• Why do some teenagers seem to change their appearance, their behavior, and their goals

markedly from one year to the next?

• When teenagers disagree with their parents on every issue, is it time for the parents to give
up, become stricter, or something else?

• Does knowing about sex make it more likely a teenager will be sexually active?

• Is delinquency a sign of serious crime in adulthood or a temporary phase?

• Since most adolescents try alcohol, why do laws forbid it?

•
•
•
•
•
Identity

Erikson
• Identity
– Consistent definition of
one's self as a unique
individual, in terms of
roles, attitudes, beliefs,
and aspirations

–
 Identity
Erikson
• Identity versus role confusion
– Erikson's term for the fifth stage of development, in which the person tries to figure out
Who am I? but is confused as to which of many possible roles to adopt.

• Identity achievement
– Erikson's term for the attainment of identity, or the point at which a person
understands who he or she is as a unique individual, in accord with past experiences
and future plans

•
–

•
–
 Identity: Not Yet Achieved
Marcia described and measured four specific ways young
people cope with adolescence.
• Role confusion (identity diffusion)
• Foreclosure
• Moratorium
• Identity achievement
How do these agree with and differ from Erikson?

•
•
•
•
Not Just a Uniform
• Adolescents in moratorium adopt
temporary roles to postpone
achieving their final identity.

• High school students like these

may sign up for an ROTC
(Reserve Officers Training Corps)
class, but few of them go on to
enlist in the U.S. Marine Corps.

• ,

•
ROTC
Four Areas of
Adolescent Identity
Formation
Religious identity
• Most adolescents accept broad
outlines of parental and
cultural religious identity.

• Specific religious beliefs may

be questioned.

•
Four Areas of Adolescent Identity Formation

Political identity
• Most adolescents follow parental political traditions.

• Apolitical identity may emerge with weakening parental party

identity.

• Fanatical political religious movement participation rare.

• Most adolescents identity with their ethnicity.

•
•
•
•
Four Areas of Adolescent Identity Formation

Vocational identity
• Vocational identity takes years to establish.

• Early vocational identity no longer relevant.

• Part-time work during high school is often related to

negative outcomes.

•
•
•
Don’t Think About It!
 Four Areas of
Adolescent Identity
Formation
Sexual identity
• Erikson’s gender
intensification no longer fits
adolescent development

• Now called gender identity

that begins with the
person’s biological sex and
leads to a gender role

Who and Where? –

These could be teenagers anywhere. But a
closer look reveals gay teenagers in Atlanta, –
Georgia, where this march could not have
occurred 50 years ago.
Relationships with
Elders
Conflicts with parents
• Parent–adolescent conflict typically
peaks in early adolescence and is more a
sign of attachment than of distance
Bickering
• Bickering involves petty, peevish arguing,
usually repeated and ongoing
Uninvolved parenting
• Although teenagers may act as if they no
longer need their parents, neglect can be
very destructive.

•
 Relationships with Elders

Cultural differences
• In cultures that value harmony above all else,
adolescent contradiction are not apparent.
Does this mean that adolescent rebellion is a
social construction? Why? Why not?
到
• ⼩小

⼼心⽣生 愛
 Relationships with Elders
Closeness within the family
• Communication: Do parents and teens talk openly with one
another?

• Support: Do they rely on one another?

• Connectedness: How emotionally close are they?

• Control: Do parents encourage or limit adolescent autonomy?

個
• 分
• 分
• 分
• 要 分 ⾃自 ⼀一
Age, Language, and Autonomy

Words and Perceptions

 Relationships with Elders
Emotional dependency
• Adolescents are more dependent on their parents if they are female
and/or from a minority ethnic group.

• This can be either repressive or healthy, depending on the culture and

the specific circumstances.

