LESSON

2.2 Rational Functions

OBJECTIVES
In this lesson, you will be able to:
1. determine the domain, intercepts, zeros,
and asymptotes of rational functions; and
2. sketch the graph of rational functions.
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 RATIONAL FUNCTION
• A rational function is a function of the form
𝑷 𝒙
𝒓 𝒙 = 𝑸(𝒙)

where 𝑃(𝑥) and 𝑄(𝑥) are polynomials and 𝑄(𝑥) is not the zero polynomial.
• The following are rational functions:
𝑥
a.) 𝑓 𝑥 =
1 c.) 𝑔 𝑥 = 𝑥2 − 9
𝑥
FORM: 𝑓 is a constant divided by a FORM: 𝑔 is a linear function
linear function. divided by a quadratic function.
3𝑥 2 −5𝑥−2
b.) ℎ 𝑥 = 𝑥
𝑥2+ 1 d.) 𝑖 𝑥 = 𝑥 2 +7𝑥+10
−1
FORM: ℎ is a quadratic function FORM: 𝑖 is a quadratic function
divided by a linear function. divided by a quadratic function.
The following are not rational functions:

a.) 𝑓 𝑥 =
𝑥 Because polynomials do not allow the
𝑥+1
square root of the independent variable

𝑥 1/2 − 4𝑥 −5 Because fractions are not allowed as

b.) 𝑔 𝑥 =
𝑥+3 exponents of polynomials

𝑥+1 Because the square root prevents

c.) ℎ 𝑥 = 𝑥−2 ℎ from being a rational function

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 1 Rational Function
Which of the following are rational functions?
2+𝑥
a.) 𝑓 𝑥 = rational function
𝑥+1
𝑥+2
b.) ℎ 𝑥 = 𝑥 2 −4
not a rational function
1
2 + 𝑥2 − 3𝑥
c.) 𝑖 𝑥 = not a rational function
𝑥 2 + 2𝑥 +1

𝑥 2 −4𝑥 −5
d.) 𝑔 𝑥 = rational function
𝑥+3

3𝑥 2 +1 rational function
e.) 𝑖 𝑥 =
𝑥 −9 Be
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 Domain of a
Rational Function

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 𝑃(𝑥)
The domain of a rational function 𝑟 𝑥 = is all the values of 𝑥 that will
𝑄(𝑥)
not make 𝑄(𝑥) equal to zero.
• Set-builder notation is a method of specifying a set of elements that satisfy a
certain condition.
Example:
{𝒙|𝒙 ≠ 𝟓} The set of all x such that x is any number except 5.
• Interval notation is a way of describing sets that include all real numbers between
a lower limit that may or may not be included and an upper limit that may or may
not be included. The endpoint values are listed between brackets or parentheses.
A square bracket indicates inclusion in the set, and a parenthesis indicates
exclusion from the set.
Example:
−∞, 𝟓 ∪ (𝟓, ∞) The set of all x such that x is any number except 5.
 2 Domain of a Rational Function
1
a.) 𝑓 𝑥 = DOMAIN: 𝑥 𝑥 ≠ 0 or −∞, 0 ∪ (0, ∞)
𝑥

𝑥2+ 1
b.) ℎ 𝑥 = DOMAIN: 𝑥 𝑥 ≠ 1 or −∞, 1 ∪ (1, ∞)
𝑥 −1

𝑥
c.) 𝑔 𝑥 = DOMAIN: 𝑥 𝑥 ≠ −3, 3 or −∞, −3 ∪ −3,3 ∪ (3, ∞)
𝑥2 − 9

3𝑥 2 − 5𝑥 − 2
d.) 𝑖 𝑥 = DOMAIN: 𝑥 𝑥 ≠ −5, −2 or −∞, −5 ∪ (−5, −2) ∪ (−2, ∞)
𝑥 2 + 7𝑥 + 10

NOTE: 0 in 𝑓, 1 in ℎ, -3 and 3 in 𝑔, and -5 and -2 in 𝑖 are the restrictions on the

𝑥-values of the functions 𝑓, ℎ, 𝑔, and 𝑖, respectively.
 3 Domain of a Rational Function
Find the domain of each rational function.
𝑥+3
a.) 𝑓 𝑥 = 𝒙 𝒙 ≠ 𝟕 or −∞, 𝟕 ∪ (𝟕, ∞)
𝑥−7

