Module Six Lesson Four Notes Guided Notes Name__________________

Module Six Lesson Four Introduction

Do you know what an invisible fence is? Sometimes families use an invisible fence to keep their dog in
the yard. The dog may approach the invisible fence, but will not “touch” it since the invisible fence
would give the dog a light electric charge in its collar.

Vertical asymptotes are similar to invisible fences. They are invisible lines on the graph of a rational
function that the graph will approach but not touch.

You will learn about vertical asymptotes and all the other interesting aspects of graphing rational
functions in this lesson.

LESSON OVERVIEW
Graphs of rational functions appear to be complicated, but they can be really fun to put
together. In this lesson, you will start by graphing the two-parent rational functions, then you
will graph these functions using transformations. Finally, you will learn to create graphs by
hand that appear similar to the one shown. The key point to keep in mind is that the graphs of
rational functions go hand in hand with the equations that they represent, and that the
equations themselves will guide you in your graphing.

Lesson Objectives and Standards

Learning Objectives:
1- Graph the rational parent functions and their key characteristics (domain, range, intercepts,
increasing/decreasing intervals, end behavior.
2- Graph rational functions using transformations from the rational parent functions.
3- Identify and graph discontinuities of rational functions as driven by vertical asymptotes and
holes.
4- Identify and graph horizontal asymptotes of rational functions and connect these to the
functions’ end behavior.

KEY TERMS
Rational function: Function comprised of one polynomial expression divided by another polynomial
expression.
Vertical asymptote: A discontinuity in a function wherein the graph of the function extends upward to
positive infinity or downward to negative infinity as the function approaches a specified x value. The x
value being approached is excluded from a rational function’s domain.
Horizontal asymptote: A horizontal line that is approached by the y values of a graph as the x values
approach positive or negative infinity.
Slant asymptote: A non-horizontal line or other type of graph that is approached by the y values of a
graph as the x values approach positive or negative infinity.
Hole: A discontinuity in a rational function wherein the graph skips over a single point such that the x
value is excluded from the function’s domain.
Domain: A complete set of possible input/independent values.
Range: A complete spread of possible output/dependent values.
Restriction: Value for a variable that causes a rational expression to be undefined.
Increasing: An interval of the graph or equation where, as the x value increases, the y-value increases.
Decreasing: An interval of the graph or equation where, as the x value increases, the y-value
decreases.
End behavior: The behavior of a graph as x values approach positive infinity and negative infinity.
x-intercept: The point or points where a graph intersects the x axis.
y-intercept: The point or points where a graph intersects the y axis.

Part One
1
Parent Function 𝑓(𝑥) = 𝑥

1
The parent rational function 𝑓(𝑥) = 𝑥
graphs as a __________________.

1
Let’s create the graph of 𝑓(𝑥) = 𝑥
by plotting points.

x -4 -3 -2 -1 1 0 1 1 2 3 4
− 2 2

2
 1
The key characteristics of the parent function 𝑓(𝑥) = 𝑥
are:

Vertical Asymptote:

Horizontal Asymptote:

Increasing interval(s):

Decreasing interval(s):

Domain:

Range:

x-intercept(s):

y-intercept:

End behavior:

Symmetry:

3
 1
Parent Function 𝑓(𝑥) = 2
𝑥

1
Let’s create the graph of 𝑓(𝑥) = 2 by plotting points.
𝑥

x -4 -3 -2 -1 1 0 1 1 2 3 4
− 2 2

1
The key characteristics of the parent function 𝑓(𝑥) = 2 are:
𝑥

Vertical Asymptote:

Horizontal Asymptote:

4
Increasing interval(s):

Decreasing interval(s):

Domain:

Range:

x-intercept(s):

y-intercept:

End behavior:

Symmetry:

5
Part Two

1
Rational Functions: Transformations of 𝑓(𝑥) = 𝑥

Rational functions written in the format:

𝑎
𝑦 = 𝑥−ℎ
+𝑘

have graphs with the following attributes:

● Horizontal asymptote 𝑦 = 𝑘

● Vertical asymptote 𝑥 = ℎ

● Vertical stretch by a factor of 𝑎

● Domain is all real numbers, 𝑥 ≠ ℎ

● Range is all real numbers, 𝑦 ≠ 𝑘

Example:

3
𝑦 = 𝑥−2
+1

We will graph this function using transformations from the

parent function.

