Ict Methods

UNIT 1: TEACHING AND LEARNING
Unit Outline
Session 1: Learning, learning theories and its implication on teaching and learning
Session 2: Effective teaching
Session 3: Learning styles
Session 4: Teaching styles
Session 5: Reflective teaching
INTRODUCTION
Welcome to the first unit of the course – Methods of teaching Computer Studies. This a very
important course which every professional teacher ought to take in order to be knowledgeable and
proficient in today’s world of Information Age. Dear Learner, this unit will expose you to basic
information and definitions of teaching and learning. Its main aim is to provide you with
professional knowledge on aspects of how to be an effective professional ICT teacher. Those of
you who already have some knowledge in this field can also refresh what you have already learnt.
The language and terminologies used in teaching and learning will also highlighted on to serve as
a guide through the other units. The unit is divided into sessions. Each session is further divided
into sub-sessions for easy reading and comprehension of concepts. Each session ends with self-
assessment questions to review what was taught and may also include an assignment. It is our hope
that you will understand this course. Please, take particular note of the concepts that will be coming
up. In these notes, there will be explanation of key concepts, nevertheless, you are encouraged to
do further research and reading on any concepts you may not understand fully. This will assist you
in grasping the concepts better so that you will be able to apply these concepts to your real life
experiences.
Unit Objectives
By the time you have finished reading through all the sessions of this Unit, you should be able to:
• Explain learning
• State the roles of the learner
• Describe the sequences of learning
• Describe the domains of learning
• Describe behaviorism, cognitivism and constructivism
• Define teaching
• Explain any two roles of the teacher
• Explain any three approaches of teaching
• Explain the characteristics of an effective teacher
• Discuss learning styles
• Explain the five types of teaching styles
• Describe reflective teaching
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WEEK ONE (SESSION 1 AND 2)
SESSION 1: LEARNING THEORIES AND ITS IMPLICATION ON TEACHING AND

LEARNING
Hello Learner, welcome to the first session of Unit one. You will recall from the overview we will
want to discuss learning theories. In addition, we will look at explaining implications on teaching
and learning.
Objectives
By the end of this session, the students should be able to:
 Explain learning in your own words
 Describe the role of the learner
 Explain any two sequences of the learner
 Describe the three domains of learning
 Define learning theory
 Describe behaviorism and its implication in teaching and learning
 Explain cognitivism and its implication in teaching and learning
 Discuss constructvism and its implication in teaching and learning
1.1. Learning
A number of you have probably heard the following words at one time or another, but probably
did not grasp the full meanings. This week, we are going to look at some of those words.
We have seen the word learning so many times. What is learning in your words? It can occur as
a result of practice or observation. Some of you may define learning along the following
definitions. You may say learning is:
The act or experience of one that learns; knowledge of skill acquired by instruction or study;
modification of a behavioural tendency by experience.
 A change in behavior as a result of experience or practice.
 The acquisition of knowledge.
 Knowledge gained through study.
 To gain knowledge of, or skill in, something through study, teaching, instruction or
experience.
 The process of gaining knowledge.
 A process by which behavior is changed, shaped or controlled.
 The individual process of constructing understanding based on experience from a wide
range of sources.
 The activity or process of gaining knowledge or skill by studying, practicing, being taught,
or experiencing something
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Learning is a complex process where teacher, learning material, student’s motivation and several
other aspects interact with each other. Many researchers have attempted to define the concept of
learning and no single definition can be said to be conclusive or correct. In this course learning
will be defined as a relatively permanent change in behaviour with behaviour including both
observable activity and internal processes such as thinking, attitudes and emotions (Burns, 1995).
The role of learners
The learner has multiple roles during instruction, the main ones are to:
• Select/reject information when reading, listening, viewing, and writing during instruction.
• Analyze and synthesize information, compare, sequence, link, classify, establish cause and
effect, summarize e.t.c
• Apply information to their daily life
• Transform information into knowledge
• Interpret information
• Pass examinations
Sequence of Learning
Attention
Attention is considered a necessary preparatory set. Your students have to pay attention in order
to follow and understand the content you are teaching them. Attention prepares your students for
the next stage in learning, which is called perception.
Perception
At this stage of learning, there is an input to the senses that gets registered so that its meaning is
established. The result, namely what is perceived, depends partly on the students’ prior learning
and partly on what stimuli or parts of stimulus situations your students attend to. Perception
involves a complex interrelating of information from the environment and information retained
from prior learning.
Acquisition
This is the phase of learning in which a student acquires a new capability or new skills in operating
something. Acquisition involves identifying how ways and means are mastered and learning how
to respond to a situation.
Retention
What your students have learned is retained until the time it will be used. Psychologists believe
that there are two types of retention: short-term and long-term retention. Short-term retention is
demonstrated when your students hold information long enough for immediate use. For instance,
• remembering a telephone number until a call is made,
• a hotel waiter memorizing details of your order before serving you with the food
you ordered.
When the outcomes of learning last in your student’s mind beyond the immediate occasion for
their use, say from a few minutes right up to a lifetime, long-term retention is observed. Long-term
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retention of behavior is required in education for learning purposes. In learning, the best way of
improving retention is to give attention to what is learned initially and how this learning is
organized, and to relate this to the kind of problem you are faced with.
Transfer
This is sometimes called application and is the highest and most complex level of learning. It
occurs when you require your students to apply, or put to use motor skills they are able to recall.
You should now be aware that objectives that require your student to apply their knowledge in a
real world setting are the most complex and require more instruction than the other phases of
learning we have described.
Domains of learning
Let us now look at the definition of learning theory. Learning theories are conceptual frameworks
that describe how information is absorbed, processed, and retained during learning. Learning
brings together cognitive, emotional, and environmental influences and experiences for acquiring,
enhancing, or making changes in one's knowledge, skills, values, and world views.
A learning theory is a systematic and integrated outlook of the nature of the learning process. There
are three main categories of learning theory: behaviorism, cognitivism, and constructivism.
Behaviourism focuses only on the objectively observable aspects of learning. Cognitive theories
look beyond behaviour to explain brain-based learning. And constructivism views learning as a
process in which the learner actively constructs or builds new ideas or concepts.
1.2 Behaviorism
We now look at behaviourism into greater detail. Behaviorism is primarily concerned with
observable and measurable aspects of human behavior. It views the mind as a "black box" in the
sense that response to stimulus can be observed quantitatively, totally ignoring the possibility of
thought processes. In defining behavior, behaviorist learning theories emphasize changes in
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behavior that result from stimulus-response associations made by the learner. It describes how all
learning and behaviors are directly correlated with environmental stimuli. The learner starts off as
a clean slate (i.e. tabula rasa). Behavior is the response of an organism to stimuli.
Stimulus Response
It can be a stimulus causing a response by having with it put with a trigger.
Key proponents in behaviorism are Ivan Pavlov, B.F. Skinner, Edward Thorndike, John Watson
and others.
Implications of behaviorism on teaching and learning
• Teacher’s Role in Behaviorism:

- Motivates and facilitates learning
- Actively keeps students participating
- Students should be active respondents, people are most likely to learn
when they actually have a chance to behave.
- Provides the stimulus (which may be the lesson plan, theme, or subject matter at
hand)
- Teachers should present material in small portions.
- Teachers should break down tasks into small steps.
- Work from most simple to most complex tasks
- Tasks must be adjusted to be age appropriate
- Teachers should use repetition and lots of practice.
- Teachers should repeat stimulus-response to strengthen learning (Drill and
practice.
- Teachers must provide constant feedback to students.
- Provides positive reinforcement
- Teachers should offer rewards or reinforcement for correct responses.
Technology: Many software programs provide rewards, such as mini-games for answering
questions correctly; Also, using computer time (which is exciting for students) as a reward will
provide positive feedback and integrate technology to the class.
• Students Role in Behaviorism:

– Students work for rewards of some sort.
– Their behavior is diverse based on their environmental surroundings, thus students
respond differently.
– Students respond to stimuli.
Technology: Many computer programs reward the student when an answer is correct or a goal is
reached.Technology has enthused students to like learning and under the behaviorist theory
students are working for their reward while doing something they like and avoiding punishment.
• Curriculum: Skills are taught in a set sequence
• Learning goals: Stated in terms of mastery learning
• Types of activities: Lecture, demonstration, seatwork, practice, testing
• Assessment strategies: Written tests, same measures for all students
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1.3 Cognitivism
Have you heard of cognitivism before? If you have not, that’s okay because we will explain what
it is. Cognitivism involves activities like memory capacity, thinking and mental processing. The
learner is viewed as an information processor. Information Processing looks at how information is
retrieved and stored. This theory focuses on how to store and retrieve information. Learning is
attained through rehearsal and consistent use of the information. People are not “programmed
animals” that merely respond to environmental stimuli. People are rational beings that require
active participation in order to learn. Cognitive activities cannot be measured directly, but can only
be inferred from observing performance.
Key proponents in Cognitivism are Robert Gagne, Howard Gardner, Benjamin Bloom and so on.
Implications of cognitivism on teaching and learning
• Careful planning of lessons

• Variety of internal (attention, motivation and recall) and external (timing and place)
conditions
• Instructional methods should appeal to different intelligences
• Variety of assessment methods
• Create instructional plans based on state standards, learning objectives and learning
theories
• Paying attention
• Recall of prior learning
• Can state what has been learned
• Can discriminate between facts and can follow directions
• All students can learn given the correct conditions
• Curriculum: Relationships among information is stressed
• Learning goals: Understanding processes as well as basic skills, learning how to learn
• Types of activities: using graphic organizers, demonstration, advanced organizers
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• Assessment strategies: performance assessment, project-based learning, essay questions
(i. e. summarize, compare and contrast)
1.4 Constructivism
Finally, we take a look at the last learning theory in this course, which is constructivism.
Constructivism views learning as a process in which the learner constructs knowledge based on
their past experiences. It puts the learner at the center of the education. Students learn by “doing”.
Teachers use scaffolding, which is, questions, clues, or suggestions that help a student link prior
knowledge to new knowledge. The teacher only acts as a facilitator who encourages students to
explore within a given framework.
Students participate in learning process. Students may collaborate with others to organize their
ideas and learn from each other to construct their own knowledge.
Key proponents in constructivism are Jean Piaget, Lev Vygotsky, John Dewey and Jerome Bruner
and others.
Implications of constructivism on teaching and learning
• Teachers use scaffolding (breaking up learning into chunks and then providing a tool with
information).
• Teachers use schemata, an organized way of providing a cognitive framework for
understanding and remembering information.
• Teachers use anchored instruction, a model for technology-based learning, which stresses
learning within a problem-solving learning context.
• Teachers should provide lessons that students can practice “doing” or where they can work
with others.
• Student must “do”.
• Students actively participate in the learning process by using critical-thinking skills to
analyze a problem.
• Students will create or construct (can use technology).
• Students can use technology easily under this theory.
• Curriculum: Based on projects that foster higher level and lower level skills at the same
time.
• Learning Goals: Stated in terms of growth from where the student began; work
independently and with groups.
• Types of Activities: Group projects, hand-on exploration; product development.
• Assessment: Performance tests and products (ex. Portfolios); quality measured by rubrics
and checklists; measure may differ among students.
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Self-Assessment Questions
Exercise 1.1
1. What is the meaning of learning?
2. State any three roles of the learner.
3. Explain any two sequences of the learning.
4. State the three domains of learning.
5. Define learning theory.
6. What is involved in behaviorism and its implication in teaching and learning?
7. Describe cognitivism and its implication in teaching and learning.
8. Explain constructvism and its implication in teaching and learning.
Assignment on learning theories (Groupwork)
Discuss and answer the following questions in a group using whatsapp group platform. Make sure
you write some notes on what you discussed.
1. What is learning?
2. Which learning theories do you know and what do you remember about them?
3. Why is it important for teachers to know learning theories? Is it important at all?
4. Make a list of words that best describe the learning theories.
5. Why is constructivism suitable for our education system?
SESSION 2: EFFECTIVE TEACHING
Dear learner, you are welcome to this session. In the previous session, we looked at definitions of
some important concepts in learning. Hopefully, you enjoyed that session. In this session, we shall
look at effective teaching.
Objectives
By the end of this session, you should be able to:
a. Define teaching in their own words.
b. Describe any two roles of a teacher.
c. Explain any two teaching approaches.
d. Describe effective teaching.
e. State the characteristics of an effective teacher
2.1. Definition of teaching
As a teacher, you have been teaching for quite awhile now. So, we may be tempted to say that we
all know what teaching is. But, do we really understand what teaching is. Do not worry we will
look into more detail about teaching. Teaching is a complex, multifaceted activity, often requiring
us as instructors to juggle multiple tasks and goals simultaneously and flexibly. The following
small but powerful set of principles can make teaching both more effective and more efficient, by
helping us create the conditions that support student learning and minimize the need for revising
materials and content, Teaching can be defined as engagement with learners to enable their
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understanding and application of knowledge, concepts and processes. It includes design, content
selection, delivery, assessment and reflection. For this course, we say teaching is the process of
engaging students in activities that will enable them to acquire the knowledge, skills, as well as
worthwhile values and attitudes.
The role of the teacher
The role of teachers falls broadly into the six categories listed below.
The information provider

