian w ar chariots. D arius had 200 o f
these chariots, w ith spears p o in tin g o u t in front o f the horses and
lo n g knives fixed to th e w heels. It is unlikely th at the ordinary
M acedo n ian soldiers w ere feeling co n fid en t before the battle.
T h e follow ing m o rn in g , A lexander spoke to his m en and th eir
confidence retu rn ed . H e called to th e gods, ‘I f I am truly the son
o f Zeus, you will defend us and help to m ake us strong.’ T h e n he
led the attack.
H o rsem en and fo o t soldiers charged tow ards th e centre o f the
Persian line, th e n suddenly tu rn e d rig h t to an area w h ere there
w ere no spears o r elephants. D ariu s’s h o rse m e n from the centre
rushed to m e e t th em , b u t they w ere unable to su rro u n d the
M acedonians as they had ho p ed . F ighting hard, th e M acedonians
drove th e m back.
A t the same tim e, the Persian chariots charged at the foot
30
soldiers in th e M aced o n ian centre. B u t A lex ander’s archers
m anaged to kill m any o f th e ch a rio t drivers before they reached
the soldiers. W h e n a ch ario t cam e close, th e M acedonians m oved
sideways and th e ch ario t, w h ic h co u ld n o t tu rn quickly, w en t
straight th ro u g h th e hole in th e line. T h e chariots w ere n o t causing
the dam age th at D arius had h o p e d for.
O n A lex an d er’s left, th e Persians broke th ro u g h the M acedonian
defences. B u t they did n o t use th e situation to their advantage.
Instead they w e n t in search o f th e Persian royal fam ily and trie d to
free D a riu s’s m other.
N o w A lexander to o k his chance. W h e n th e enem y h o rsem en
had ru sh ed to m e e t th e first M aced o n ian charge, they had left a
w eak p o in t in th e centre o f D a riu s’s line. A lexander attacked at this
p oint, passing th e elephants and g o in g straight tow ards the chario t
o f the Persian king. A lexander, it is said, th re w a spear at D arius,
b u t it m issed and killed his ch ario t driver instead. Soon, as at Issus,
D arius was ru sh in g from the battlefield in his chariot.
T his tim e A lexander did n o t w an t h im to escape. H e to o k 2,000
h o rsem en and h u rrie d after him . B u t th e dust m ade it difficult to
see, and m any Persians w ere try in g to follow th e ir king as well. In
the confusion, H ep h aistio n and m any o f A lex an d er’s o th e r friends
w ere h u rt. T h e M acedonians c o n tin u e d th e chase at high speed,
b u t D arius m an ag ed to get away.
W ith th e disappearance o f th e ir king, th e Persian soldiers w ere
soon defeated. As at Issus, e n o rm o u s n u m b ers o f Persians died. T h e
M acedonians to o lost m any m en, and m o re than a thousand
horses d ied in th e battle o r from th e ir race to catch D arius.
A lexander m arch ed th ro u g h rich farm land to Babylon. Its
g o v ern o r cam e to m e e t him , and offered h im th e city w ith o u t a
fight. A lex an d er en tered th e city gates in his chariot, riding
th ro u g h streets covered w ith flowers. T h e B abylonians, like the
Egyptians, had suffered 200 years o f u n p o p u lar Persian rule, and
w elcom ed a change enthusiastically. A lexander was careful n o t to
31
follow th e Persian habit o f insulting th e B abylonian gods. H e gave
gifts to th e great god Bel M arduk, and paid for the rebuilding o f
tem ples w h ic h had b een dam aged u n d e r th e Persians.
H e spent a few w eeks relaxing in th e great city w ith his army.
H e probably fo u n d tim e to visit the fam ous H a n g in g G ardens — a
park planted w ith trees and flowers o n m any different levels. Like
the M ausoleum at H alicarnassus, this was o n e o f the Seven
W onders o f th e W orld.
A lexander left B abylon to be ruled by its Persian governor, w h o
had fou g h t against th e M acedonians at G augam ela ju st a short
tim e before. M any p eople w ere surprised at this, th in k in g that only
G reek speakers should rule A lexander’s n ew em pire. B u t later there
w ere o th e r P ersian -b o rn governors.
T h e n ex t great city on A lexander’s ro u te east was Susa. T h e
clim ate there was so h o t, it was said, th at at m idday snakes could
n o t cross th e road for fear o f b ein g b u rn t by th e sun. B u t its people
gave A lexander a w arm w elcom e, and its great riches m ade it an
attractive destination. A fter sitting in th e royal seat o f gold in
D ariu s’s palace, A lexander to o k con tro l o f o n e and a h alf m illion
kilogram s o f gold. H is financial difficulties at th e start o f the w ar
w ere no w ju s t a m e m o ry
T h e n cam e Persepolis, in th e h eart o f Persia itself. It was natural
to expect the Persians to defend th e ir hom elan d . A lexander led a
small group o f h o rsem en and foot soldiers th ro u g h the m ountains
to defeat any Persian forces that w ere d efen d in g the m o u n tain
roads. T h e p ath was steep, narro w and covered in snow. A fter four
days’ clim b, th e M acedonians cam e to th e Persian Gates, a wall o f
rock in the m ou n tain s that m arked th e en tran ce to the Persian
hom eland. As they passed, they w ere attacked by an enem y arm y
w h ich was m u ch larger than th eir o w n small group. G reat stones
fell on top o f th e m from th e m o u n ta in heights, and they w ere shot
at o n all sides by Persian archers and stone-th ro w ers. A lexander
had no choice: he had to o rd er a retreat.
32
Great stones fe ll on top o f them from the mountain heights.
If A lexander left these Persians undefeated, they could attack his
m ain army, led by his se c o n d -in -c o m m a n d , P arm en io n , on its way
to Persepolis. T h e re was only o n e h o p e o f success, b u t it was very
dangerous. W ith h a lf his soldiers, A lexander follow ed a local guide
along a small p ath used only by animals and th e ir ow ners. At night,
as the w in d blew snow in th e ir faces, they ran th ro u g h the
m ountains. In th e early m o rn in g , they rejoined the m ain path
beyond the Persians’ position and to o k the Persians by surprise.
W ith M acedonians in front and b e h in d th em , th e Persians suffered
a terrib le defeat. O n ly a few escaped death.
Finally, in Ja n u a ry 330 b c , P ersepolis lay u n d efe n d e d .
A lexander’s soldiers m oved th ro u g h th e city, destroying everything
and everyone in th e ir path in th eir search for riches. For many, the
long jo u rn e y from E u ro p e was n o w well rew arded, as they found
extraordinary quantities o f gold and silver, jew ellery and expensive
clothes. B u t th e greatest riches w ere saved for th e M acedonian
king. A t Persepolis, A lexander found th ree m illion kilogram s o f
royal Persian gold. It to o k 15,000 anim als to m ove it, u n d e r
A lexander’s orders, to Susa.
A lexander chose a n ew g o v ern o r for Persepolis - a Persian
noblem an w hose fath er had been killed at th e G ranicus. It seem ed
that Persepolis was g o in g to receive sim ilar tre a tm e n t to B abylon
and Susa. T h e n , after a celebratory m eal, th e A thenian girlfriend o f
A lexander’s frien d P tolem y m ade a suggestion. A lexander should
b u rn the palace w h ere they w ere eating, she said, to punish the
Persians for b u rn in g th e A thenian A cropolis m any years before.
A lexander and his friends agreed, and soon th e historic palace o f
the kings o f Persia was in flames.
W hile A lexander was in Persepolis, D arius and ab o u t 10,000
soldiers w aited 700 kilom etres n o rth in E cbatana (present-day
H am adan). B u t w h e n A lexander led his arm y n o rth , D arius
ordered a retreat. First he planned to go far away to B actria (part
o f present-day Afghanistan); th en he d ecid ed to defend the
34
Caspian Gates, w h ich w ere m u ch closer. His m en w ere getting
annoyed w ith these changes o f plan. Eventually som e o f th em to o k
th eir k in g prisoner.
W h e n A lexander heard w h at had h ap p en ed , he follow ed as
quickly as he could. R a c in g th ro u g h th e desert, by day and night,
he finally caught up w ith the Persian soldiers. B u t th eir p riso n er
king was n o t w ith th em . T ired and th irsty after the lo n g and
unsuccessful chase, o n e o f A lexander’s officers left the road in
search o f w ater. By chance he fo u n d a dead body. It was K ing
D arius, m u rd ered by his o w n m en.
Exactly 150 years after K ing X erx es’s w ron g d o ings in A thens,
the rule o f th e Persian kings was at an end.
A lexander started w earin g th e G reat K in g ’s royal hat and
p u rp le-e d g e d clothes, m aking it clear to th e Persians that he was
now th e ir G reat K ing. It was a shock for th e M acedonians to see
th eir k in g in Persian clothes. T h e y did n o t und erstand w h y he
w anted to lo o k like th e enemy. T h e y had w on battles that no one
had ex p ected th em to w in, and had b e co m e rich beyond th eir
w ildest dream s. N o w th e ir th o u g h ts tu rn e d to hom e.
To his soldiers’ surprise, A lexander m ade n o plans to go back to
Europe. Instead he co n tin u ed to m arch east, and it is a sign o f his
extraordinary skills as a leader th at his soldiers agreed to follow.
C h ap ter 8 To th e E nds o f th e Earth
T h e first aim was to defeat Bessus, o n e o f D ariu s’s m urderers.