3𝑥 𝟏 𝟏 𝟏
b.) 𝑓 𝑥 = 𝒙𝒙≠ − or −∞, − ∪ − ,∞
2𝑥 + 1 𝟐 𝟐 𝟐

10
c.) 𝑓 𝑥 = 𝑥 2 − 36
𝒙 𝒙 ≠ −𝟔, 𝟔 or(−∞, −𝟔) ∪ (−𝟔, 𝟔) ∪ (𝟔, ∞)
𝑥−4
d.) 𝑓 𝑥 = 𝒙 𝒙 ≠ −𝟐, 𝟖 or −∞, −𝟐 ∪ (−𝟐, 𝟖) ∪ (𝟖, ∞)
𝑥 2 − 6𝑥 − 16

𝑥 2 − 3𝑥 − 10 𝟑 𝟑 𝟑
e.) 𝑓 𝑥 = 𝒙𝒙≠ − 𝟐 , −𝟏 or −∞, − 𝟐 ∪ − 𝟐 , −𝟏 ∪ (−𝟏, ∞)
2𝑥 2 + 5𝑥 + 3
ASYMPTOTES

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 An asymptote is a line (or a curve) that the graph of a function gets close
to but does not touch.
1. The line 𝑥 = 𝑎 is a vertical
asymptote of the function 𝑦 =
𝑓(𝑥) if 𝑦 approaches ±∞ as
𝑥 approaches 𝑎 from the right
or left.

2. The line 𝑦 = 𝑏 is a horizontal

asymptote of the function 𝑦 =
𝑓(𝑥) if 𝑦 approaches 𝑏 as 𝑥
approaches ±∞.
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Symbol Meaning
𝑥 → 𝑎− 𝑥 approaches 𝑎 from the left
𝑥 → 𝑎+ 𝑥 approaches 𝑎 from the right
𝑥 goes to negative infinity; that is, 𝑥 decreases
𝑥 → −∞
without bound
𝑥→∞ 𝑥 goes to infinity; that is, increases without bound

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Finding Asymptotes of Rational Functions
Let 𝑟 be the rational function
𝑷(𝒙) 𝒂𝒏 𝒙𝒏 +𝒂𝒏−𝟏 𝒙𝒏−𝟏 +⋯+𝒂𝟏 𝒙+𝒂𝟎
𝒓 𝒙 = =
𝑸(𝒙) 𝒃𝒎 𝒙𝒎 +𝒃𝒎−𝟏 𝒙𝒎−𝟏 +⋯+𝒃𝟏 𝒙+𝒃𝟎
1. The vertical asymptotes of 𝑟 are the lines 𝑥 = 𝑎, where 𝑎 is a zero of the
denominator.
2. (a) If 𝑛 < 𝑚, then 𝑟 has horizontal asymptote 𝑦 = 0.
𝑎𝑛
(b) If 𝑛 = 𝑚, then 𝑟 has horizontal asymptote 𝑦 = .
𝑏𝑚
(c) If 𝑛 > 𝑚, then 𝑟 has no horizontal asymptote.
3. Oblique/slant asymptote occurs when the numerator of 𝑓(𝑥) has a degree that is
one higher than the degree of the denominator. If you have this situation, simply divide
the numerator by the denominator by either using long division or synthetic division. The
oblique asymptote is the quotient with the remainder ignored and set equal to y.
 4 Asymptotes of a Rational Function
Find all asymptotes of the graph of each rational function.
2𝑥 2 +7𝑥−4 2𝑥−1 𝑥+4
a. 𝑓 𝑥 = 𝑥 2 +𝑥−2
𝑓(𝑥) = (𝑥+2)(𝑥−1)
Solution:
• Vertical asymptotes • Horizontal asymptote
To find the vertical asymptote, set the The degrees of the numerator and
denominator equal to zero and solve for 𝑥. denominator are the same. So
𝑥2 + 𝑥 − 2 = 0
2
𝑥+2 𝑥−1 =0 𝑙𝑒𝑎𝑑𝑖𝑛𝑔 𝑐𝑜𝑒𝑓𝑓𝑖𝑐𝑖𝑒𝑛𝑡 𝑜𝑓 𝑛𝑢𝑚𝑒𝑟𝑎𝑡𝑜𝑟
𝑙𝑒𝑎𝑑𝑖𝑛𝑔 𝑐𝑜𝑒𝑓𝑓𝑖𝑐𝑖𝑒𝑛𝑡 𝑜𝑓 𝑑𝑒𝑛𝑜𝑚𝑖𝑛𝑎𝑡𝑜𝑟
= =2
1
𝑥+2=0 and 𝑥 − 1 = 0
𝑥 = −2 𝑥=1
Thus, the horizontal asymptote is the line
Thus, the vertical asymptotes are the lines
𝒚 = 𝟐.
𝒙 = −𝟐 and 𝒙 = 𝟏.
 𝑥−3 𝑥−3 1
b. 𝑔 𝑥 = 𝑔 𝑥 = =
𝑥 2 −9 𝑥−3 𝑥+3 𝑥+3