A traditional responsibility of the teacher is to pass on information, knowledge and understanding
of the contents of the study. This information can be delivered using various teaching methods.
The choice is the challenge in teaching.
The role model

A teacher should exemplify what should be learned. They should be models not only as they teach
but as they perform their duties.
The facilitator
As we move to the learner- centered view of learning the role of the teacher is changing to that of
a facilitator of learning. Teachers are no longer viewed as ‘walking tape recorders’ teachers must
therefore hone theirs skill of facilitation and mentorship as they support the problem - based
learning and the learner’s ability to source for information.
The assessor
The teacher assesses the student and the curriculum. The assessment of the students competence
though examinations. The teachers assess the curriculum by monitoring and evaluating the
effectiveness of the teaching of the courses.
The Planner
Teachers plan the curriculum and the courses to be taught as well as their implementation.
The Resource Developer

Teachers develop the resources that are used during the delivery of the curriculum. They develop
their teaching aids, incorporate new technologies in the teaching technique, prepare study guides
and they also keep abreast of any changing knowledge. In a school setting some teachers have only
one role. Most teachers have several roles. All roles must however be represented in an institution
or school.
• Which teachers represented these roles in your former secondary school?
• Which roles would you like to play as a teacher?
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Teaching approaches
A teaching approach is a set of principles, beliefs, or ideas about the nature of learning which is
translated into the classroom. It is a combination of ways that a teacher uses when presenting the
content of a lesson.
Didactic Approach
In the early days, teaching was didactic, i.e. lecture method. Students were given rigidly formulated
statements, which they had to memorize and regurgitate when required to do so by teachers. Little
or no emphasize was placed on understanding; learners were simply made to cram things. It was
believed that the human brain is a blank store where knowledge can be pumped and stored.
Expository Approach
This involves the kind of teaching that is characterized by predominance of teacher talk with little
or no involvement of students on practical activities. It is a teacher-centered approach. The teacher
gives facts, explains concepts, and gives illustrations. Anything that needs to be taught practically
is done through teacher demonstrations.
Student participation is limited to listening and asking questions and writing notes as the lesson
progresses. This approach is not considered very effective in the teaching. However, it is alleged
that there are some topics in science/mathematics that can only be approached satisfactorily by
exposition because their very nature they are difficult to teach practically.
Empiricist
Emphasis was on the need to acquire scientific knowledge through observations. Laws were
reached by induction. The learner was now given opportunity to at least handle apparatus and make
observations thus developing interest and manipulate skills.
Heuristic Approach
At the turn of 20th century advocates of the Heuristic approach of teaching believed that learners
could be trained to discover scientific ideas by using faculties of observation, reasoning and
memory. Learners were involved in observation, recording, analyzing data and drawing
conclusions on their own. This was a better approach since it involved real inquiry, which would
lead to understanding of the theory however, this approach tends to consume more time, hence
delay in syllabus coverage.
Inquiry/Discovery Approach
This is a learner-centered approach with a high degree of involvement of all who participate. It is
systematic in that a set of activities is used, yet highly flexible in that the sequence of the activities
can be changed and others can be substituted at any time. The teacher involves students in activities
that help in the development of scientific skills such as the ability to make observations, perform
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experiments, collect data make deductions and present results. A Chinese proverb says, ‘I hear I
forget, I see and I remember, I do and I understand.’
The learners would carry out experiments then create concepts at first hand in the laboratory, as a
means of awakening original thought. With passage of time, it was realized that despite the many
practical activities may of the learners still face problems understanding science, hence the slogan
‘I do and I am even more confused’. The teacher’s role is to guide students by clarifying
instructions where necessary and being available to answer any questions that may arise in the
course of the activities.
This involves a wider range of activities centered on helping students to learn by:
• Gaining new insight from the outcome of their investigations
• Modifying their pre-existing ideas in the light of the new insights
• Constructing their understanding of a scientific concept.
The basic assumption is that students have their own explanations of the phenomena encountered
in their every day life. This approach helps them to test their understanding using the scientific
approach.
Constructive Approach
The constructivists approach takes cognizance of the fact that by the time a learner enters formal
education he/she has already interacted with former environment and has developed ideas and
concepts in relation to what he has experienced? As a child grows up, it continuously encounters
new horizons in terms of knowledge gained, which require explanations either from its parents,
family members, or peers.
The entire encounter is digested and stored in their memory and becomes knowledge. Learning
therefore should be built on the learner’s practical experience while at the same time correcting
any misconceptions or learner’s alternative frameworks.
According to Piaget, an individual interprets reality via intellectual structures characterized by

acting schemes that change as one grows. An individual therefore tries to attain structures to make
it consistent with the new experience.
The role of the teacher is to provide guidance as a facilitator by giving students challenges that
will help to correct their misconceptions and enable them to draw correct concepts. The teacher
can do this through:
• Class discussions (peer group learning)
• Students’ experiments and demonstrations
• Use of audio visual aids, charts, diagrams models etc.
1.2. Effective teaching
Effective teaching can be defined in many ways including teacher behaviour (warmth, clarity),
teacher knowledge (of subject matter, of students), teacher beliefs, and so forth, Here we define
effective teaching is as the ability to improve student achievement. Vogt (1984) related effective
teaching to the ability to provide instruction to different students of different abilities while
incorporating instructional objectives and assessing the effective learning mode of the students.
Effective teachers strive to motivate and engage all their students in learning. They believe every
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student is capable of achieving success at school and they do all they can to find ways of making
each student successful.
Characteristics of effective teaching
• Begins class promptly and in a well-organized way.

