Questions Biology of the cell

1. Definition of biology
- It is the study of all living things – from bacteria to higher plants and mammals
- Aims to provide understanding of structure and function of organisms and their
interactions with one another.

2. Characterise the following studies:

- Botany: the study of plants
- Zoology: the study of animals
- Microbiology: the study of microorganisms (their culture, economic importance
and pathogenicity)
- Bacteriology: the study of bacteria
- Mycology: the study of fungi
- Virology: the study of viruses

3. Characterise the following studies:

- Morphology: the study of structure and form of organisms
- Anatomy: the study of internal organization of organisms
- Histology: the study of microscopic anatomy of tissues and the way they are
arranged in organs
- Cytology: the study of the cell structure and division, including the cell
ultrastructure and the structure of organelles.
- Physiology: the study of functioning organisms

4. Characterise the following studies:

- Anthropology: the study of man
- Paleonthology: the study of died out organisms
- Genetics: the study of heredity and variation of genes
- Onthogenesis: the study of individual development of organisms
- Phylogenesis: the study of historic development of organisms from the simplest to
the most complex forms
- Embryology: the study of fetus, embryo

5. Characterise the following studies:

- Biotechnology: the study of application of biology in a productive industry
- Biochemistry: a science on the border between biology and chemistry
- Biophysics: a science on the border between biology and physics
- Molecular biology: the study of organisms on their molecular level
- Parasitology: the study of parasites
- Immunology: the study of organisms’ resistance to diseases
- Ethology: the study of behaviour of organisms
- Ecology: study of relationship between living things and their environment
6. Characterise biology in
- Antiquity:
- Development of healing
- First opinions on life, its origin and foundation documented in first civilizations in
China, Egypt and India
- Greece
- HIPPOKRATES (460 – 377BC) – Hippocratic oath
- ARISTOTELES(384 – 322BC) – the origin of animals is derived from autogamy
- Author of “the theory of autogamy”
THEOFRASTOS(371 – 287BC) – he described over 500 species of plants by what
he gave the foundation to the plant systematics
- Roma
- PLINIUS (23 – 79) – author of “Historia naturalis” – a book in which he
concluded all information about nature
- GALENOS (129 – 200) – wrote many books about medicine, autopsies and
experiments

7. Characterise Medieval ages

- the church dominated over the sciences  the investigation of nature was
prohibited Francis from Asisi, Thomas Akvinsky
- AVICENA (980 – 1037) – an Arabian doctor, the author of many medical books

8. List and characterise scientis of modern period

- WILLIAM HARVEY (1578 – 1657) – the founder of physiology; he described the blood
circulation; he negated the Aristotelian theory by claming that the ovum represents the
beginning of life and evolution
- JAN JESSENIUS (1566 – 1621) – he realized the first public autopsy in Prague in 1600
- ANTONY van LEEUWENHOEK (1632 – 1723) – with his little microscope he was able to
see a vast range of structures from some largest plant and animal cells to subcellular
organelles; he invented microscope and telescope
• 18th century
- CARL LINNÉ (1707 – 1778) – he said that species were unchangeable; he is the author of
the theory of binomical nomenclature which says that each organism has its own double
name consisting of a latinised generic name followed by a specific adjective
- JEAN BAPTISTE LAMARCK (1744 – 1829) – he introduced the first theory of evolution
according to which all organisms are generated from the simple to the more complex
forms, he believed that all new gained traits are passed to offspring
• 19th century
- CHARLES DARWIN (1809 – 1882) – best known by his theory of evolution by natural
selection saying that only the strongest in the nature survives
- LOUIS PASTEUR (1822 – 1895) – the founder of immunology; he found out that
microorganisms are the causers of diseases, fermentacion, negated the abiogenesis,
vactination against rabies
- ROBERT KOCH – founder bacteriology
 - IVAN PERTROVIC PAVLOV – studied nervous system, described supported reflex
- JOHANN GREGOR MENDEL (1822 – 1884) – by experimenting on plants of peas he
described the transmission of genetic information from parents to offspring; he
discovered and described the general principles of genetics
- FLEMING – found penicillin
• 20th century
- WATSON and CRICK – they described the double – helix structure of DNA; they also
invented a chemical model of gene as the basic unit of heredity