Solution:
• Vertical asymptotes • Horizontal asymptote
To find the vertical asymptote, set the
denominator equal to zero and solve for 𝑥. The degrees of the numerator is less
than the degree of the denominator.
𝑥+3=0
𝑥 = −3
Thus, the horizontal asymptote is the
Thus instead of having two vertical asymptotes, line 𝒚 = 𝟎.
the rational function has one hole at 𝒙 = 𝟑
and one vertical asymptote at 𝒙 = −𝟑.
 𝑥 2 −2𝑥−3 𝑥−3 𝑥+1
c. ℎ 𝑥 = ℎ(𝑥) = (𝑥−2)
𝑥−2

Solution:
• Vertical asymptotes • Horizontal asymptote
To find the vertical asymptote, set the The degrees of the numerator is one
denominator equal to zero and solve for 𝑥. greater than the degree of the
denominator. Hence, the graph has no
𝑥−2=0 horizontal asymptote.
𝑥=2
To get the oblique asymptote, divide
𝑥 2 − 2𝑥 − 3 by 𝑥 − 2.
Thus, the vertical asymptote is the line
𝒙 = 𝟐. Thus, the oblique/slant asymptote
is 𝒚 = 𝒙.
Divide (𝑥 2 − 2𝑥 − 3) ÷ (𝑥 − 2).

Long Division Synthetic Division

𝑥 2
𝑥 − 2 𝑥 2 − 2𝑥 − 3 1 −2 −3
- 𝑥 2 − 2𝑥 2 0
−3 remainder
1 0 −3 remainder

Quotient:
𝟑
𝒇 𝒙 = 𝒙− 𝒙−𝟐

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NOTE:
• The factors that are cancelled when a rational function
is reduced represent holes in the graph of 𝑓(𝑥).
• It is possible to have no vertical, horizontal, or
oblique asymptotes.
• It is not possible for a function to have both
horizontal and oblique asymptotes.

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 5 Asymptotes of a Rational Function
Find all asymptotes of the graph of each rational function.
1 Vertical Asymptote: 𝑥 = 1
a. 𝑓 𝑥 =
𝑥 +1 Horizontal Asymptote: 𝑦 = 0
1
4𝑥 Vertical Asymptote: 𝑥 =−2
b. 𝑓 𝑥 =
2𝑥 +1
Horizontal Asymptote: 𝑦 = 2
𝑥2 Vertical Asymptote: 𝑥 = 1
c. 𝑓 𝑥 = 𝑥 −1 Oblique Asymptote: 𝑦 = 𝑥 + 1

𝑥 2 − 4𝑥 + 3 Vertical Asymptote: 𝑥 = 4
d. 𝑓 𝑥 = 𝑥 2 − 5𝑥 + 4 Horizontal Asymptote: 𝑦 = 1
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 𝟏
a. 𝒇 𝒙 = 𝒙 +𝟏
Solution:
• Vertical asymptote
To find the vertical asymptote, set the denominator equal to zero and solve for x.
𝑥 +1=0
𝑥 = −1
Thus, the graph has the line 𝒙 = −𝟏 as vertical asymptote.