First we will draw in the horizontal and vertical

asymptotes:

Since 𝑘 = 1, the horizontal asymptote is _______________.

Since ℎ = 2, the vertical asymptote is _______________.

6
Now we need to sketch the graph. We have an 𝑎 value of 3, which indicates a vertical stretch by a
factor of 3. The best way to approach the vertical stretch is to plot a few points.

Start with x-values that are on either side of the vertical asymptote:

x 0 1 2 3 4

You should notice that this graph is pushed further away from the intersection of the
horizontal and vertical asymptotes than a graph with an 𝑎 value of 1.

The domain of this graph is _____________ and the range is ______________.

1
Rational Functions: Transformations of 𝑓(𝑥) = 2
𝑥

Rational functions written in the format:

𝑎
𝑦 = 2 + 𝑘
(𝑥−ℎ)

7
have graphs with the following attributes:

● Horizontal asymptote 𝑦 = 𝑘

● Vertical asymptote 𝑥 = ℎ

● Vertical stretch by a factor of 𝑎

● Domain is all real numbers, 𝑥 ≠ ℎ

● Range is all real numbers, 𝑦 > 𝑘 (if 𝑎 is positive) or 𝑦 < 𝑘 (if 𝑎 is negative)

Example:

2
𝑦 = 2 − 2
(𝑥+1)

We will graph this function using transformations from the parent function.

First we will draw in the horizontal and vertical asymptotes:

Since 𝑘 =− 2, the horizontal asymptote is _______________.

Since ℎ =− 1, the vertical asymptote is _______________.

8
Now we need to sketch the graph. We have an 𝑎 value of 2, which indicates a vertical stretch by a
factor of 2. The best way to approach the vertical stretch is to plot a few points.

Start with x-values that are on either side of the vertical asymptote:

x -3 -2 -1 0 1

You should notice that this graph is pushed further away from the intersection of the
horizontal and vertical asymptotes than a graph with an 𝑎 value of 1.

The domain of this graph is _____________ and the range is ______________.

9
Practice Problems

Graph each of the following rational functions using transformations from the parent
1 1
functions 𝑦 = 𝑥
or 𝑦 = 2 . Also state the domain and range of each function.
𝑥
1 1
1. 𝑦 =− 𝑥
2. 𝑦 = 𝑥
+2

Domain: ____________ Domain: ____________

Range: ____________ Range: ____________

2 1
3. 𝑦 = −1 4. 𝑦 = 2
𝑥+4 (𝑥−2)

Domain: ____________ Domain: ____________

Range: ____________ Range: ____________

10
 1 1
5. 𝑦 = 2 + 2 6. 𝑦 =− 2 + 1
𝑥 (𝑥+1)

Domain: ____________
Domain: ____________
Range: ____________
Range: ____________

1
7. 𝑦 =− −1
𝑥

Domain: ____________
Range: ____________

11
Part Three

Holes and Asymptotes

Rational functions are unique in that they are discontinuous. This means that you cannot graph
a rational function without picking up your pencil. There are two types of discontinuities in
rational functions: asymptotes and holes.

Holes
2
𝑥 −9
We will use the function 𝑓(𝑥) = 𝑥−3
to learn about “holes” in graphs of rational functions.

Find 𝑓(3):

Since 𝑥 = 3 is excluded from the domain of the function 𝑓(𝑥), we must determine what happens
to the graph of 𝑓(𝑥) at 𝑥 = 3.

Factor and cancel the function to simplify it:

2
𝑥 −9
The function 𝑓(𝑥) = 𝑥−3
simplifies to the linear function _______________with a break in the
domain at _________.

When the domain break occurs at a place where factors in the numerator and denominator
cancel out, a “hole” is created in the graph.

The hole will appear in the graph as an open circle:

How will you know what the coordinates of the “hole” are?

12
Plug the x value of the hole, in this case 𝑥 = 3, into the simplified version of the function, which
in this case is 𝑓(𝑥) = 𝑥 + 3.

𝑓(3) = 3 + 3 = 6

The hole is located at the point (3, 6).