9. Name parts of microscope and characterise the functions of each part.

10. Characterise Scientific methods used in Biology

- A series of steps followed by scientific investigators to answer specific questions about the
natural world
1. Observation: making an observation about something that interests you
2. Question: formulating a question about what you have observed. The question should tell
what it is you are trying to accomplish
3. Hypothesis: an educated guess about the answer to your specific question. (must be
testable)
4. Experiment: you must design and conduct an experiment that will test the hypothesis. A
procedure that states very clearly how you plan to conduct your experiment
5. Results: you report what happened in the experiment – including detailing all observations
and data made during the experiment.
6. Conclusion: The final step where all of the results are analysed and a determination is
reached about the hypothesis. Did the experiment support or reject your hypothesis?

11. List and characterise general properties of living things

1. metabolism - all living things use and release energy and all biochemical processes in the
organism are termed as metabolism.
2. cellular organization - all living things are made of cells. The groups of cells form tissues,
tissues form organs, several organs result in the system of organs and the systems of organs
make up the whole organism.
3. chemical composition - the basic chemical substances of all living things are organic
substances – lipids, sugars, proteins and nucleic acids.
4. heredity and reproduction - all living things contain genetic information in DNA and
they are able to reproduce and produce offspring.
5. growth and development - all living things grow and change during their life. Growth
involves increase in size of the organism; development involves the change in shape and form
of the organism as it matures.
6. sensitivity - all living things are sensitive to the stimuli from external surrounding and they
are able to respond to them.
7. complexity - all living things are complex.
8. movement – all living things can move
9. death – all living things die
10. homeostasis – the stability of internal environment
11. excretion – all living things eliminate the unwanted products of metabolism

12. Characterise hierarchic organisation of living things from Viruses to Communities of

organisms
1. NONCELLULAR ORGANISMS – viruses
- Viruses are the simplest microscopic particles that can be observed only by an electronic
microscope.
- They invade and very often they also destroy the cells of plants, animals, fungi and bacteria.
- Viruses are not able to live and reproduce on their own - depend on a host cell.
- composed of nucleic acids and proteins and they do not have their own metabolism.
2. UNICELLULAR ORGANISMS – bacteria, microorganisms
- These organisms are represented only by one cell which is able to carry out all vital
functions.
- Reproduction of these organisms is realized by a simple division of the cell.
- include bacteria, cyanobacteria, algae and certain types of fungi.
3. CELL COLONIES
- When the individual cells remain clumped together after the division of cell, the resulting
multicellular structure may be known as colony.
- In a colony, several cells live together and specialize in different functions (eg. digestive,
protective, excretory etc.)
- Each cell in a colony is able to live on its own independently of the others.
4. MULTICELLULAR ORGANISMS
- Groups of cells make up tissues, tissues make up organs, organs make up system of organs
and these systems make up the whole organism as itself.
- Among the multicellular organisms we can find the majority of plants, animals and fungi.
5. OBLIGATORY COMMNITIES OF ORGANISMS
- Most of the organisms live together and make up a specific group of organization.
Each member of the group has a specific role in the hierarchy of the organization.
- These individuals cannot live alone.
- include ants, bees, termites etc.

13. Definition of the cell

- the basic structural and functional element of all living organisms.
- structural = represents the basic unit of all living organisms
- functional = one cell is able to carry out all vital functions

14. Principles of cell theory

1. cells are the smallest living things, basic units of all living organisms
2. cells only arise by the division of previously existing cell

15. List general properties of the cell

- their own metabolism
- chemical composition
- the structure
- reproduction
- heredity – passing DNA to offspring

16. Characterise inorganic compounds of the cell

60% - 90% (water and salts)

17. Characterise organic components of the cell (proteins, sugars, lipids and nucleic
acids)
- 12% protein
- 9% sugars
- 8 % lipids
- 3% nucleic acids
- 3% minerals
18. List and characterise the parts of the prokaryotic cell
1. nucleoid – one molecule of DNA (nucleus not present)
2. capsule – increases the cell’s resistance
3. cell wall – located above plasmatic membrane. Strong and protects the cell.
4. cytoplasmatic membrane – regulates intake and outtake of substances
5. flagellum - movement
6. plasmid – has its own DNA. Some resistant to an antibiotic, other help the host digest
unusual substances. Some are responsible for conjugation.
7. ribosome
8. pili