• Horizontal asymptote:
The degree of the numerator is less than the degree of the denominator.
Thus, the graph has the line 𝒚 = 𝟎 as horizontal asymptote.

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 𝟒𝒙
b. 𝒇 𝒙 = 𝟐𝒙 +𝟏

Solution:
• Vertical asymptote:
To find the vertical asymptote, set the denominator equal to zero and solve for x.
2𝑥 + 1 = 0
1
𝑥 = −2
𝟏
Thus, the graph has the line 𝒙 = − as vertical asymptote.
𝟐

• Horizontal asymptote:
The degree of the numerator is equal to the degree of the denominator.
Leading coefficient of the numerator: 4
Leading coefficient of the numerator: 2
4
𝑦=2=2
Thus, the graph has the line 𝒚 = 𝟐 as horizontal asymptote.
 𝒙𝟐
c. 𝒇 𝒙 =
𝒙 −𝟏
Solution:
• Vertical asymptote:
To find the vertical asymptote, set the denominator equal to zero and solve for x.
𝑥 −1=0
𝑥 =1
Thus, the graph has the line 𝒙 = 𝟏 as vertical asymptote.

• Horizontal asymptote:
The degree of the numerator is one greater than the degree of the denominator.
Hence, the graph has no horizontal asymptote. Get the oblique asymptote, divide
𝑥 2 by 𝑥 − 1.
𝟏
Quotient: 𝒙 + 𝟏 +
𝒙−𝟏

Thus, 𝒚 = 𝒙 + 𝟏 is the oblique/slant asymptote.

 𝒙𝟐 − 𝟒𝒙 + 𝟑
d. 𝒇 𝒙 = 𝒙𝟐 − 𝟓𝒙 + 𝟒
Solution:
• Vertical asymptote:
To find the vertical asymptote, reduce the function by factoring the numerator and the
denominator.
𝑥 2 − 4𝑥 + 3 𝑥 − 1 (𝑥 − 3) 𝑥−3
𝑓 𝑥 = = =
𝑥 2 − 5𝑥 + 4 𝑥 − 1 (𝑥 − 4) 𝑥 −4

Thus, the rational function has one hole at 𝒙 = 𝟏 and one vertical asymptote at 𝒙 = 𝟒.

• Horizontal asymptote:
The degree of the numerator is equal to the degree of the denominator.
Leading coefficient of the numerator: 1
Leading coefficient of the numerator: 1
1
𝑦=1=1
Thus, the graph has the line 𝒚 = 𝟏 as horizontal asymptote.
 Zeros of a
Rational Function

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 The ZEROS of Rational Functions
In general, when dealing with rational functions, whatever value of x that will
make the numerator zero without simultaneously making the denominator equal to zero
will be a zero of the said rational function.

Finding Zeros of Rational Functions

1. Factor the numerator and the denominator of the rational function if possible.
2. Identify the restrictions of the rational function f. (The restrictions are the values
of the independent variable that make the denominator equal to zero.)
3. Identify the values of the independent variable that make the numerator equal to
zero.
4. The zeros of the rational functions f are the values of the independent variable
that make the numerator zero but are not restrictions of the rational function f.
 6 Zeros of a Rational Function
Find the zeroes of the following rational functions.
𝑥 2 + 6𝑥 + 8
a. 𝑓 𝑥 =
𝑥 2 − 𝑥 −6
Solution:
𝑥 2 + 6𝑥 + 8 𝑥 + 2 (𝑥 + 4)
𝑓 𝑥 = =
𝑥 2 − 𝑥 −6 𝑥 + 2 (𝑥 − 3)

Values of x that make the denominator equal to zero:

𝒙 = −𝟐 and 𝒙 = 𝟑
Values of x that make the numerator equal to zero:
𝒙 = −𝟐 and 𝒙 = −𝟒
Thus, 𝒙 = −𝟒 is a zero of 𝒇. Be
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 𝑥 2 − 4𝑥 + 4
b. 𝑓 𝑥 =
𝑥2 − 4

Solution:
𝑥 2 − 4𝑥 + 4 𝑥 − 2 (𝑥 − 2)
𝑓 𝑥 = =
𝑥2 − 4 𝑥 + 2 (𝑥 − 2)

Values of x that make the denominator equal to zero:

𝒙 = −𝟐 and 𝒙 = 𝟐
Values of x that make the numerator equal to zero:
𝒙=𝟐
Thus, the function has no zero.