Bessus was n o w in B actria, calling h im self K ing o f Asia. G eneral
P arm en io n , A lex an d er’s seco n d -in -c o m m a n d , stayed in Ecbatana
w ith 25 ,000 m en. C leitus, w h o had saved A lexander’s life at the
B attle o f th e G ranicus, was given 6,000 foot soldiers and was told
to pro tect th e gold in th e city. T h e o th e r 32,000 soldiers in the
M acedo n ian arm y m arched w ith A lexander towards Bactria.
35
T h e q u iet com plaints ab o u t A lexanders n ew Persian habits now
grew m o re serious. A g ro u p o f M acedonians p lan n ed to m u rd er
th eir king. Philotas, son o f G eneral P arm en io n and co m m an d er o f
the M aced o n ian h o rsem en , was told ab o u t these plans b u t failed
to w arn A lexander. W h e n the m u rd e r plans w ere eventually
k now n, P hilotas s earlier silence seem ed strange. People began to
w o n d er i f th e m u rd e r h ad b een his idea. Philotas was found guilty
and killed.
We k n o w th at Philotas was a pow erful co m m a n d e r w h o had
openly criticized A lexander. W e do n o t k n o w i f he was really
responsible for th e m u rd e r plans. N ow , th o u g h , A lexander had real
cause to w orry, because Philotas’s father, G eneral P arm enion,
controlled h alf o f th e arm y at th e tim e o f his so n ’s death. It was
possible that P arm en io n w o u ld tu rn against A lexander in anger at
the treatm en t o f his son; it was even possible that P arm enion
himself had m ade th e plans to m u rd er A lexander.
A lexander could n o t afford to w ait and see w h at P arm enion
w ould do. Instead, he organized the m u rd e r o f this great general,
w h o had b een such an im p o rta n t c o m m a n d e r in the M acedonian
arm y since th e days o f A lexander’s father, K ing Philip.
A fter this, A lexander was very careful. H is soldiers’ letters to
th eir families w ere secretly opened. A special g ro u p o f soldiers was
form ed o f p eople w h o had criticized th e king. In this way, their
dangerous views could n o t spread to o th e r soldiers w h o w ere still
loyal to A lexander. In future battles these soldiers fo u g ht especially
bravely, to prove th at they deserved to stay w ith th e arm y and n o t
be left behind.
A fter these unpleasant events, the M acedonians m arched again
tow ards B actria. T h e ir ro u te to o k th e m straight over the
m ountains n o w called the H in d u K ush (‘K iller o f H in d u s’). T hey
clim bed 3,000 m etres th ro u g h snow and ice. T h e arm y suffered
terribly from cold and hunger, and fo u n d it difficult to breathe in
the thin air. A lexander w alked beside his soldiers, helping m en
36
w h o had fallen. T h e horses suffered m ost, and w ere eventually
killed and eaten —u n co o k ed , as n o firew ood could be fo u n d u n d er
the thick blanket o f snow.
Finally they arrived in Bactria. Bessus, w h o had n o t expected
A lexander’s w in te r crossing o f th e H in d u K ush, decided to retreat
beyond th e R iv e r O xus. M ost o f his soldiers left his army, annoyed
that he did n o t w ant to stand and fight. A lexander to o k B actria’s
capital city, Bactra, th e n m arched in th e footsteps o f the retreating
Bessus.
Two m o n th s before, his m en w ere freezing. N o w they had to
suffer th e terrib le heat o f a stony desert. T h e y travelled eighty
kilom etres w ith alm ost n o water. A lexander shared th eir suffering,
refusing to d rin k a small cup o f w ater that had b een found for him .
Soon they reached th e R iv e r O xus.
Bessus had destroyed all the bridges and boats, so A lexander
ordered his m e n to fill th e ir leath er tent-bags w ith dried grass and
use th e m to sail across th e w ide river.
O n th e far side, they discovered that, like D arius before him ,
Bessus had b e e n taken p riso n er by his o w n m en. N o w he was
given to A lexander. A lexander sent h im back to Ecbatana, w here
his ears and nose w ere cu t o ff and he was later killed. T his was the
traditional Persian p u n ish m en t for killing a king. To please his new
Persian allies, A lexander was p u n ish in g th e m u rd erer o f D arius,
w h o he h im self had w an ted to kill for so m any years.
A lexander n o w learn t o f trouble in th e lands that he had already
con q u ered . T h e p eo p le o f Sogdiana (present-day U zbekistan) and
B actria w ere ang ry at th e way that A lex an d er’s h u n g ry arm y had
taken fo o d and anim als from th e ir farm s, and started fighting for
th eir in d ep en d en ce.
T h e re w ere sieges in seven cities. E ventually the cities w ere
taken, th e enem y soldiers killed, and the w o m e n and children sold
into slavery. T h e n new s cam e o f trouble at the city o f M aracanda
(now S am ark an d ). The M a c e d o n ia n soldiers th ere w ere
37
su rro u n d ed by an enem y siege. A lexander h ad to send an arm y to
help them . B u t th e Scythians o n th e far side o f the R iv e r Jaxartes
seem ed dangerous too. H e decided to send only a small force to
M aracanda, and to use his m ain arm y to defeat the Scythians.
His o w n battle against th e Scythians was successful, and th eir
leaders w ere so o n asking for peace. B u t in M aracanda, the situation
w e n t from bad to w orse. T h e M acedonians w ere m e t by enem y
horsem en. W ith o u t A lexander to lead th em , they fo ught badly,
w ere forced o n to a river island and w ere killed. M o re than 2,000
m en w ere lost. It was th e first real defeat that A lex an der’s arm y had
suffered.
A lexander spent th e su m m er o f 328 b c try in g to w in back
control o f Sogdiana. B efore he had fully succeeded, a terrible
argum en t started over d in n e r one night. It was b etw een A lexander
and C leitus, th e m an w h o had saved A lex an d er’s life at the Battle
o f the G ranicus. It is possible that th e arg u m en t was about
A lexander’s attitu d e to his old er com m anders, and to his dead
father P h ilip ’s m em ory. Since his visit to Siw ah, A lexander believed
that he was th e son o f th e g od Zeus; perhaps C leitus th o u g h t that
A lexander was forg ettin g the im p o rtan ce o f his h u m a n father.
C ertainly m any insults w ere exchanged, an d in th e end A lexander
killed C leitus w ith a spear.
In the m o rn in g , A lexander felt terrib le a b o u t losing his tem p e r
so violently. H e w e n t to his te n t and refused to com e o u t for
several days. B u t th e m u rd er could n o t be u n d o n e. A fter this, it
seems likely that his relationship w ith his com m anders was
different. C leitus had b een killed because h e had criticized the
king. N o b o d y else w an ted to die for th e sam e reason.
T h e war, th o u g h , started to go b e tte r after this. T h e Sogdians,
led by O xyartes, w aited b e h in d steep hilltop defences. T h ey told
A lexander that they w ou ld only b eco m e his allies if he could find
soldiers w ith w ings. Instead, he chose 300 soldiers to clim b the
rockface d u rin g th e night, ju s t like m o d e rn rock clim bers. T h ey
38
M any insults were exchanged.
clim bed to a p o sitio n above th e Sogdians. W h e n the Sogdians
w oke up and saw th e rock clim bers, they th o u g h t for a m o m e n t
th at the M a c e d o n ia n arm y really h ad g ro w n wings. T h ey