• Motivate and engage all their students in learning.
• Treats students with respect and caring.
• Provides the significance/importance of information to be learned.
• Provides clear explanations. Holds attention and respect of students….practices effective
classroom management.
• Uses active, hands-on student learning.
• Varies his/her instructional pedagogies/techniques.
• Provides clear, specific expectations for assignments.
• Provides frequent and immediate feedback to students on their performance.
• Praises student answers and uses probing questions to clarify/elaborate answers.
• Provides many concrete, real-life, practical examples.
• Draws inferences from examples/models….and uses analogies.
• Creates a class environment which is safe and comfortable for students….allows students to
speak freely.
• Teaches at an appropriately fast pace, stopping to check student understanding and
engagement.
• Understand that students develop at different rates and accommodate the different needs of
students in their class.
• Has a sense of humor!
• Uses nonverbal behavior, such as gestures, walking around, and eye contact to reinforce his/her
comments.
• Presents him/herself in class as ‘real people.’
• Have mastery of his/her teaching content.
• Focuses on the class objective and does not let class get sidetracked.
• Monitors progress and uses feedback from students (and others) to assess and improve
teaching.
• Reflects on own teaching to improve it.
Exercise 1.2
a. What is teaching?
b. Describe any three teaching approaches.
c. Explain effective teaching.
d. State any four characteristics of effective teaching.
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WEEK TWO (SESSION 3 AND 4)
3.1. LEARNING STYLES
This session will go into greater detail about learning styles.
Objectives
a. Describe learning styles.
b. Explain VAK learning style.
c. Describe Kolb’s learning styles.
d. Describe Gardner’s Multiple Intelligences.
Before we start discussions about learning styles. Let us first define learning styles. Information
enters your brain through three methods: sight, hearing, and touch. The one which you use the
most is called your learning style. Learning style is a group of characteristics, attitude and
behaviors that define our way of learning. Learning style is a particular way in which the mind
receives and processes information. It is an integral concept that bridges the personality to
cognitive dimensions of an individual. Learning Style classifies different ways in which people
learn how they approach information. By recognizing and understanding one’s own learning style,
techniques better suited to learning can be used.
3.1. VAK learning styles
• Visual Learners learn by sight

• Auditory Learners learn by hearing
• Tactile Learners (kinesthetic) learn by touch
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Visual learners (V)
• Prefer to see information such as pictures, diagrams, cartoons, or demonstrations
• Picture words and concepts that they hear as images
• Might get easily distracted during a lecture with no visual aids
• Could become overwhelmed with intense visuals accompanied by lecture
• Benefit from using charts, maps, notes, and flash cards when studying
Auditory learners (A)

• Prefer to hear information spoken
• Can absorb a lecture with little effort
• May not need detailed notes to learn
• Often avoid eye contact in order to concentrate
• May read aloud to themselves
• Like background music when they study
Kinesthetic learners (K)

• Prefer touch as their primary mode for taking in information
• In traditional lecture situations, they should write out important facts
• Create study sheets connected to vivid examples
• Role-playing might help them learn and remember important ideas
Applied Techniques
– Visual Learners:
o Write out everything for frequent and quick visual review.
o Use color coding when learning new concepts and words.
o Use outlines of reading assignments which cover key points and guide reading.
o Use notes and flash cards for review of material, vocabulary, and terminology for
specific course s.
o Review textbook during relevant lecture component.
– Auditory Learners:
o The student should position themselves in the classroom or lecture hall so that
he/she can hear lectures and review them frequently.
o Read written material aloud (restate in your own words) .
o Verbally review spelling words and lectures with another person - practice verbal
repetition .
o Record lectures (with instructor permission).
– Kinesthetic Learners:
o Study in short blocks of time rather than extended periods .
o Have as many experimental learning opportunities as possible, such as lab and
studio courses
o Use this info when selecting courses.
o Use flash cards.
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3.2. Kolb’s experiential learning style
Kolb (1974) views learning as an integrated process with each stage being mutually supportive of
and feeding into the next. It is possible to enter the cycle at any stage and follow it through its
logical sequence
1. Concrete Experience - (a new experience of situation is encountered, or a reinterpretation of

existing experience). They are highly skilled in the practical application of ideas. They tend to do
best in situations where there is a single best solution or answer to a problem.
2. Reflective Observation (of the new experience. Of particular importance are any inconsistencies
between experience and understanding). People with this learning style are good at seeing the "big
picture" and organizing smaller bits of information into a meaningful whole. Divergers tend to be
emotional and creative and enjoy brainstorming to come up with new ideas. Artists, musicians,
counsellors, and people with a strong interest in the fine arts, humanities, and liberal arts tend to
have this learning style.
3. Abstract Conceptualization (Reflection gives rise to a new idea, or a modification of an existing