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 𝑥 2 − 5𝑥 + 4
c. 𝑓 𝑥 =
𝑥 2 + 4𝑥 −5

Solution:
𝑥 2 − 5𝑥 + 4 𝑥 − 4 (𝑥 − 1)
𝑓 𝑥 = 𝑥 2 + 4𝑥 − 5
= 𝑥 −1 (𝑥 + 5)

Values of x that make the denominator equal to zero:

𝒙 = 𝟏 and 𝒙 = −𝟓
Values of x that make the numerator equal to zero:
𝒙 = 𝟏 and 𝒙 = 𝟒
Thus, 𝒙 = 𝟒 is a zero of f.

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 Intercepts of a
Rational Function

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 INTERCEPTS of Rational Functions
Intercepts are x- or y-coordinates of the points at which a graph crosses the x-axis or
y-axis, respectively.

• y-intercept is the y-coordinate of the point where the graph crosses the y-axis.
• x-intercept is the x-coordinate of the point where the graph crosses the x-axis.

Note: Not all rational functions have both x and y intercepts. If the rational function f
has no real solution, then it does not have intercepts.

RULE:
1. To find the y-intercept, substitute 0 for x and solve for y of f(x).
2. To find the x-intercept, substitute 0 for y and solve for x.
 7 Intercepts of a Rational Function
Find the intercepts of the following rational functions.
𝑥+8
a. 𝑓 𝑥 = 𝑥 −2

Solution:
• For 𝑥-intercept: • For 𝑦-intercept:
𝑥+8 0+8
0= 𝑓 0 = 0−2
𝑥−2
0(𝑥 − 2) = 𝑥 + 8 8
=
0=𝑥+8 −2
= −4
𝑥 = −8
∴The 𝒙-intercept is -8 ∴The 𝒚-intercept is -4
or (-8, 0) . or (0, -4). Be
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 𝑥 2 − 5𝑥 + 6
b. 𝑓 𝑥 = 𝑥 2 − 2𝑥 + 3

Solution:
• For x-intercept: • For y-intercept:
𝑥 2 − 5𝑥 + 6 (0)2 − 5(0) + 6
0 = 𝑥 2 − 2𝑥 + 3 𝑓 0 = (0)2 − 2(0) + 3
0(𝑥 2 − 2𝑥 + 3) = 𝑥 2 − 5𝑥 + 6 =
6
0 = 𝑥 2 − 5𝑥 + 6𝑥 3
0 = (𝑥 − 2)(𝑥 − 3) =2
𝑥 = 2 and 𝑥 = 3
∴The y-intercept is 2 or (0, 2).
∴The x-intercepts are 2 and 3
or (2, 0) and (3, 0).
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 𝑥2 + 9
c. 𝑓 𝑥 =
𝑥2 − 3

Solution:
• For 𝑥-intercept: • For 𝑦-intercept:
𝑥2 + 9 (0)2 + 9
0= 𝑓 0 =
𝑥2 − 3 (0)2 − 3
0(𝑥 2 − 3) = 𝑥 + 92
=
9
0 = 𝑥2 + 9 𝑥 = −1 ∙ 9
= 𝑖 ∙ ±3
−3
= −3
𝑥 2 = −9 𝒙 = ±𝟑𝒊

∴There is no real solution for 𝑥 2 + 9 = 0. ∴The 𝒚-intercept is -3

Hence, there is no 𝒙-intercept. or (0, -3).

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Sketching Graphs of a Rational Functions
1. Factor. Factor the numerator and denominator.
2. Intercepts. Find the 𝑥-intercepts by determining the zeros of the numerator
and the 𝑦-intercept from the value of the function at 𝑥 = 0.
3. Vertical Asymptotes. Find the vertical asymptotes by determining the zeros
of the denominator, and then see whether 𝑦 → ∞ or 𝑦 → −∞ on each
side of each vertical asymptote by using test values.
4. Horizontal Asymptote. Find the horizontal asymptotes (if any).
5. Sketch the Graph. Graph the information provided by the first four steps.
Then plot as many additional points as needed to fill in the rest of the graph
of the functions.
 8 Graphing a Rational Function
𝑥 2 −4
Graph the rational function 𝑟 𝑥 = .
2𝑥 2 +2𝑥

Solution:
Factor. y-intercept
(𝑥+2)(𝑥−2) 0 2 −4 −4
𝑦= 𝑦= = = 𝑢𝑛𝑑𝑒𝑓𝑖𝑛𝑒𝑑
2𝑥(𝑥+1) 2 0 2 +2(0) 0

x-intercepts. None, because 𝒓(𝟎) is undefined.