Holes vs. Asymptotes

How will you know when you have a hole versus a vertical asymptote?

The first thing you should do when starting to graph a complex rational function is to factor the
numerator and the denominator.

If there are common factors that will cancel, a hole exists at the zero of that factor.

After canceling out common factors that create holes, look for remaining factors in the
denominator. Each of those factors should be set equal to zero to solve for the x values where
there are asymptotes.

The rules you will follow are:

● If 𝑥 − 𝑎 is a common factor of the numerator and denominator, then there is a hole at

𝑥 = 𝑎. To find the ordered pair of the hole, plug 𝑥 = 𝑎 into the simplified function.

● If 𝑥 − 𝑎 is NOT a common factor of the numerator and denominator, but is a factor of the
denominator, then 𝑥 = 𝑎 is a vertical asymptote of the graph of the function.

Note: Holes take precedence over asymptotes. If you have a hole at an x value, then you do NOT
have an asymptote there.

13
End Behavior of Rational Functions

The end behavior of a rational function is driven by the horizontal or slant asymptote of the
function.

𝑛
𝑎𝑥 +...
Given a rational function in the form 𝑓(𝑥) = 𝑚 where both the numerator a
𝑏𝑥 +...
denominator are polynomial functions, there are three scenarios that exist with respect to end
behaviors of rational functions:

1) If 𝑛 < 𝑚 → the degree of the numerator is less than the degree of the denominator. In
this case the horizontal asymptote is _________ and the end behavior of the rational function is
_______________________________.

2) If 𝑛 = 𝑚 → the degree of the numerator is equal to the degree of the denominator. In this
case the horizontal asymptote is _________ and the end behavior of the rational function is
_______________________________.

3) If 𝑛 > 𝑚 → the degree of the numerator is greater than the degree of the denominator. In
this case there is a slant or oblique asymptote. To find the equation of the slant or oblique
asymptote, _____________________________. The end behavior of the rational function is
_____________________________.

14
Finding Holes & Asymptotes of Rational Functions

Find all holes, and vertical and horizontal asymptotes of the following rational functions. Then,
state the end behavior of each function.

𝑥+1
1. 𝑓(𝑥) = 2
𝑥 −1

Factor first to look for holes:

Hole:

Vertical asymptote:

Compare the degrees:

Horizontal asymptote:

End behavior:

2
4𝑥 −3𝑥+1
2. 𝑓(𝑥) = 2
3𝑥 −1

Factor first to look for holes:

Hole:

Vertical asymptote:

Compare the degrees:

Horizontal asymptote:

End behavior:

15
 3
3𝑥
3. 𝑓(𝑥) = 2
𝑥 −4

Factor first to look for holes:

Hole:

Vertical asymptote:

Compare the degrees:

Slant asymptote:

End behavior:

Graphing Complex Rational Functions

It is now time to pull together what we have learned and graph a complex rational function. We
will need to graph holes, vertical and horizontal/slant asymptotes, x and y intercepts, and the
correct end behavior of each function.

Example 1

2
𝑥 −4
𝑓(𝑥) = 2
𝑥 −25

Factored form: Holes:

y-intercept: x-intercept(s):

Vertical Asymptote(s): HorizontalAsymptote:

End behavior:

Plot points as needed:

16
Example 2

3𝑥
𝑓(𝑥) = 2
𝑥 −2𝑥−8

Factored form: Holes:

y-intercept: x-intercept(s):

Vertical Asymptote(s): Horizontal Asymptote:

End behavior:

Plot points as needed:

Note: This graph crosses through its horizontal asymptote. This is permitted! Since the
horizontal asymptote governs the “end behavior” of the graph, it simply tells us what the graph
will be doing as x approaches infinity or negative infinity. It is not a restriction on the range of
a rational function.

A graph may never cross its vertical asymptote, since vertical asymptotes are created by
restrictions on the domain of the function.