• Overall, parental reactions are crucial: Too much criticism and control
might stop dialogue, not improve communication and behavior

• / ⼤大
• 這
• 分 要
 Relationships with Elders
Do You Know Where Your Teenager Is?
• Parental monitoring: Parents' ongoing awareness of what their children are
doing, where, and with whom.
– Positive: Part of a warm, supportive relationship

– Negative: When overly restrictive and controlling

– Worse/Psychological: Parents make a child feel guilty and impose

gratefulness by threatening to withdraw love and support

要分
– 分
– 分 要
– 過 / 分
 Relationships with Peers
Peer pressure
• Encouragement to conform to one's friends or contemporaries
in behavior, dress, and attitude

Deviancy training
• Destructive peer support in which one person shows another
how to rebel against authority or social norms

•
 Peer Support
Selection
• Teenagers select friends whose values and
interests they share, abandoning friends who
follow other paths.

Facilitation
• Peers facilitate both destructive and
constructive behaviors in one another.
• This makes it easier to do both the wrong thing
and the right thing.
• It helps individuals do things that they would be
unlikely to do on their own.

•
•
• Instant Connections
 Romance
Sequence of male–female relationships during
childhood and adolescence (Dunphy, 1963)
• Groups of friends, exclusively one sex or the other
• A loose association of girls and boys, with public interactions
within a crowd
• Small mixed-sex groups of the advanced members of the
crowd
• Formation of couples, with private intimacies
1963
•
•
•
• 的為 新 個
Romance
First love
• First romances appear in high school and
rarely last more than a year.

• Girls claim a steady partner more often

than boys do.

• Breakups and unreciprocated crushes

are common.

• Adolescents are crushed by rejection and

sometimes contemplate revenge or
suicide.

•
•
•
•
 Romance
Same-sex romances
• Currently in North America and western Europe, not just two
but many gender roles and sexual orientations are evident.

• Variatinss (via research) reflect culture, cohort, and survey

construction.

•
 Gender Dysphoria
• An increasing number of adolescents feel that they do not identify with their
biological sex.

• Some children suffer from feeling they do not match their biological sex.

• These children may be diagnosed with gender dysphoria, a new DSM-5

diagnosis that describes the distress individuals may feel as a consequence
of feeling that they are in "the wrong body.”

• DSM-5

 Sex Education
From the media
• Correlation between exposure to media sex and adolescent sexual
initiation

From parents
• Many parents wait too long, avoid specifics, and are uninformed
about adolescent’s relationships
• Warm, open communication is effective

麼
• 麼 下

•
•
 Sex Education
From peers
• Adolescent sexual behavior is strongly influenced by peers, especially when
parents are silent, forbidding, or vague

• Specifics of peer education depend on the group: All members of a clique

may be virgins, or all may be sexually active.

• Only about half of U.S. adolescent couples discuss issues such as

pregnancy and STIs and many are unable to come to a shared conclusion
based on accurate information.

•
 Sex Education: In School
From teachers in schools
• U.S. parents want up-to-date sex education for
their adolescents.
• Timing and content vary by state and community.
• Sex education varies by nations,
• Abstinence-only programs were not successful.

•
•
•
•
 Sadness and Anger
Depression
• Self-esteem for boys and girls dips at puberty
• Signs of depression are common
• Level of family and peer support is influential

Clinical depression
• Feelings of hopelessness, lethargy, and worthlessness that last two weeks or more
• Varied causal factors: Biological and psychological stress; genes; rumination with peers

•
•
•

•
• ; ;
Suicide
 Much Depends on Age

A historical look at U.S. suicide statistics reveals two trends, both of which
were still apparent in 2009.
 Suicide
Misconceptions about adolescent suicide rates
• The suicide rate for adolescents, low as it is, is higher than it was in the
early 1960.

• Statistics on youth often include emerging adults, whose suicide rates

are higher than those of adolescents.

• Adolescent suicides capture media attention.

• Suicide attempts are relatively common in adolescence.

• 1960
• “ ”
• 麼
• 上
Suicidal Ideation and Parasuicide
 Delinquency and Disobedience
Behaviors
– Externalizing and internalizing behavior are more closely connected in adolescence
than at any other age.