𝑥+2=0 and 𝑥 − 2 = 0 Vertical asymptotes.

𝑥 = −2 𝑥=2 2𝑥 = 0 and 𝑥 + 1 = 0
The 𝒙-intercepts are the zeros of the 𝑥=0 𝑥 = −1
numerator, 𝒙 = −𝟐 and 𝒙 = 𝟐. 𝒙 = 𝟎 and 𝒙 = −𝟏, from the zeros of the denominator
Behavior near vertical asymptote Graph
𝒙 𝒚
− + − +
As 𝒙 → −𝟏 −𝟏 𝟎 𝟎
−0.9 17.72

the sign of 𝑦 =
(𝑥+2)(𝑥−2)
is
+ − + − + − + − −0.5 7.50
2𝑥(𝑥+1) (−)(−) (−)(+) (−)(+) (+)(+)
−0.45 7.67
so 𝑦 → −∞ ∞ ∞ −∞ −0.4 8.00
−0.3 9.31
−0.1 22.17
Horizontal asymptote.

The degree of the numerator and the degree of

the degree of the denominator are the same. So,
𝑙𝑒𝑎𝑑𝑖𝑛𝑔 𝑐𝑜𝑒𝑓𝑓𝑖𝑐𝑖𝑒𝑛𝑡 𝑜𝑓 𝑛𝑢𝑚𝑒𝑟𝑎𝑡𝑜𝑟 1
𝑙𝑒𝑎𝑑𝑖𝑛𝑔 𝑐𝑜𝑒𝑓𝑓𝑖𝑐𝑖𝑒𝑛𝑡 𝑜𝑓 𝑑𝑒𝑛𝑜𝑚𝑖𝑛𝑎𝑡𝑜𝑟
= 2
𝟏
The horizontal asymptote is the line 𝒚 = . 𝒙𝟐 − 𝟒
𝟐 𝒓 𝒙 = 𝟐
𝟐𝒙 + 𝟐𝒙
 9 Graphing a Rational Function
𝑥 2 −4𝑥−5
Graph the rational function 𝑟 𝑥 = .
𝑥−3

Solution:
Factor. y-intercept
(𝑥+1)(𝑥−5) 0 2 −4 0 −5 −5 5
𝑦= 𝑦= = =
𝑥−3 0 −3 −3 3
𝟓
x-intercepts. The 𝒚-intercept is 𝟑.
𝑥+1=0 and 𝑥 − 5 = 0 Vertical asymptotes.
𝑥 = −1 𝑥=5
𝑥−3=0
The 𝒙-intercepts are the zeros of the 𝑥=3
numerator, 𝒙 = −𝟏 and 𝒙 = 𝟓. 𝒙 = 𝟑, from the zero of the denominator
Behavior near vertical asymptote Graph
− +
𝒙 𝒚
As 𝒙 → 𝟑 𝟑
−2 −1.4
(𝑥+1)(𝑥−5) + − + −
the sign of 𝑦 = is (−) (+)
1 4
𝑥−3
2 9
so 𝑦 → ∞ −∞
4 −5
6 2.33
Horizontal asymptote.
None, because the degree of the numerator is one
more than the degree of the denominator. Thus, the
function has a slant asymptote.
Divide (𝑥 2 − 4𝑥 − 5) ÷ (𝑥 − 3).
𝟖
𝒓 𝒙 =𝒙−𝟏 − 𝒙−𝟑
𝒙𝟐 − 𝟒𝒙 − 𝟓
Thus, 𝒚 = 𝒙 − 𝟏 is the slant asymptote. 𝒓 𝒙 =
𝒙−𝟑
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