19. Compare prokaryotic and eukaryotic cell

Prokaryotic – bacteria/cyanobacteria, smaller and simpler, lacks nucleus (has DNA
molecule), not enclosed in membrane, organelles appear in small amounts.
Eukaryotic – cells of plants/fungi/animals, larger and more complex, contains membrane,
bound to nucleus, many organelles

20. Characterise the surfaces of the eukaryotic cell. List the part of the cell membrane
Cell surface: protection of cell against mechanical injury from external surrounding
1. cell wall + cytoplasmic membrane under it = plant cells
2. only cytoplasmic membrane without the cell wall = animal cells

Structure:
- Glycoprotein
- Glycolipid
- Peripheral membrane protein
- Integral membrane protein
- Filaments of the cytoskeleton
- Cholesterol
- Protein channel
- Phospholipid bilayer

21. Characterise cytoplasm

- represents the environment for life and metabolic activity of many cell organelles
- place where the unbroken exchange of energy and substances is carried out

22. Characterise the structure and funcion of nucleus in EC (eukaryotic cell)

- the carrier of genetic information and the reproductive centre of all cells.
- Consists of:
1. nucleus envelope – surrounded by two biomembranes
2. nucleolus – composed of RNA and proteins
 3. chromosomes – DNA and proteins

23. Characterise the organelles of movement in EC

- locomotive and mechanical function
- not made of membranes but consist of fibrous structures – microfilaments and microtubule
(able to contract and expand, arise by binding proteins, arranged 9+2)

24. Characterise the structure and function of mitochondrion

- Energetic center of the cell

- Separated from the cytoplasm by a double membrane
- Many biochemical reactions connected with release of energy take place in
mitochondrion
Structure:
- Outer membrane - smooth
- Intermembrane space – filled with matrix
- Inner membrane – curved, forms layers cristae
- DNA
- Cristae
- Ribosomes

25. Characterise ER – endoplasmic reticulum and ribosomes

Endoplasmic reticulum
- appears like the stacks of flattened vesicles surrounded by biomembranes.
- Has rough (contains ribosomes, proteosynthesis) and smooth (no ribosomes,
synthesis of lipids).
Ribosomes
- granular elements without membranes = either loose in cytoplasm or bound to
endoplasmaticreticuli
- necessary for proteosynthesis
26. Characterise Golgiho complex
- structured like stacks of flattened vesicles called dictyosomes (bigger- in the middle, provide
condensation of proteins and polymerization of carbohydrates) or vesicules (smaller – closer
to ends and provide transport substances, metabolism and enzyme storage.)
- provides two functions:
1. synthetic – synthesis of substances necessary for the cell wall building
2. secretive – secretion of unnecessary substances

27. Characterise vacuole and lysosomes

Vacuole:
- structure of all plant cells
- space filled with liquid = cell juice
- storage for many substances
Lysosomes:
- typical animal cell structures
- same function as vacuole but for animals
- composed of many small vesicles with many digestive enzymes that split up the necessary
substances

28. Characterise Plastides – different types of plastides and chloroplast structure

 - membrane organelles occurring only in plant cells
- the most important are chloroplasts = responsible for photosynthesis
- according to presence of pigments we divide:
a) chloroplasts:

a) - contain the green pigment chlorohyll and also contain some other accessory
pigments as carotenoids, xantophylls etc. and together they carry out
photosynthesis.
- Chlorophyll is located in the saclike membranous structures called thylakoids
(form grana - stlpce) that are placed inside the chloroplast – in stroma.
- Stroma also contains DNA and ribosomes. Chloroplasts are present nearly in all
plant cells except for roots and the inner parts of stems.
b) chromoplasts:
- they contain yellow, orange and red pigments mainly carotenes and xantophylls.
- They are present in ripe fruits (pepper), flowers, roots (carrot).
- They are not able to photosynthetize.
c) leucoplast:
- colourless plastids in tissues and organs that are not exposed to sun radiance, eg.
in roots, fruits (mistletoe), or in epidermic cells.
- The most important of them are amyloplasts that accumulate starch (a potato
tuber).