abstract concept). Understanding and creating theoretical models is one of their greatest strengths.
They tend to be more interested in abstract ideas than in people, but they are not greatly concerned
with the practical applications of theories. Individuals who work in math and the basic sciences
tend to have this type of learning style. Assimilators also enjoy work that involves planning and
research.
4. Active Experimentation (the learner applies them to the world around them to see what results).
Accommodators are doers; they enjoy performing experiments and carrying out plans in the real
world. Out of all four learning styles, Accommodators tend to be the greatest risk-takers. They are
good at thinking on their feet and changing their plans spontaneously in response to new
information. When solving problems, they typically use a trial-and-error approach. People with
this learning style often work in technical fields or in action-oriented jobs such as sales and
marketing.
Effective learning is seen when a person progresses through a cycle of four stages. First, immediate
and concrete experiences serve as a basis for observation. Next, the individual reflects on these
observations and begins to build a general theory of what this information might mean. In the next
step, the learner forms abstract concepts and generalizations based on their hypothesis. Finally, the
learner tests the implications of these concepts in new situations. After this step, the process once
again cycles back to the first stage of the experiential process
3.3 Howard Gardner’s Theory of Multiple Intelligences
Howard Gardner's theory of multiple intelligences proposes that people are not born with all of the
intelligence they will ever have.
This theory challenged the traditional notion that there is one single type of intelligence, sometimes
known as “g” for general intelligence, that only focuses on cognitive abilities.
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Verbal-Linguistic Intelligence (“word smart” or “book smart”)
This intelligence involves the knowing which comes through language; through reading, writing,
and speaking. It involves understanding the order and meaning of words in both speech and writing
and how to properly use the language. It involves understanding the sociocultural nuances of a
language, including idioms, plays on words, and linguistically-based humor.
Mathematical-Logical Intelligence (“math smart” or “logic smart”)

This intelligence uses numbers, math, and logic to find and understand the various patterns that
occur in our lives: thought patterns, number patterns, visual patterns, color patters, and so on. It
begins with concrete patterns in the real world but gets increasingly abstract as we try to understand
relationships of the patterns we have seen.
Visual-Spatial Intelligence (“art smart” or “picture smart”)

We often say “A picture is worth a thousand words!” or “Seeing is believing!” This intelligence
represents the knowing that occurs through the shapes, images, patterns, designs, and textures we
see with our external eyes, but also includes all of the images we are able to conjure inside our
heads.
Intrapersonal Intelligence (“self smart” or “introspection smart”)“self smart” or “introspection

smart”)
At the heart of this intelligence are our human self-reflective abilities by which we can step outside
of ourselves and think about our own lives. This is the introspective intelligence. It involves our
uniquely human propensity to want to know the meaning, purpose, and significance of things. It
involves our awareness of the inner world of the self, emotions, values, beliefs, and our various
quests for genuine spirituality.
Bodily-Kinesthetic Intelligence ("body smart" or "movement smart")

We often talk about “learning by doing.” This way of knowing happens through physical
movement and through the knowing of our physical body. The body “knows” many things that are
not necessarily known by the conscious, logical mind, such as how to ride a bike, how to parallel
park a car, dance the waltz, catch a thrown object, maintain balance while walking, and where the
keys are on a computer keyboard.
Interpersonal (“people smart” or “group smart”)

This is the person-to-person way of knowing. It is the knowing that happens when we work with
and relate to other people, often as part of a team. This way of knowing also asks use to develop a
whole range of social skills that are needed for effective person-to-person communication and
relating
Naturalist Intelligence (“nature smart” or “environment smart”)

The naturalist intelligence involves the full range of knowing that occurs in and through our
encounters with the natural world including our recognition, appreciation, and understanding of
the natural environment. It involves such capacities as species discernment, communion with the
natural world and its phenomena, and the ability to recognize and classify various flora and fauna.
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Musical-Rhythmic Intelligence (“music smart” or “sound smart”)
This is the knowing that happens through sound and vibration. In the original research on the
theory of multiple intelligences this intelligence was called musical-rhythmic intelligence.
However, it is not limited to music and rhythm so I’m calling it auditory-vibrational, for it deals
with the whole realm of sound, tones, beats, and vibrational patterns as well as music.
Exercise 1.3
a. Explain learning style.
b. Discuss VAK’s learning style.
c. How would you describ Kolb’s experiential leaening style?
d. What does Gardner’s theory of multiple intelligence entail?
SESSION 4: TEACHING STYLES
After refreshing our knowledge on learning styles, this session will briefly discuss instructional-
decision making.
Objectives
By the end if this session, you should be able to:
a. Define teaching styles,

b. Describe the five types of teaching styles.
4.1. Teaching styles
Teaching is more complex, but it is also a combination of many small and repetitive tasks that all
come together to form a bigger picture. Reflective teaching helps you understand how to better
perform each little part to create a better future. Not only will it make you a better teacher, it will
also help you develop your students into better learners. Teaching styles are linked to a teacher’s
educational value system, and stem from your philosophy of education. Being aware of your own
teaching style (or styles) can help you improve your teaching methods, and encourage more student
engagement and, ultimately, student outcomes. It’s the pattern of your teaching based on a set of
strategies used within the classroom that you believe help your students learn the material most
effectively.
4.2. Types of teaching styles
There are two main buckets that most teaching styles fall into: teacher centered or student centered.
Here’s a closer look at teacher-centered instruction vs. the student-centered approach:
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Teacher-Centered Approach
The teacher-centered approach to education positions the teacher as the expert who is in charge of
imparting knowledge to his or her students via lectures or direct instruction. In this approach
(sometimes called “sage on the stage”), students are passive actors or “empty vessels,” listening
and absorbing information.
This teacher-centered style is the traditional approach to teaching, but it’s not necessarily the best.
And as educators learn more about effective ways to engage learners of every style, the teacher-
centered approach is looked upon less fondly than it once was. However, there are also countless
examples of students being challenged and transformed by a teacher or professor lecturing about
a subject they have spent their entire life exploring.
Student-Centered Approach
The student-centered approach creates more equanimity between the teacher and student, with
each playing a role in the learning process. In this approach, the teacher is sometimes referred to
as the “guide on the side.”
While the teacher still holds authority, he or she is more likely to act as a facilitator, coaching
students and assisting them in their learning. This approach champions student choice and
facilitates connections among students. A couple of styles within the student-centered approach to
teaching are:
Inquiry-Based Style
This student-centered learning style encourages independence, autonomy and hands-on learning,
with students leading the way and receiving guidance from their teachers.
Cooperative Style
Cooperative learning is a student-centered approach that focuses on group work and social growth.
Much like the inquiry-based style, the cooperative style encourages independence and hands-on
learning but puts special importance on peer-to-peer work and community.
Many educational resources break down the different styles of teaching into the following five
primary categories:
The Authority, or lecture style