Breaking the law

– Prevalence and incidence of criminal activities more common in adolescence.
– About one-fourth of young lawbreakers caught.
– Most adolescents obey the law.

–
–
–
 Delinquency and Disobedience: Predicting
Delinquency

Cluster 1 (primarily brain-based) Cluster 2 (primarily contextual)

• Short attention span, • Having deviant friends; having

hyperactivity, inadequate few connections to school;
emotional regulation, slow living in a crowded, violent,
language development, low unstable neighborhood; not
intelligence, early and severe having a job; using drugs and
malnutrition, autistic tendencies, alcohol; and having close
maternal cigarette smoking, and relatives (especially older
being the victim of severe child siblings) in jail. ;
abuse ;
時 有 多 ;
; 會 ;
⼈人 為
中我
 Delinquency and Disobedience
• Life-course-persistent offender: a person whose
criminal activity typically begins in early adolescence
and continues throughout life; a career criminal

• Adolescence-limited offender: a person whose

criminal activity stops by age 21

•
;

• 21
 Delinquency and Disobedience:
Predicting Delinquency
Pathways to adolescent crime
• Stubbornness can lead to defiance,which can lead to
running away-runaways are often victims as well as
criminals (e.g., prostitutes, petty thieves.)
• Shoplifting can lead to arson and burglary.
• Bullying can lead to assault rape, and murder.

•
是
•
•
 Drug Use and Abuse: Variations in Drug
Use
Age differences
• Drug use becomes widespread from age 10 to 25 and then decreases
• Drug use before age 18 is the best predictor of later drug use

Variations by place
• Nations have markedly different rates of adolescent drug use, even nations
with common boundaries.
• These variations are partly due to differing laws the world over.

• 10 25
• 18

•
•
 Drug Use and Abuse
Variations by generation
• Drug use among adolescents has decreased in the U.S. since 1976.

• Adolescent culture may have a greater effect on drug-taking behavior than laws do.

• Most adolescents in the U.S. have experimented with drug use and say that they could find
illegal drugs if they tried.

• Most U.S. adolescents are not regular drug users and about 20% never use any drugs.

• Rates vary from state to state.

• 1976
•
•
• 20
•
Drug Use and Abuse

Rise and Fall

 Drug Use and Abuse

Variations by gender
• Adolescent boys generally use more drugs and use them
more often.

• Gender differences are reinforced by social constructions

about proper male and female behavior (e.g., If I don't
smoke, I'm not a real man ).

• 在 說
• 到 愛 們
“ ”
 Harm from Drugs
Tobacco
• Slows down growth (impairs digestion, nutrition, and appetite)

• Reduces the appetite

• Causes protein and vitamin deficiencies caused

• Can damage developing hearts, lungs, brains, and reproductive

systems

• 能
• 不
•
• 能 可 沒
 Harm from Drugs
Alcohol
• Most frequently abused drug among North American teenagers

• Heavy drinking may permanently impair memory and self-control by

damaging the hippocampus and the prefrontal cortex.

• Alcohol allows momentary denial of problems ! when problems get worse

because they have been ignored, more alcohol is needed.

• Denial can have serious consequences.

•
•
•
•
 Harm from Drugs

Marijuana
• Adolescents who regularly smoke marijuana are more likely to
drop out of school, become teenage parents, and be
unemployed.

• Marijuana affects memory, language proficiency, and

motivation.

• 著
•
Preventing Drug
Abuse: What Works?
Generational forgetting
• Each new generation
forgets what the previous
generation learned about
the harm drugs can do.

• Many efforts to stop drug

use have failed, but the
overall trend is positive.

•
 Preventing Drug Abuse: What Works?
Scare tactics: May increase drug use because
• The advertisements make drugs seem exciting.
• Adolescents recognize the exaggeration.
• The ads give some teenagers ideas about ways to show defiance.

Advertising campaigns against teen smoking

• Antismoking announcements produced by cigarette companies
increase use

•
•
•