29. Characterise non – living cell components

- they include any reserve substances (eg. starch, glycogen).
- These substances are without the metabolic activity so they are considered to be non – living
cell components - inclusions

30. Differences between pland and animal cell

Animal cell:
- lysosomes
- centriole
- cell wall
- cell membrane
- ribosomes

Plant cell:
- cytoplasm – cytosol
- vacuole
- plastids
- cell wall
- cell membrane
- ribosomes
- nucleus

31. Characterise the cell cycle

- The cell cycle is defined as the period of time from the formation of the cell to
the point when the cell divides itself.
G1 – S – G2 – M – C

32. Characterise 5 phases of the cell cycle

G1:
- growth phase of the cell
- the nucleus directs the protein synthesis – DNA replication prepares
- contains “main control station” – regulatory function
S:
- synthesis phase – DNA replication and chromosomes duplication appears (one
chromatid becomes two chromatids)
- after the end of S phase the nucleus contains double number of chromosomes
G2:
- The cell grows
- The nucleus division prepares and the synthetic processes continue
M:
- The essential step for separation
- Division of nucleus into two daughter nuclei
- KARYOKINESIS – spindle is formed, membrane disappears and mitosis begins
C:
- Phase where the cell divides itself creating two daughter cells – CYTOKINESIS

33. Definition of karyokinesis and cytokinesis

KARYOKINESIS – the process of cell division that involves the division of the cell’s
nucleus
CYTOKINESIS – the process which follows karyokinesis. It involves the division of
the cell’s cytoplasm and other organelles, resulting in formation of two daughter cells.

34. Explain generation time of the cell

- the time duration of the cell cycle
- it is determined genetically and differs in many cells from several minutes to several
hours and years

35 Characterise regulation mechanisms of the cell cyckle

- regulation mechanisms control the cell cycle and provide a required cell number in
tissues and organs
Stimulators of the cell cycle: initiate the cell cycle, support it.
Inhibitors of the cell cycle: slow down the cell cycle and stop the cell division

36. What is cell specialization

- process by which unspecialized cells become modified and specialized for the
performance of specific functions
- begins during the embryonal development in the cell called zygote.

37. Describe the structure of chromosome, karyotype, diploid cell (2n) and
haploid cell (n)
Chromosomes:
- made of two fibres – chromatids (composed of DNA + proteins joined together in
centromere)
- some have secondary constriction where nuclear organiser is located
Karyotype:
- a set of chromosomes
- 46 in total, 23 pairs of chromosomes
Diploid cell:
- when a human cell contains 23 pairs of chromosome it is considered diploid
- symbol is 2n. ex. 2n = 46
Haploid cell:
- haploid number is n
- n=23

38. List the types of the cell division

a) Direct – amitosis
b) indirect – mitosis (through mitosis apparatus)
- meiosis (also reduction division of cells, sex cells)

39. Characterise the phases of Mitosis

- division of cells produce two daughter nuclei containing identical sets of
chromosomes. Therefore it is called a replicated division.
1. 1. prophase
- chromosomes first become visible as long thin threads - each chromosome has
already replicated (DNA content has doubled) into two chromatides but the
chromatids, joined at centromere.
- The nuclear membrane normally breaks down, and nucleolus disappears.
- Centrioel divides and each part moves to opposite poles of the cell. Spindle
formation is started
2. Metaphase –.
- A series of microtubules known as spindle is laid down between the poles
(centrioles ) and each chromosome´s centromere.
- Spindle fibresare attached to chromosomes at the equatorial plate. Now, the
shortening and thickening of the chromosomes is at its maximum and the
individual chromatids and the centomeres are clearly visible.
3. Anaphase
- shortest stage in mitosis.
- The centromeres divide, and the chromatids are pulled by microtubules and move
to opposite poles of the cell.
4. Telophase
- the two groups of chromatids are organised into daughter nuclei.
- Each group becomes surrounded by a nuclear membrane.
- It is the process of karyokinesis – division of the nucleus.