The authority model is teacher-centered and frequently entails lengthy lecture sessions or one-way
presentations. Students are expected to take notes or absorb information.
The Demonstrator, or coach style

The demonstrator retains the formal authority role by showing students what they need to know.
The demonstrator is a lot like the lecturer, but their lessons include multimedia presentations,
activities, and demonstrations. (Think: Math. Science. Music.)
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The Facilitator, or activity style
Facilitators promote self-learning and help students develop critical thinking skills and retain
knowledge that leads to self-actualization.
The Delegator, or group style

The delegator style is best suited for curricula that require lab activities, such as chemistry and
biology, or subjects that warrant peer feedback, like debate and creative writing.
The Hybrid, or blended style

Hybrid, or blended style, follows an integrated approach to teaching that blends the teacher’s
personality and interests with students’ needs and curriculum-appropriate methods.
Because teachers have styles that reflect their distinct personalities and curriculum, it is vital that
they remain focused on their teaching objectives
Teaching styles and learning styles can work hand-in-hand. And when they match, it can result in
a positive experience all around. Different teaching styles are necessary because the students need
to be able to learn what the teacher is teaching. However, the choice of teaching styles used can
also depend on the school mission statement, the classroom demographics, the educational
philosophy of the teacher, and most importantly, the subject area. Teaching styles that match
students’ learning styles, and that put student needs and learning at the forefront, can lead to more
positive academic outcomes. Students tend to be more engaged, and thus better grasp the material.
Educators who are aware of their teaching style, and who re-evaluate it, try new things and get
feedback from students can take teaching to a new level.
Self-Assessment questions
a. What is a teaching style?
b. Describe the five types of teaching styles.
WEEK THREE (SESSION 5)
SESSION 5: Reflective teaching
This session will seek to discuss reflective teaching. Thus, relevant for teachers in their work and
research activities.
Objectives
a. Define reflective teaching.
b. Describe five reflective teaching strategies.
c. Explain the characteristics of a reflective teacher.
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5.1 Reflective teaching
When instructors engage in reflective teaching, they are dedicating time to evaluate their own
teaching practice, examine their curricular choices, consider student feedback, and make revisions
to improve student belonging and learning. This self-assessment process requires information
gathering, data interpretation, and planning for the future.
There are many definitions for reflecting teaching.

 Reflective teaching involves examining one’s underlying beliefs about teaching and learning
and one’s alignment with actual classroom practice before, during and after a course is taught.
 Reflective teaching operates as an umbrella term denoting various approaches, including
teaching inventories and observation protocols, self-assessments, and consideration of student
evaluations.
 Reflective teaching is a more systematic process of collecting, recording and analysing a
teacher’s thoughts and observations, as well as those of their students, and then going on to
making changes. It requires teachers to look at what they do in the classroom, and think
about why they do it and if it works - a process of self-observation and self-evaluation.
 Reflective teaching involves examining one’s underlying beliefs about teaching and learning
and one’s alignment with actual classroom practice before, during and after a course is
taught.
 Reflective teaching means that you take a look at what you do in your classroom, and think
about why you do it. Then, think about whether this works for your students and for yourself.
Therefore, in this course, we can say that: Reflective teaching is a process whereby teachers
reflect on their teaching practices in order to examine the overall effectiveness of their
instructive approaches. So, there can be improvement or change in teaching methods if
required, depending on the outcome of this analytical process, based on critical reflection.
Why is reflection important in teaching? Well, when reflecting, you’re collecting information
about what goes on in your classroom. When analysing and evaluating this new information, you
can identify and explore your own practices and underlying beliefs, which may lead to changes
and improvements in your teaching. Reflective teaching is an example of professional
development, starting in your own classroom.
The process of reflection comes with a cycle to follow:

 Teach
 Self-assess the effect of your teaching on learning
 Consider new ways of teaching that can improve the quality of learning
 Try these ideas in practice
 And of course, repeat the process again
Self-reflection never stops, there is always room for improvement. A reflective approach to
teaching involves changes in the way we usually perceive teaching and our role in the process of
teaching. Teachers who explore their own teaching through critical reflection develop changes in
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attitudes and awareness which they believe can benefit their professional growth as teachers, as
well as improve the kind of support they provide their students. Like other forms of self-inquiry,
reflective teaching is not without its risks, since journal writing, self-reporting or making
recordings of lessons can be time-consuming. However teachers engaged in reflective analysis of
their own teaching report that it is a valuable tool for self-evaluation and professional growth.
Reflective teaching suggests that experience alone is insufficient for professional growth, but
that experience coupled with reflection can be a powerful impetus for teacher development.
5.2. Reflective teaching strategies
Self-Assessment
Reflection Journals: A reflection journal allows instructors to capture details of their teaching
directly after class, and read an ongoing narrative of their teaching across terms and years. Taking
5 minutes or so after class, the instructor writes thoughts on the day’s lesson. Teachers might
reflect on the following questions: What went well today? What could I have done differently?
How will I modify my instruction in the future?
Teaching Inventories: A number of inventories have been developed to help teachers assess their
teaching approaches. These often consist of multiple choice questions on a Likert-scale and often
take less than 15 minutes to complete. Inventories are usually designed to assess the extent to
which particular pedagogies are employed (e.g. student- versus teacher-centered practices).
Video/Audio-Recorded Teaching Practices: Video or audio recordings of lessons can provide