im m ediately accep ted defeat and w ere taken prisoner.
A m ong th e p riso n e rs was O x y a rte s’s b eau tiful d au g h te r
R oxane. A lex an d er fell in love w ith h e r and soon they w ere
m arried. Politically, this was a g o o d idea too. O xyartes was a
pow erful n o b lem an in Sogdiana, and n o w he had a strong reason
to stay loyal to A lexander.
O th ers w ere less loyal. A lexander soon learn t o f an o th e r plan to
m u rd er him . C allisthenes, w h o was a pup il an d close relative o f
A ristotle and was w ritin g the history o f A lex ander’s heroic
adventures, was blam ed for th e plan and killed.
B eyond B actria lay India (present-day Pakistan as well as India).
Very few G reeks h ad ever b een there, b u t m any strange stories
w ere told o f this m ysterious land. People said th at it was rich in
gold, w h ich was d u g by en o rm o u s insects, an d that Indian w ool
grew on trees. (C o tto n was n o t k n o w n in th e -M editerranean area
at that tim e.) T h e y said that p eople lived for 200 years; that there
was a tribe o f o n e -fo o te d m en; and that to th e east o f India lay the
E astern O cean , th e edge o f the w orld.
A lexander led his arm y east in to India, m o re for the adventure
than to build an em pire. By now, th e soldiers w ere m ostly Asian,
n o t E uropean: Asian G reeks from the eastern M ed iterran ean , and
B actrian, Sogdian and Scythian h o rsem en and archers. B ut his
m ost im p o rta n t com m an d ers w ere his loyal ch ild h o o d friends,
including Perdiccas, P to lem y and Seleucus. His best friend,
H ephaistion, was n o w his se c o n d -in -co m m an d .
A t first A lexander was surprised by th e w arm w elcom e that he
was given. A g ro u p o f Indian kings asked to be his allies and sent
him tw enty-five elephants to use in battle. B u t o th e r tribes w ere
n o t as w elcom ing. O n e after the other, th e ir cities w ere taken
and th eir p eo p le killed, until m ost o f th e local kings accepted
40
A lexander as th e ir conqueror. If they did this, they w ere allow ed
to c o n tin u e th e ir ru le in peace.
B ut o n e king, Porus, preferred to fight. H e p o sitioned his arm y
and m o re th an a h u n d re d w ar elephants o n th e far bank o f the
R iv e r H ydaspes. A lexander’s horses w ere frig h ten ed o f elephants,
and because it was the rainy season th e river was very deep and
fast. A lexander co u ld n o t cross th e riv er and h o p e for an easy
battle.
Every night, A lex an d er’s soldiers p re te n d e d to start an attack,
shoutin g th e M aced o n ian w ar cry ‘Alalalalai’. Every night, P o ru s’s
m en g o t ready to defend them selves, b u t as soon as the enem y had
got o u t o f bed, A lexander stopped his ‘attack ’. S oon P o rus’s m en
w ere suffering badly from to o little sleep. Porus saw that A lexander
had collected e n o u g h food to feed his m e n until the end o f the
rainy season, and decided that in fact he was n o t planning to cross
the river for m any m on th s. H e ordered his m en n o t to listen to the
nightly M aced o n ian warcries.
T h e n A lex an d er attacked. O n a rainy night, he sailed across the
river ab o u t tw enty-five kilom etres away from the m ain arm ies. His
boats landed o n an island in the m iddle o f th e river, n o t on the tar
bank. By th e tim e th e m istake was discovered, it was alm ost light.
T h ere was n o tim e to go back to th e boats. Instead, A lexander
clim bed o n to th e back o f his horse Bucephalas, w h o w alked the
rest o f th e crossing w ith w ater up to his shoulders. A lexander’s
soldiers follow ed, som e o n horseback an d som e o n foot. S oon the
fastest o f P o ru s’s soldiers arrived, b u t th e ir chariots got stuck in
m ud and they w ere quickly defeated. T h e n A lexander m arched on
P orus’s m ain army, tw enty-five kilom etres away.
At th e front o f P o ru s’s battle line w ere th e elephants. A lexander’s
friends H ep h aistio n and Perdiccas led h o rsem en to the far left o f
the line, b ey o n d th e elephants, and P o ru s’s m en m oved to m eet
th e ir attack. T h e n A lexander sent soldiers to attack th eir right,
w h ich was alm ost u n d efended. S o o n P o ru s’s arm y was in a state o f
41
confusion, and m any fighters used th e ir elephants for protection.
W hile A lex an d er’s archers sh o t at th e elep h an ts’ drivers, his foot
soldiers cut at th e ir legs. T h e elephants w e n t m ad, p icking m en up
and th ro w in g th e m violently to th e g ro u n d . T h e n , frightened and
tired, they w alked slowly backw ards. T h e battle had ended.
For A lexander, th ere was ju st o n e sad result o f the battle.
Bucephalas was h u rt by P orus’s chariots soon after he had crossed
the river. A few h o u rs later, he died. A lexander built a n ew city on
the banks o f the river and called it B ucephala, in m em o ry o f his
m uch-loved horse.
A lexander’s arm y c o n tin u e d east, th ro u g h the m ud o f the
P u n jab ’s rainy season. W h e n rivers broke th e ir banks, the m en had
to escape th e w ater in local hilltop villages. T h e snakes o f the area
did the same, and m any m e n died from th e p oisonous bites o f
snakes hid in g in tents, clothes and c o o k in g pots.
T h ey reached th e banks o f th e R iv e r H yphasis, and at this p o in t
a local k in g gave A lexander som e u n w elco m e in fo rm ation. T h e y
w ere still a lo n g way from th e E astern O cean , w h ich for Greeks
m eant the edge o f th e w orld. To get there, they had to cross the
R iv e r G anges, m o re than five kilom etres w ide, and fight the
pow erful K ing o f M aghada and his 4,000 elephants.
A lexander was n o t especially w o rrie d by this news. Fie had
defeated elephants before, and destroyed an em pire greater than
M aghada’s. H e called his m en to g eth er and told th em ab o u t the
adventures and achievem ents th at the futu re held.
B u t his m e n g reeted his w ords w ith silence. Som e o f th em had
m arched 18,000 kilom etres since they h ad first arrived in Asia.
T h e y had n o t seen th eir families for eig h t lo n g years. A nd after
three terrib le m o n th s o f rain, they w ere m uddy, w et and tired.
T h ey did n o t w ant to cross the Hyphasis and attack a n o th er great
em pire. T h e y w an ted to go hom e.
Finally, o n e o f th e co m m anders told A lexander th eir feelings.
Soon all th e co m m anders refused to c o n tin u e east. T h e first
42
personal defeat in A lexanders life cam e from his ow n army. H e
realized th at he had no choice. M any o f his m e n had tears in th eir
eyes as they heard the g o o d news: A lexander was going to lead
th em hom e.
In his ten t, A lexander was n o t as happy as his m en. His defeat
had been very public, and it h u rt h im greatly. T h ere was a
p h iloso p h er called A naxarchus w h o was travelling w ith the army.
H e trie d to m ake A lexander feel better. B u t according to legend,
A lexander cried w h en A naxarchus talked ab o u t the n u m b e r o f
worlds b eyond th e stars. H e explained his tears:‘T h e re are so m any
worlds, and I have n o t yet c o n q u ered even one.’
C hap ter 9 T h e Last Years
A lexander refused to go back th e way th at h e had com e. H is taste