40. Characterise meiosis and types of divisions

- involves two successive division of the cell – both resemble mitosis

First division I:
- Separates homologous chromosomes and reduction of the number of chromosomes
occurs – heterotypical division

Second division II:

- Separates chromatids, but the number of chromosomes does not change –
homeotypical division

- The result of meiosis are four cells, each with half the chromosome number of the
original cell – 4 haploid cells

41. Characterise
Prophase 1:
- Chromosomes start to be paired and joined together to form bivalents
- They are homologous (one from mother one from father) and they continue to
shorten and thicken
- A cross-shaped structure called chiasma is formed through the process of crossing-
over

Metaphase 1:
- The spindle forms, the bivalents attach to it and then move to the equatorial plate.
Centromeres become attached to the individual spindle fibres.
Anaphase 1:
- Homologous chromosomes separate and move to opposite poles, centromeres still
hold chromatids. All chromosomes are united at the centromere.

Telophase 1:
- 2 nuclei are formed with 2 chromatids chromosomes, the cell has divided, the
nuclear membrane re-forms. This step moves directly into the second prophase.

42. Characterise crossing over

- occurring during meiosis.
- After the beginning of meiosis, two homologous chromosomes pair up and form
bivalents - tetrads.
- Each chromosome has two chromatids, so the tetrad has four chromatids. Chromatids
from each tetrad join together and make structures called chiasmas.
- After that the chromatids exchange their parts. Consequently, the chromosomes
exchange the segments of DNA and acquire a new combination of genes. Here lies the
importance of crossing - over.

43. Briefly describe homeotypical division

 44. Compare passive and active transport of substances across the cell membrane
Active: requires energy from ATP
Passive: does not require energy

45. Characterise diffusion

- random motion of molecules and ions dissolved in water from the regions with
a higher concentration to the regions where the concentration is lower.

46. Characterise osmosis

- a special case of diffusion.
- Osmosis refers to the diffusion of water across
semipermeable membrane.
- When the water enters the cell, it causes the cell to swell
This force creates a pressure called osmotic pressure. If the osmotic pressure is very
high, it can cause the cell to burst. Most cells cannot withstand high osmotic pressure
unless their membranes are prepared to resist swelling.

47. In the case of osmosis three situations are possible to happen, decsribe the.
- isotonic solution:
- the osmotic concentrations of the substances outside and inside are equal.
- nothing happens with the animal or plant cell
Hypertonic solution:
- Two solutions have unequal osmotic concentrations – the osmotic concentration of
particles outside the cell is higher
- The cell starts to lose water, cell capacity lowers, the cytoplasmic membrane
separates from the cell wall
Hypotonic solution:
- Two solutions have unequal osmotic concentrations – the osmotic concentration of
the particles outside the cell is lower than inside
 48. Characterise:
Endocytosis:
- an active process in which a substance enters the cell without passing
through the cell membrane. Endocytosis causes the changes only in the shape of
the cell. This process is subdivided into two diferrent types:
 phagocytosis – the cell changes its shape by sending out the
projections called pseudopodia (false feet). These pseudopodia
surround a particle and enclose it what leads to the formation
of the intracellular vesicle containing an engulfed particle. The
engulfed particle is finally digested by ensymes. Typical for solid
particles.
 pinocytosis – the plasma membrane starts to fold inside the cell,
a sag is formed and becomes bigger. After that the sag separates
from the plasma membrane, digestive enzymes digest content.in
a form of a small vesicle which includes the engulfed particles.
Exocytosis:
- it is a reverse process of endocytosis esp. pinocytosis.
- Exocytosis refers to the extrusion of material from the cell by discharching it
from vesicles at the cell surface
 49. What is ATP and ADP? Describe the structure
- ATP = Adenine + Ribose + P  P  P
- ATP is produced in mitochondria and the process itself is called phosphorylation and
it can only use the energy bound in the chemical phosphate bonds
- when the outer phosphate group of ATP is removed, ADP (adenosine diphosphate) is
formed.
ADP = Adenine + Ribose + P  P

- The reaction that forms ADP from ATP releases energy in a way that enables
cells to use the energy. The following equation summarizes this reaction.
ATP + H2O  ADP + (PO4)3- + ENERGY (50kJ)

50. How much energy is stored in one P of ATP.

50kJ
51. Where is energy producet and stored. What is the process of phosphorylation.
ATP is produced in mitochondria and the process itself is called phosphorylation and
it can only use the energy bound in the chemical phosphate bonds