very useful information for reflection. You may do things in class you are not aware of or there
may be things happening in the class that as the teacher you do not normally see. Teachers can
video-record their lessons informally or formally, along with an observation protocol in order to
self-assess their own practices. Video cameras can be installed in classrooms and be utilized by
teachers for recordings.
Teaching Portfolio: A more time-intensive practice, the teaching portfolio allows teachers to pull
the various components of their teaching into a cohesive whole, starting typically with a teaching
philosophy or statement, moving through sample syllabi and assignments, and ending with
evaluations from colleagues and students. The portfolio provides an opportunity for instructors to
see their teaching in a “big picture.”
Ethical Case Studies: Ethical case studies give students the opportunity to analyze a situation and
gain practice in ethical decision making as they choose a course of action. This reflection strategy
can foster the exploration and clarification of values. Students write a case study of an ethical
dilemma they have confronted at the service site, including a description of the context, the
individuals involved, and the controversy or event that created an ethical dilemma.
Student Portfolios: This type of documentation has become a vital way for students to keep
records and learn organizational skills. Encourage them to take photographs of themselves doing
their project, short explanations (like business reports), time logs, evaluations by supervisors or
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any other appropriate “proof” which could be used in an interview. Require them to make this
professional. Keep reminding them that submitting it at the end of the term is only one reason for
doing this. “The real reason is to have documentation to present at future interviews. This could
be a major factor in distinguishing them from other candidates.” Student portfolios could contain
any of the following: service-learning contract, weekly log, personal journal, impact statement,
directed writings, photo essay. Also, any products completed during the service experience (i.e.,
agency brochures, lesson plans, advocacy letters) should be submitted for review. Finally, a written
evaluation essay providing a self-assessment of how effectively they met the learning objectives
of the course is suggested for the portfolio.
External Assessment
Student Evaluations (Midterm and End-of-Term): In many courses, teachers will obtain feedback
from students in the form of midterm and/or end-of-term evaluations. Teachers can consider
student evaluations as one data source in their instruction and take note of any prevailing themes.
They can seek out other ways to assess their practices to accompany student evaluation data before
taking steps to modify instruction. One option is to include external observation and anonymous
discussion with students for more real-time, and often more honest, feedback.
Peer or Departmental Observation and Feedback: Teachers can invite a colleague to come into
your class to observe, collect information and provide feedback about your teaching. This may be
with a simple observation task or through note taking. This will relate back to the area you have
identified to reflect upon. Colleagues can agree on a protocol and list of behaviors to focus on, or
utilize one of many teaching inventories available online.
5.3. Characteristics of reflective teacher
Aims and consequence
Calder head ( 1992) states that Reflective teaching implies an active concern with aims and
consequences as well as means and technical competence with lead to creative and innovative
approaches to classroom and problems , this could eventuate into improved learning
opportunities for students.
A cyclical Process
This characteristic refers to the process of reflective teaching in which teachers monitor,
evaluate and revise their own practice continuously . Stenhouse ( 1975) points out that
teachers should act as researchers of their own practice and should develop the curriculum
though practical enquiry , teachers are principally expected to plan, make provision and act .
Reflective teachers also need to monitor , observe and collect data on their own and learners
interactions , action and feelings. This evidence then need to be critically analysed and evaluated
so that it can be shared , judgments made and decisions , finally this may lead to the
teacher to revise his or her classroom policies, plans and provision before beginning the
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process again . It is dynamic process which is intend to lead through successive cycles towards
higher quality standards of teaching.
Gathering and Evaluating
Evidence Pollard ( 2008 : 18 ) states that reflective teaching requires competence in methods of
evidence –based classroom which are the four skills; reviewing relevant, existing research ,
gathering new evidence and analysis and evaluation , each of which contributes to the cyclical
process of reflection to support the progressive development of higher standard of teaching .
• Reviewing relevant, existing Research

This means to learn as much as possible from other like teachers or from professional researchers
.
• Gathering new Evidence
It is concerned with gathering data , describing situations, processes , reasons and effects with
care and accuracy .
• Analytical skills
These skills are needed to address the process of how to interpret descriptive data such
facts not meaningful unless they are placed in a frame work that enable a reflective teacher
to relate then one with other and to start to theorize about them.
• Evaluative skills
Evaluative skills are involved in making judgment about the education consequences
of the results of the practical enquiry . Evaluation , in the lightof aims, values and
the experience of others enable the results of enquiry to be applied to future policy and
practice
Attitudes towards Teaching
Reflective teaching requires attitude of open-mindedness, responsibility and whole heartedness.
• Open-mindedness :-" An active desire to listen to more sides than one, to give heed to facts
from whatever source they come, to give full attention to alternative possibilities, to recognize
the possibility of error even when it goes against our beliefs" (Pollard , 2008). Open–mindedness
is an important attribute for rigorous reflection because any type of enquiry that is consciously
based on partial evidence, only weakens itself. We thus use the concept in the sense of willingness
to reflect upon ourselves and to challenge are own assumptions, prejudices and ideologies.
• Intellectual Responsibility: -It means to be willing to adopt these consequences when they follow
reasonably intellectual responsibility secures integrity.
• Whole Heartedness : -The third of Dewey's important attitudes, refers essentially to the way
in which such consideration happens. Dewey's suggestion was that reflective teachers should
be dedicated, single –minded , energetic and enthusiastic as he put it ; "
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Teacher judgment
Reflecting teaching is based on teacher judgment , informed by evidence –based enquiry

and insights from other research. Teacher's knowledge has often been criticized (Pollard , 2008
: 21 ).
Learning with colleagues Reflective teaching , professional learning and personal fulfillment are
enhanced through collaboration and dialogue with colleagues, the value engaging in reflective
activity is almost always enhanced if it can be carried out in association with other colleagues.
Collaboration reflective discussion capitalizes on the social nature of learning , this is as

signification for individual and it works through many of the same basic process aims are thus
clarified, experiences are shared , language and concept for analysing practice are refined , the
personal insecurities of innovation are reduced. More over openness , activity and discussion
gradually weave the values and self of individuals in to the culture and mission of the course.
This can be both personally fulfilling and educationally effective ( Vygotsky , 1978).
Exercise 1.5
a. What is reflective teaching?

b. Explain any four strategies in reflective teaching.
c. Describe any three characteristics of a reflective teacher.
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UNIT 2: INSTRUCTIONAL OBJECTIVES
Unit Outline
Session One: Instructional objectives
Session Two: Domains of instructional objectives in ICT
Session Three: Aims and objectives for teaching Primary/JHS ICT
Dear student, this unit presents information on how best the technological knowledge can be used
to enhance teaching. The unit is divided into sessions. Each session is further divided into sub-
sessions for easy reading and comprehension of concepts.
Unit Objectives
By the end of this unit, the students should be able to:
Define instructional objectives
State the reasons why instructional objectives are important
Classify instructional objectives
Provide examples of instructional objectives
Describe the three domains of instructional objectives
State any four aims and objectives in Primary ICT
State any four aims and objectives in JHS ICT
WEEK FOUR (SESSION 1, 2 AND 3)