for adventure was satisfied a little w h e n his m e n agreed, instead, to
build boats. T h e y plan n ed to follow th e H ydaspes and Indus rivers
south to th e A rabian Sea.
T h e jo u rn e y started well, b u t it was difficult to sail so m any
boats on unfam iliar w aters. W h e n th e river was to o fast, the boats
lost control, and m any crashed in to each o th e r and broke. O n one
occasion, A lexander had to swim for his life.
A lexander w an ted to c o n q u e r all th e tribes that he passed.
T h e M alloi, w h o lived in and aro u n d th e city o f M ultan, caused
him the m ost trouble. W ith a small force, A lexander surro u n d ed
M ultan. T h e n he led an attack o n th e city walls. H e clim bed a
ladder an d ju m p e d d o w n inside th e city. B u t th e enem y m anaged
to break th e rest o f th e M acedonian ladders, and only three o f his
bodyguards w ere able to follow him . T h e y fought bravely, b u t they
w ere attacked o n th ree sides. O th e r M acedonians arrived as
quickly as they could, clim bing o n each o th e r’s shoulders to get to
the top o f th e walls. B u t w h e n they reached th eir king, he had a
43
m etre-lo n g arrow deep in his chest. T h e y defeated his attackers,
th en carried h im away o n his shield, b u t they had little hope that
he w ould live.
T h e M alloi w ere killed — m en, w o m e n and children — and the
o th e r tribes ru sh ed to accept defeat peacefully. B u t new s reached
the m ain arm y o n th e river that A lexander was dead. W h e n he
finally arrived, n o t only alive b u t able to rid e and walk, they cried
w ith happiness. T h e y th o u g h t th at A lexander m ust truly be
p rotected by th e gods.
A lexander’s soldiers fo u g h t b loody battles against the Brahm ins,
w h ich b ro u g h t th e total n u m b e r o f Indian dead in the last six
m onths to a q u a rte r o f a m illion. T h e n th e rainy season began
again, and there w ere terrib le storm s. W h e n they finally reached
the A rabian Sea, they gave thanks to th e gods. T h e y did n o t
k n o w that the m ost difficult p art o f th e ir jo u rn e y was still ahead
o f them .
Two h u n d re d years before, th e Persian k in g C yrus the G reat had
lost a w h o le arm y in th e G edrosian D esert. T h e desert, n o w called
the M akran, covers 62,000 square kilom etres o f present-day
so u th ern Pakistan an d Iran. A nd th eir ro u te led across it.
A lexander led a force by land, carrying w ater for the m en w h o
sailed the ships. A lex an d er’s frien d N earchus was in charge o f the
ships, w h ich b ro u g h t food for th e land army. It was im possible to
pull en o u g h food for everyone th ro u g h th e sand o f the desert. T h e
sailors and soldiers n eed ed each other.
B ut the storm s o f th e rainy season delayed the ships after
A lexander’s arm y h ad already entered th e desert. T h e n the local
people started fighting, and the ships w ere unable to take on board
all the food th at they needed.
In the desert, th e sand was deep and th e soldiers’ legs sank into
it. It had b een b lo w n in to steep m ou n tain s and valleys, so every
kilom etre felt like ten. O ccasionally they cam e to a w aterin g -
place. T h ere, thirsty m en dived in to th e w ater and drank so
44
They carried him away on his shield.
greedily th at they died. T h e ex pected rains cam e late, and w h en
they did, they arrived very forcefully. M ost o f th e w om en, children
and animals follow ing th e arm y w ere w ashed away and killed. T h e
G edrosian D esert was a hell o n earth.
S oon th e m e n started to die o f hunger. I f they left the arm y in
search o f food, they w ere likely to be killed by poisonous plants o r
snakes. T h e n they discovered that th e ir guides had lost th eir way.
Eventually, eig h t w eeks after e n te rin g th e desert, they cam e o u t on
the o th e r side. B u t th e desert had proved a m u c h stronger enem y
than an army. Tens o f thousands o f m en , w o m e n an d children had
died on th e m arch.
A t this tim e, N earch u s and th e ships w ere only ju st leaving
India. T h e y to o w ere h u n g ry and thirsty o n th e ir jo u rn ey , b u t
N earchus led th em well and they lost few m en. Eventually, the
ships reached C arm an ia (in present-day so u th e rn Iran), on the far
side o f the desert, and A lexander was th ere to w elcom e them .
T h ere w ere w ild celebrations. Sailors and soldiers w ere to g eth e r
again, and they k n ew th at they w ere lucky to be alive.
W h e n A lexander had m arched over th e H in d u Kush, few
Persians had believed that he w o u ld ever re tu rn . Since then, there
had b een stories that he had died in M u ltan o r in the G edrosian
D esert. T h e y w ere very surprised w h e n he arrived in C arm ania, an
easy m arch from Persepolis.
Few o f th e co n q u ered lands had stayed loyal in the six years
since the Battle o f G augam ela. Som e governors had becom e
disloyal as soon as A lexander had left. O th ers, including the
g o verno r o f B abylon and Q u e e n Ada o f C aria, had died o f illness
o r in battle, and disloyal m en had taken th e ir place. M any G reeks
and M acedonians had b een left as th e p o p u latio n s o f A lexander’s
n ew cities; som e had h ated th eir n ew life and killed th eir
governors. A nd in Ecbatana, a g roup o f A lex an d er’s generals had
behaved very badly, insulting the local religion and attacking the
local noblew om en.
46
A lexander p u n ish ed his disloyal governors an d generals w ith
death. H e chose n ew governors from a m o n g his E uropean
com m anders; to o few o f his Persian ap p o in tm en ts had b e en a
success.
A lexander n e x t plan n ed a great w e d d in g celebration, choosing
Persian wives for n in ety o f his officers. H e h im self was already
m arried to R o x an e, b u t he d ecided to follow royal M acedonian
tradition and take tw o m ore wives: th e eldest daughters o f Persia’s
m ost recen t kings, D arius and A rtaxerxes. H e asked his best friend,
H ep h a istio n , to m a rry D a riu s ’s y o u n g e r d au ghter, so th at
H ep h aistio n ’s children could be his o w n nephew s. T h e w eddings
w ere celebrated for five days, in an e n o rm o u s te n t in Susa that had
been rich ly d eco rated w ith gold and jew els. A lexander had taken
the pow er o f g o v ern m en t away from th e Persians; no w he was
including th e m in his em pire in a n o th e r way.
M ore and m ore soldiers from th e eastern h alf o f the em pire
w ere jo in in g A lex an d er’s army. W h e n he asked his oldest
M acedonian soldiers to go ho m e, they felt insulted that he did n o t
need th e m any m ore. A fter te n years in Asia, they no w w an ted to
stay and enjoy th e lands that they had co n q u ered . T hey refused to
leave.
T h e rest o f th e M acedonian soldiers su p p o rted them . ‘If you
send th e old soldiers ho m e, you m ust send us all,’ they told
A lexander. B u t A lex an d er’s decision was final, and he said that they
could all go h o m e if they w ished; Persians w ould take th e ir place
in his army. Im m ediately the M acedonians changed th eir m inds.
T hey asked A lexander to forgive th em . T h e y w anted him to send
the old soldiers h o m e, b u t allow th e rest o f th e m to stay. T h e
problem was solved, and A lexander o rganized a great d in n er to
celebrate th e friendly relationship b etw een M acedonians and
Persians.
A lexander and his friends spent th e n e x t few m onths relaxing
and b e in g e n te rta in e d by th eatre p erfo rm an ces and sports
47
com petitions. B ut H ep h aistio n caught a fever, becam e ill and died.
His death was a te rrib le shock to his lifelong friend and king. For
m any w eeks he was unable to th in k ab o u t an y th ing else.
Slowly A lexander re tu rn e d to his usual business. H e planned to
send ships and a land arm y aro u n d th e coast o f A rabia from Persia
to Egypt. O th e r ships w ere g oing to ch eck if th e Caspian Sea was
part o f a n o rth e rn ocean o r jo in e d th e B lack Sea; although its
so u th ern coast was p art o f th e em pire, n o o n e seem ed to k n o w at
that tim e that th e C aspian Sea was actually a lake.
B u t in B abylon, A lexander suddenly becam e ill. Possibly he had
b een poiso n ed by his officers; probably he had caught a disease
carried by insects w hile he was travelling on B abylon’s waterways.
H e had a high fever, and after a w eek he co u ld n o t talk. O n the
te n th day, his c o u rt and arm y w ere given th e unthinkable news:
A lexander th e G reat was dead.
C hap ter 10 A fter A lex a n d er
A lthough A lex an d er’s achievem ents h ad spread G reek custom s far