Example 3

2
𝑥
𝑓(𝑥) = 𝑥−1

17
Factored form: Holes:

y-intercept: x-intercept(s):

Vertical Asymptote(s): Slant Asymptote:

End behavior:

Plot points as needed:

Example 4

2
𝑥 +2𝑥−3
𝑓(𝑥) = 2
𝑥 +3𝑥−4

Factored form: Holes:

y-intercept: x-intercept(s):

Vertical Asymptote(s): Horizontal Asymptote:

End behavior:

Plot points as needed:

Domain and Range of Complex Rational Functions

The domain of complex rational functions is

driven by the existence of holes and vertical
asymptotes. For all x values where there is a hole or a vertical asymptote, there is a break in the

18
domain of the function.

The range of complex rational function is more well, complex. As you saw in example 2 above, a
rational function can pass through its horizontal asymptote. This means that horizontal
asymptotes do not necessarily dictate the range of a rational function.

Let’s review the four examples we just graphed and determine the domain and the range of each.

Example 1

Graph:

2
𝑥 −4
𝑓(𝑥) = 2
𝑥 −25

(𝑥−2)(𝑥+2)
Factored form: 𝑓(𝑥) =
(𝑥−5)(𝑥+5)

Domain: The domain will be all real numbers except for the x values that create a zero in the
denominator of the function:

Range: From the graph of this function we see that the range is all real numbers greater than 1
and all real numbers less than the y intercept of the graph.

Example 2

19
 3𝑥 3𝑥
𝑓(𝑥) = 2 Factored form: 𝑓(𝑥) =
(𝑥−4)(𝑥+2)
𝑥 −2𝑥−8

Graph:

Domain: The domain will be all real numbers except for the x values that create a zero in the
denominator of the function:

Range: From the graph of this function we see that the range is all real numbers since the middle
section of the graph is continuous and extends to both positive and negative infinity.

Example 3

2 2
𝑥 𝑥
𝑓(𝑥) = 𝑥−1
Factored form: 𝑓(𝑥) =
𝑥−1

Graph:

Domain: The domain will be all real numbers except for the x values that create a zero in the
denominator of the function:

Range: From the graph of this function we see that there is a gap in the range of the function. We
will need to use the maximum and minimum functions on our calculators to find the range.

20
On your calculator, use 2nd-->Calc-->Max/Min to find the local maximum and minimum y values of
the graph.

Local maximum y value:

Local minimum y value:

Range:

Example 4

2
𝑥 +2𝑥−3 (𝑥+3)(𝑥−1)
𝑓(𝑥) = 2 Factored form: 𝑓(𝑥) =
(𝑥+4)(𝑥−1)
𝑥 +3𝑥−4

Graph:

Domain: The domain will be all real numbers except for the x values that create a zero in the
denominator of the function:

Range: From the graph of this function we see that the range is, in this case, dictated by the
horizontal asymptote of the function. However, we must also exclude the y value associated with
the hole in the graph.

21
You Try

For the following rational functions, identify all holes, vertical and horizontal/slant
asymptotes, x and y intercepts, and the correct end behavior of each function. Then graph the
function.

2
−𝑥 −4𝑥+5
1. 𝑓(𝑥) = 𝑥+1

Factored form: Holes:

y-intercept: x-intercept(s):

Vertical Asymptote(s): Slant Asymptote:

End behavior:

Plot points as needed:

𝑥−2
2. 𝑓(𝑥) = 2
3𝑥 −2𝑥−1

Factored form: Holes:

y-intercept: x-intercept(s):

Vertical Asymptote(s): Horizontal Asymptote:

End behavior:

Plot points as needed:

22
 2𝑥+4
3. 𝑓(𝑥) = 2
2𝑥 +3𝑥−2

Factored form: Holes:

y-intercept: x-intercept(s):

Vertical Asymptote(s): Horizontal Asymptote:

End behavior:

Plot points as needed:

Part Four

Writing Equations Given a Graph

To write a rational equation based on a graph, it is easiest to begin with the factored forms of the
polynomials in the numerator and the denominator of the equation.

The factored form of a rational equation will look like this:

( 1)(𝑥−𝑟 2)...
𝑎 𝑥−𝑟
𝑦 = 𝑥−𝑣 𝑥−𝑣 ...
( 1)( 2)
where 𝑟 1, 𝑟 2, ... are the x intercepts on the graph of the function and 𝑣 1, 𝑣 2, ... are the x
values where there are vertical asymptotes of the function.