into Asia, th e G reeks in E u ro p e w ere pleased ab o u t his death and
decided to fight for th e ir indep en d en ce. To th em , he was still a
foreigner. B u t th e Persians, w h o had lost an em pire and hundreds
ot thousands o f m en because o f A lexander, w ere very upset w hen
they heard that he had died. K ing D a riu s’s m o th er, w h o had
becom e A lex an d er’s p riso n e r after th e B attle o f Issus, stopped
eating w h e n she heard th e new s, and was dead h erself five days
later. A lexander had b eco m e the Persians’ G reat K ing, w hose rule
follow ed the traditions o f th e past. H e had b een th e ir friend as well
as th e ir conqu ero r. A nd, rightly, they feared a future w ith o u t him .
A lexander died w ith n o close m ale relative ex cept his b ro th er
A rrhidaeus, w h o had learn in g difficulties. B u t R o x an e, A lexander’s
first wife, was soon g o in g to have a baby. A lexander’s friends
48
decided to m ake th e u n b o rn child th e n e x t king, if the baby was
a boy. A lex an d ers frien d Perdiccas, w h o had b een his sec o n d -in -
co m m an d after th e death o f H ep h aistio n and h ad royal b lood
him self, w o u ld rule until the baby g rew up.
B u t th e c o m m o n soldiers w an ted A rrhidaeus as th e ir king, as he
was fully M aced o n ian and R o x a n e ’s baby h ad Asian blood. Less
than a w eek after A lexander’s death, fighting began. It was only
stopped w h e n Perdiccas ordered th e d eath o f th irty o f the soldiers’
leaders and they w ere th ro w n to th e elephants. It was agreed that
rule w o u ld be shared b etw een R o x a n e ’s baby and A rrhidaeus.
T h e re w ere m any years o f con fu sio n in th e em pire that
A lexander had built. T h e story o f A lex an d er’s dead body is typical
o f the tim es. It was believed th at th e b o d y ’s final resting place
w ould b rin g g o o d luck to the local people. Perdiccas ordered his
m en to take it from B abylon to M aced o n ia in a b o x o f gold. B ut
Ptolemy, w h o h ad b een a close frien d o f A lexander and had
recently m ade h im self k in g o f an in d e p e n d e n t E gypt, to o k the
body in secret to E gyptian A lexandria, w h ere it stayed for
hundreds o f years.
D u rin g th e years after A lexander’s death, R o x an e poisoned
A lexander’s o th e r wives to p ro tect th e p o w er o f h e r baby son, also
called A lexander. Perdiccas ruled for a sh o rt tim e, until he was
m u rdered by his bodyguards. A lex an d er’s m ost loyal com m anders
all w an ted p o w er for them selves, and they w ere w illing to m u rd er
people to get it.
A n tip ater was th e general w h o had contro lled th e M acedonian
arm y in E u ro p e w h ile A lexander was in Asia. W h e n A ntipater died
o f old age, his son C assander to o k control o f M acedonia.
A lex an d e r’s m o th e r, O lym pias, was officially in charge of
M acedo n ia an d trie d to p ro tect h e r pow er. She m urdered K ing
A rrhidaeus, h e r h u sb an d ’s son and A lex an d er’s half-brother, and
defended h erself in th e M aced o n ian to w n o fP y d n a .B u t C assander
p u t the to w n u n d e r siege. A fter nine m o n th s she had no food, and
49
she died proudly. C assander th en killed R o x a n e and h er son, w h o
w ere visiting G reece, and m ade h im self K in g o f M acedonia.
T h e M acedonians soon sold th e lands that A lexander had
co n q u ered in India; they received 500 elephants for them . M any
years later, these lands w ere re co n q u ered by th e G reek-speaking
kings o f B actria, w hose fam ily had b een started by one o f
A lexand er’s M aced o n ian governors.
A lter years o f fighting, tw o o f A le x a n d e r’s co m m anders
controlled m ost o f his em pire. P tolem y was K ing o f E gypt and
Seleucus k in g o f th e Asian em pire. T h e families o f b o th m en stayed
in pow er until th e ir lands w ere c o n q u ered by th e R o m a n s in the
first cen tu ry b c .
All over A lex an d er’s em pire, G reek-style cities had b een built.
T h e ir p opulations w ere m ostly E uro p ean , and becam e perhaps
m ore G reek in th e ir habits as th e years passed. In som e areas, they
preferred to m a rry th e ir sister, niece o r g ran d d au g h ter than to jo in
th eir fam ily w ith th e foreigners th at su rro u n d e d them . Each city
had a gym nasium , and held spo rtin g co m p etitio n s and theatre
perform ances. In A fghanistan, buildings and w orks o f art have been
discovered w h ic h co p ied exactly th e artistic styles o f G reece. T h e
w orks o f H o m er, Plato and A ristotle w ere read and enjoyed in
India and even across the sea in Sri Lanka.
T h e greatest o f A lex an d er’s n ew cities was A lexandria, the
capital o f E gypt u n d e r th e P tolem aic kings. W h ile m any parts o f
A lexander’s em pire suffered from c o n tin u e d fighting, E gypt lived
in peace and grew in pow er. Its eco n o m y was very successful; from
A lexandria, ships to o k paper, m edicines, jew ellery and art all over
the k n o w n w orld.
T h e P tolem aic kings m ixed G reek custom s w ith E gyptian
traditions, and built tem ples to b o th G reek and E gyptian gods.
T h e y w ere very interested in literature, p hilosophy and science,
and invited th e m ost fam ous w riters o f th e ir age to live in
A lexandria. O u t o f this collection o f g reat m e n g rew a great idea:
50
a library that b ro u g h t to g eth er all G reek kno w led g e and inclu d ed
every b o o k that had ever b een w ritte n . A t its largest, this library
held 50,000 books - n o t a lo t com p ared to th e great m o d e rn
libraries, b u t in a w orld before p rin tin g m achines this was an
extraordinary num ber.
A m o n g these boo k s was a g ro w in g collectio n o f histories o f
A lexanders life. S om e o f th em w ere interested in the facts; others
told rom antic stories that w ere com pletely u n tru e. T h e y said that
he and his w arhorse Bucephalas each had tw o h o rn s on th eir
heads. T h e y to ld o f strange flying m achines, a Valley o f D iam onds,
and the secret o f im m ortality. A lex an d ers legend was told from
Iceland to C h in a; in death he travelled far b eyond the borders o f
his o w n em pire.
O v e r th e years, interest in A lexander has b e e n show n in m any
different ways. H e appears in th e Book o f Daniel, w h ich was w ritte n
in H eb re w in th e second cen tu ry b c and n o w form s part o f the
C hristian Bible. H e was the hero o f Julius Caesar, R o m e ’s greatest
general. T h e Italian artist M ichelangelo created a square in R o m e
to lo o k like A lex an d er’s fam ous shield. T h e F rench ru ler N a p o leo n
used to read ab o u t A lexander in b e d every night. In the early
1900s, tribal kings in A fghanistan still w e n t in to battle carrying a
red flag w h ich , according to th e ir legends, had belonged to
A lexander. A n d in 2004, A lex an d er’s extraordinary story was
b ro u g h t to life in a $155 m illion H o lly w o o d film. It starred C o lin
Farrell as A lexander and was w atch ed in cinem as all around the
w orld. A lex an d er th e G reat m ay be m ore fam ous in the tw en ty -
first ce n tu ry than he ever was.
ACTIVITIES
Chapter 1
Before you read

1 What do you know about Alexander the Great? List five facts. Then
read the Introduction to the book.
2 What do you know about the Greeks who lived more than 2,000
years ago? Look at the Word List at the back o f the book. Then
discuss w hat you know about:
a their heroes, gods and legends
b their tem ples
c their philosophy and literature
d their political life
e their wars
f their sports
While you read

3 Write the name of:
a a Persian king
b a dem ocratic Greek city-state
c the king o f the Greek gods
d a religious centre in Greece
e a city that was fam ous fo r sport
f the capital city o f Macedonia
A fte r you read

4 Answer these questions.
a Did many Greek people live outside the m odern-day country of
Greece?
b Had the Greeks and the Persians ever fought before the tim e of
Alexander the Great?
c Were the different Greek states norm ally at peace with each
other?
d What tw o differences were there between the people o f southern
Greece and the Macedonians?
52
C hapter 2
Before you read

5 You are going to read about Alexander’s early life. Guess w hich of
these he did before he was eighteen:
a travelled to Persia
b had lessons with his friends
c hunted w ith dogs
d rode horses
e fought in battles
f got married
6 Discuss this question with other students:
Are people born great, or do their experiences in childhood make
them great?
While you read

7 Match the names with their relationship to Alexander.
a Philip j his father’s new wife
b Olympias ii his father
c Bucephalas iii his best friend
d A ristotle iv his horse
e Hephaistion V his teacher
f Eurydice vi his m other
A fter you read

8 W hat were P hilip’s achievem ents as ruler o f Macedonia?
9 Discuss w hether you w ould like A ristotle as your teacher.
10 W hy did these people have to leave Macedonia?
a Olympias b Alexander’s friends
11 If som eone paid the bodyguard to kill Philip, who do you think that
person was? Discuss the possible guilty people and their reasons.
12 Work with another student. You are both im portant people in the
M acedonian governm ent and you need to choose a new king. Talk
about A lexander’s character and experience. Would he be a good
king?
53
Chapters 3 - 4
Before you read