Note, if an 𝑟 value is equal to a 𝑣 value, there will be a hole, and not an asymptote, at that x value
of the function.

23
Example 1

Graph made by C. Ricketts using TI software and Smartboard.

From this graph, we see that there are x intercepts at ____________.

Therefore, we conclude that the factors in the numerator of the equation are
______________________.
We can also see that there are vertical asymptotes at ______________. Therefore, we conclude
that the factors in the denominator of the equation are _________________________.

We can begin to write our rational function as follows:

Next, we see that the graph of this function has a horizontal asymptote at ________. This indicates
that the degree of the numerator and the degree of the denominator _________________________.

As the equation stands now, the numerator and the denominator have the same degrees, so we do
not need to change the degree of any single factor.

Before we conclude that this is the correct equation, we will use a “sign chart” to confirm that
the equation correctly locates the graph in terms of above and below the x-axis.

24
To create the sign chart, list all the factors of the numerator and the denominator on the left.
Label the number line with the x-intercepts and x-values of the vertical asymptotes.

Next we will complete the sign chart with the correct signs (positive or negative) of each interval
of the number line for each factor.

Take a look at the bottom row. The signs listed should match the graph, and if they do not, we will
need to adjust the equation.

Let’s take a look interval by interval:

𝑥 <− 3

− 3 < 𝑥 <− 1

−1<𝑥<1

1<𝑥<3

𝑥>3

25
How do we change the sign of the equation on a given interval?

_____________________________________________________

Changing the Degrees of Selected Factors

When we change the degree of one or more factors, we must keep in mind that the degrees of the
numerator and denominator must be equal.

We do not want to change the right hand two columns, but we do need to change the middle
column. Let’s start by squaring the factor (𝑥 − 1).

This results in the correct sign for the middle column, but now we have incorrect signs for the
first two columns. To change both of the first two signs, we can square the factor 𝑥 + 1.

26
Now all of our signs match the graph. All that is left for us to do is to find the a value in our
equation:

2
𝑎(𝑥+3)(𝑥−1)
𝑦 = 2
(𝑥+1) (𝑥−3)

Next, let’s look at the y-intercept, which based on the graph is the point _______.

If we plug 𝑥 = 0 into the equation we get a y-intercept of ___________. Since the y-intercept
should be − 2, the a value is _______.

Our final equation is:

Example 2:

From this graph, we see that there are x-intercepts at ___________. Therefore, we conclude that
the factors in the numerator of the equation are ____________________.

We can also see that there is one vertical asymptote at ___________. Therefore, we conclude that
the in the denominator of the equation is ___________.

In addition, we know that the factor in the denominator must be squared in order to create the
“volcano” shape that we see.

We can begin to write our rational function as follows:

27
Next, we see that the graph of this function has a horizontal asymptote at ___________. This
indicates that the degree of the numerator and the degree of the denominator
_______________________________________.

As the equation stands now, the numerator and the denominator have the same degrees, so we do
not need to change the degree of any single factor.

Next, let’s look at the y-intercept, which based on the graph appears to be the point ___________.

If we plug 𝑥 = 0 into the equation 𝑦 =

(
𝑎 𝑥− 2
5
)(𝑥− )7
2
we get a y-intercept of
2
(𝑥−3)

___________. Since the y-intercept should be _______, we need to set up an equation to solve for a.

Our updated equation is:

Before we conclude that this is the correct equation, we will use a sign chart to confirm that the
equation correctly locates the graph in terms of above and below the x-axis.

Take a look at the bottom row. The signs listed should match the graph, and if they do not, we will
need to adjust the equation.

28
Let’s take a look interval by interval:

5
𝑥< 2

5
2
<𝑥<3

7
3<𝑥< 2

7
2
<𝑥

Our sign chart analysis confirms that the rational equation that matches the graph is
___________________.

29
You Try

It’s time for you to try to write the equation of a rational function given a graph. Try this problem
on your own and then watch the video to see if your answer is correct.

x intercepts:

Factors of the numerator:

Vertical Asymptotes:

Factors of the denominator:

Horizontal Asymptote:

Relation between degrees of numerator and denominator:

Initial rational equation:

30
Sign chart:

Interval by interval comparison to graph:

y-intercept:

Solve for a:

Final equation:

31