13 You are going to read about A lexander’s first years as king. Guess
which o f these he did:
a punished the person who ordered his father’s death
b killed mem bers of his own family
c fought the Greeks
d fought the Persians
While you read

14 Are these sentences true (T) or false (F)?
a Alexander was the only possible king of Macedonia
after the death of his father,
b Neighbouring Greek cities voted to destroy Thebes,
c Alexander met Achilles at Troy,
d Memnon was Alexander’s second-in-com m and,
e There were more Greeks in the Persian arm y than in
Alexander's army,
f Queen Ada fought against Alexander at Halicarnassus.
A fte r you read

15 What happened at these places?
a Thessaly
b Troy
c the River Granicus
d Gordium
16 Discuss w hy Achilles was Alexander’s favourite hero from Greek
legend.
17 Work with another student. Imagine that you are Greek people
living at the tim e of Alexander. Have a discussion and give reasons
for your opinions.
Student A You think Alexander is a great king and a hero.
S tudent B: You think Alexander is a terrible king and a bloodthirsty
murderer.
54
Chapters 5 - 6
Before you read

18 Discuss these questions. If you cannot answer them , find
inform ation in books or on the Internet.
a In Chapter 5, Alexander fights against Darius III, king of Persia.
Where was Persia? What do you know about the Persians, their
empire and their kings?
b In C hapter 6, Alexander goes to Egypt. W hat do you know about
the history of Egypt?
19 W hat dangers do people meet when they travel across a desert?
While you read

20 Match the questions with the answers.
Where did Alexander:
a nearly die of a fever? i Libya
b see King Darius for the first time? ii Tarsus
c build a road across the sea? iii Issus
d build a new city? iv Egypt
e nearly die in the desert? v Tyre
A fte r you read

21 Which army, A lexander’s or Darius’s:
a was led by Memnon on the Greek islands?
b was bigger?
c had more women, children and servants with it?
d w on the Battle of Issus?
22 Which of these people and gods did Alexander behave cruelly to?
a his doctor, Philip
b King Darius’s wife and mother
c the people of Tyre
d King Batis of Gaza
e the Egyptian gods
23 W hy did Alexander go to Siwah? In w hat way was he different after
his visit there?
55
C hapter 7
Before you read

24 In this chapter there is another big battle between the armies of
Alexander and Darius. Guess the answers to these questions.
a W ho wins the battle?
b How does Alexander behave tow ards Persian people and
buildings after the battle?
c W hat happens to King Darius?
While you read

25 Com plete the sentences.
a Alexander and Darius fought again at the great Battle of
b The people o f ........................... were happy to welcom e Alexander

to their city.
c There w a s ..........................on the ground when Alexander fought
the Persians in the mountains near Persepolis.
d At Persepolis, Alexander found three million kilograms of
e A le x a n d e r...........................the palace at Persepolis.

f The Persians t o o k ............................prisoner and then killed him.
A fte r you read

26 A t Gaugamela, why did Alexander leave the battlefield before the
end o f the battle?
27 Work with another student. Imagine that you are tw o o f Darius’s
soldiers.
S tudent A: You are angry about your king’s mistakes. Tell your
friend w hy Darius deserves to die.
S tudent B: You are loyal to your king. Explain w hy you do not
want him to be killed.
28 Discuss the advantages and disadvantages o f A lexander’s decision
to wear Persian clothes and to give im portant political appointm ents
to Persian people.
56
Chapter 8
Before you read

29 Alexander marched east through present-day Afghanistan, Pakistan
and India. Do you think anyone defeated him in that time? W hy did
he eventually turn back?
While you read

30 Tick / the problems that Alexander faced in this chapter.
a illness f plans to kill him
b the death o f his mother g a forest fire
c very cold weather h hungry soldiers
d very hot weather i elephants
e very w et weather j snakes
A fter you read

31 Who were they? W hat happened to them in this chapter?
a Bessus b Parmenion c Roxane d Bucephalas
32 How did Alexander:
a find out w hich o f his soldiers were disloyal?
b cross the River Oxus?
c make a surprise attack on Porus’s army?
33 Imagine that you are Alexander’s court historians. You know that
Alexander only wants you to w rite about his successes and the
good things in his life. Discuss w hich of these people and places to
include in your history, and w hich to leave out.
Philotas the Hindu Kush Maracanda Cleitus Oxyartes
Callisthenes Porus
34 Work with another student. Imagine that you are beside the River
Hyphasis in India. A ct out this conversation.
S tudent A: You are one of A lexander’s comm anders. Explain
(politely!) why you and your soldiers are angry with
him and why you w ant to go home.
S tudent B\ You are Alexander. Give reasons for your past
behaviour and explain w hy you think the army should
continue east.
57
Chapters 9 -1 0
Before you read

35 Discuss these questions. If you do not know the answers, guess,
a How did Alexander die?
b What happened to his empire after his death?
While you read

36 Put these events in the correct order, 1-6.
a Tens o f thousands o f Alexander’s soldiers died,
b The Romans conquered much of A lexander’s empire,
c Hephaistion died,
d Alexander was shot with an arrow,
e Alexander and Roxane’s baby was born,
f Alexander died.
A fte r you read

37 Why does the book describe the Gedrosian Desert as a ‘hell on
earth’?
38 Was the news that Alexander was leaving India and returning to
Persia good news or bad news fo r these people? W hy/W hy not?
a the Indians b the rulers of Caria and Babylon
39 Work with another student. Imagine that you are officers in
Alexander’s army. You have been told that you will be married
to Persian women. Have a discussion and give reasons for your
opinions.
S tudent A: You are pleased. You think the marriage will be a good
thing for you and for Macedonia.
Student B: You are angry. You think the marriage is a terrible
idea.
40 Which o f these people were still alive m any years after Alexander’s
death? W hat happened to the others?
a Ptolemy b Roxane c Hephaistion
d Perdiccas e Seleucus f Olympias
41 Imagine that Alexander died at sixty-tw o, not at thirty-tw o. Discuss
how history might be different.
58
Writing
42 Choose an event from A lexander’s life. W rite a new spaper report
about the event.
43 You are one o f Alexander’s soldiers. Write a letter to your fam ily
after A lexander’s death. Tell them w hy you liked or disliked your
leader.
44 You are a historian. Write the introduction of a book about one of
A lexander’s friends or relatives.
45 You are a filmmaker. Describe the first scene of your film about
Alexander the Great.
46 You w ork fo r the ‘Time Travel Talk S how ’. Choose a person from
this book to be a guest on the show. W rite a list of ten questions to
ask him/her.
47 You are one of Alexander’s friends. Choose an im portant day in
your life and w rite about it in your diary.
48 You are a Persian. Write a letter to a friend who lives abroad. Tell
him /her about A lexander’s defeat of Darius and how life in Persia is
now, after the defeat.
49 You are teaching army officers how to win battles. What can they
learn from Alexander? Write a list.
50 W rite A lexander’s speech for his w edding to the tw o Persian
princesses and the w eddings o f ninety o f his officers.
51 You are Roxane after Alexander’s death. Write a letter to Olympias,
telling her about the birth of your son. Describe your relationship
with Alexander and your hopes and fears fo r the future.
A nsw ers fo r th e A ctivities in this b o o k are available fro m th e P e n g u in R e a d e rs w ebsite.

A free A c tiv ity W o rk sh e e t is also available fro m th e w eb site. A ctiv ity W o rk sh eets are
p a rt o f th e P e n g u in T e a c h er S u p p o rt P ro g ra m m e , w h ic h also in clu d es Progress Tests
a n d G ra d e d R e a d e r G u id elin es. F o r m o re in fo rm a tio n , please visit:
w w w .p e n g u in re a d e rs .c o m .
WORD LIST
achieve (v) to s u c c e e d in g e ttin g th e re su lt y o u w a n t

adopt (v) to m a k e s o m e o n e e lse ’s c h ild leg a lly y o u r d a u g h te r o r so n
ally (n) a c o u n tr y o r p e rs o n th a t h e lp s a n o th e r o n e , e sp e cially in w a r
archer (n) s o m e o n e w h o s h o o ts a rro w s
armour (n) m e ta l o r le a th e r c lo th e s w o r n in th e p a st fo r fig h tin g
arrow (n) a th in , s tra ig h t stic k w i t h a p o i n t a t o n e e n d , w h ic h y o u can
shoot
battle (n) a fig h t b e tw e e n tw o a rm ie s in o n e p lac e
Chariot (n) a v e h ic le w i t h tw o w h e e ls fo r fig h tin g o r races, p u lle d b y a
h o rse
conquer (v) to w in c o n tro l o f a c o u n tr y o r d e fe a t a n e n e m y b y f ig h tin g
a w ar
create (v) to m a k e s o m e th in g n e w e x ist o r h a p p e n
defeat (n /v ) th e lo s in g o f a g a m e o r fig h t. I f y o u defeat s o m e o n e , y o u
w in .
democracy (n) th e f o r m o f p o litic s in w h ic h o r d in a r y p e o p le c a n v o te
elephant (n) a v e ry la rg e g re y a n im a l w ith b ig ears a n d a lo n g n o se
empire (n) a g r o u p o f c o u n tr ie s th a t is c o n tr o lle d b y o n e r u le r o r
g o v e rn m e n t
extraordinary (adj) u n u su a lly g o o d o r sp ecial
gymnasium (n) a sp e c ia l p lac e w ith e q u ip m e n t fo r d o in g p h y sic al
ex ercise
horn (n) o n e o f tw o h a rd , p o in te d p a rts g r o w in g o n th e h e a d s o f so m e
anim als
immortal (adj) liv in g o r c o n tin u in g fo re v e r
legend (n) a n o ld s to ry a b o u t th e a c tio n s a n d a d v e n tu re s o f b rave
p e o p le
noble (adj) b e lo n g in g to th e g ro u p o f p e o p le o f th e h ig h e s t social
p o s itio n
philosophy (n) th e stu d y o f ideas a b o u t e x iste n c e , t h o u g h t a n d b e h a v io u r
retreat (n /v ) a m o v e b a c k , aw ay fro m th e fig h tin g , b y a n a rm y
shield (n) a th in g u se d in th e p ast b y so ld ie rs to p r o te c t th e m se lv e s in a
b a ttle
Siege (n) a s itu a tio n w h e n a n a rm y s u r ro u n d s a p la c e a n d sto p s f o o d a n d
o t h e r th in g s fro m g e ttin g to it
slave (n) s o m e o n e w h o is o w n e d b y a n o th e r p e rs o n
snake (n) a lo n g , t h in a n im a l w ith n o legs, w h ic h o fte n has a p o is o n o u s
b ite
spear (n) a lo n g stic k w ith a p o in te d e n d , w h ic h so ld ie rs u s e d in
fig h tin g .
temple (n) a b u ild in g w h e re p e o p le o f s o m e re lig io n s g o to c o m m u n ic a te
w i t h th e ir g o d o r g o d s
tomb (n) th e p la c e w h e r e a d e a d b o d y is p u t
tribe (n) a g ro u p o f p e o p le w h o h a v e th e sa m e la n g u a g e a n d c u sto m s ,
a n d live t o g e th e r in th e sam e area
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T ex t c o p y rig h t Fiona B eddall 2 0 0 4

Tht* m o ral rig h t o f th e a u th o r has b e e n asserted

A ll rights reserved; //«» pari of this publication may he reproduced, stored

P u blished by Pearson E d u c a tio n Ltd in asso ciatio n w ith

a c o m p le te list o f the titles available in th e P e n g u in R e a d e rs series please w rite to y o u r lo t .

C h a p te r 4 First Battles in Asia 15

Alexander cried when Anaxarchus talked about the number of worlds

A lexander becam e king o f M acedonia 336 years before the b irth

O n his black w arhorse B ucephalas, A lexander, k in g o f M acedonia,

* bc: before the b irth o f C hrist

A lthoug h A lex an d er’s achievem ents w ere extraordinary, in m any

We will never k n o w w hy Philip was killed. H e certainly had m any

O f all the heroes o f th e Trojan War, th e greatest was Achilles. W h e n

C h ap ter 4 First B a ttles in A sia

C hap ter 5 Face to F ace w ith D a riu s

W hile A lexander was at G ordium , th e Persians started to m ake

D arius escaped over th e m ou n tain s o n h orseback, leaving his spear

C hap ter 7 K in g o f A sia

D u rin g th e siege o f Tyre, K in g D arius h ad w ritte n a n o th e r letter

C h ap ter 8 To th e E nds o f th e Earth

T h e first aim was to defeat Bessus, o n e o f D ariu s’s m urderers.

C hap ter 9 T h e Last Years

A lexander refused to go back th e way th at h e had com e. H is taste

C hap ter 10 A fter A lex a n d er

A lthough A lex an d er’s achievem ents h ad spread G reek custom s far

Before you read

While you read

A fte r you read

Before you read

While you read

A fter you read

Before you read

While you read

A fte r you read

Before you read

While you read

A fte r you read

Before you read

While you read

b The people o f ........................... were happy to welcom e Alexander

e A le x a n d e r...........................the palace at Persepolis.

A fte r you read

Before you read

While you read

A fter you read

Before you read

While you read

A fte r you read

A nsw ers fo r th e A ctivities in this b o o k are available fro m th e P e n g u in R e a d e rs w ebsite.

achieve (v) to s u c c e e d in g e ttin g th e re su lt y o u w a n t

When Frank McCourt becomes a teacher in New York, he finds

King S olom on’s M ines

There are hundreds o f Penguin Readers to choose from - w orld classics,

T h re e A d ven tu res of S h e rlo c k H olm es

Sherlock Holmes is a great detective. There are few cases that he

Mark Sway is eleven and he knows a terrible secret. He knows

Winston Smith lives in a society where the government controls

There are hu n dre d s o f Penguin R eaders to choose from - w orld classics,