SESSION 1: INSTRUCTIONAL OBJECTIVES
In education, both goals and objectives can be defined as statements that reflect what learners will
be able to do at the end of an instructional sequence; however, there are significant differences
between the two. A goal is an abstract and general umbrella statement, under which specific
objectives can be clustered. Goals are overall end result you want the students to accomplish after
the instruction. Goals are general statements of intent. Objectives are explicit and measureable
performances the students must accomplish in order to reach the goal. Objectives are statements
that describe in precise, measurable, and obtainable terms defined and desired learner outcomes.
Objectives
By the end of this session, you will be able to:
a. Define instructional objectives
b. State the reasons why instructional objectives are important
c. Classify instructional objectives
d. Provide examples of instructional objectives
1.1 Definition of instructional objectives
Instructional objectives are important in all aspects of teaching and learning. Instructional
objective is a statement that will describe what the learner will be able to do after completing the
instruction. Instructional objectives are specific, measurable, short-term, observable student
behaviors. They indicate the desirable knowledge, skills, or attitudes to be gained. It provides a
25
genre for choosing subject matter content, sequencing topics and for allocating teaching time. They
also guide in the selection of materials and procedures to be employed in the actual teaching
process. Further they provide standards as well as criteria for evaluating the quality and efficiency
of teaching and learning activities.
Why are instructional objectives important?

Instructional objectives are guides to:
1.Selection of content sequencing topics allocating teaching time
2.Development of an instructional strategy.
3.Development and selection of instructional materials.
4.Construction of tests and other instruments for assessing and then evaluating student learning
outcomes.
Steps to writing objectives
For each objective, answer the following three questions:

• What do you want to accomplish?
• How are you going to accomplish it? (What steps will you take to accomplish your
objective? What activities will you do? How will you acquire the learning? Under what
conditions will the learning occur?)
• How you will measure your objective? (What evidence will you have to demonstrate that
learning has taken place? What criteria will be used to evaluate your evidence? Who
will do the evaluation?)
Checklist for writing objectives
i) Written in terms of students’ performance?

ii) Observable by one or more of the five senses?
iii) Specific?
iv) Valid and reliable to the major objectives and goals of the course?
v) Measurable in terms of level of performance and conditions under which performance takes
place?
vi) Sequential in relation to prior and subsequent knowledge?
vii) Relevant to the students’ experiences
viii) Attainable within the time period you have allotted for it?
ix) Challenging to each student?
x) Acceptable to society?
xi) Realistic?
xii) Having a stem: At the end of a given period (lesson, course, module) the learner should be
able to:
1.2 SMART objectives
 Specific- Concrete, tangible evidence of improvements; targeting specific groups of students
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 Measurable- Multiple measures; focus our efforts on what gets measured;
 Attainable- Goals that motivate us to strive higher; almost but not quite within reach; we
address goals through data conversations
 Results-based- Motivating, concrete benchmarks against which to measure our efforts; not
process goals
 Time-bound- Builds internal accountability and commitment—a specific time frame
How to create Specific, Measurable, Relevant, and Time-framed objectives
It’s helpful to start with the phrase “By the end of this lesson the student will be able to….” and
finish the sentence.
• Add an observable action verb that describes what the student should be able to do (see table on
next slide for examples of action verbs).
• Avoid difficult to define verbs that are open to a variety of interpretations (e.g., understand, learn,
grasp); use instead terms that describe directly observable behaviors.
• When necessary, specify criteria concerning expected standard of performance (e.g., “Design a
plan for students, including supplies and equipment needed, time estimates, and a description of
the activities.”
How to create Specific, Measurable, Relevant, and Time-framed objectives

• It’s helpful to start with the phrase “By the end of this lesson the student will be able to….” and
finish the sentence.
• Add an observable action verb that describes what the student should be able to do (see table on
next slide for examples of action verbs).
• Avoid difficult to define verbs that are open to a variety of interpretations (e.g., understand, learn,
grasp); use instead terms that describe directly observable behaviors.
• When necessary, specify criteria concerning expected standard of performance (e.g., “Design a
plan for students, including supplies and equipment needed, time estimates, and a description of
the activities.”
Exercise 2.1
a. What are instructional objectives?
b. Give any three examples of instructional objectives in ICT.
SESSION 2: DETERMINING THE DOMAIN OF A INSTRUCTIONAL OBJECTIVE
Domain- A specification that shows the elements and interrelationships of teaching and learning.
There are 3 domains:

 Cognitive- Mental skills
- Involves knowledge and development of intellectual skills.
- Critical thinking and cognitive processes progress in the levels of complexity the further
27
you go up.
 Affective- Attitudinal skills
- Deals with the manner in which learners deal with emotions, such as feeling values,
appreciation, motivation and attitudes.
 Psychomotor- Physical skills
- Includes physical movement, co-ordination and use of motor skills.
- The development of these skills requires practice, speed, precision, procedures and
techniques to perform.
Objectives
a. Describe instructional objectives under cognitive domain.
b. Explain instructional objectives under affective domain.
c. State at least five examples of instructional objectives in ICT under psychomotor
domain.
Cognitive Domain
• The cognitive domain involves knowledge and development of intellectual skills.

• It includes recall of facts patterns and concepts.
• It has six major categories
Bloom’s Taxonomy
• Knowledge (recall, identify, recognize, acquire, distinguish)

• Comprehension (translate, extrapolate, convert, interpret, abstract, transform)
• Application (apply, sequence, carry out, solve, prepare, operate, generalize, plan, repair,
explain)
• Analysis (analyze, estimate, compare, observe, detect, classify, discover, discriminate,
identify, explore, distinguish, catalog, investigate, breakdown, order, recognize, determine)
• Synthesis (write, plan, integrate, formulate, propose, specify, produce, organize, theorize,
design, build, systematize)
• Evaluation (evaluate, verify, assess, test, judge, rank, measure, appraise, select, check)
Bloom’s revised Taxonomy
• Knowledge- Recalling or restating facts

• Understanding- Ability to create own meaning from new learning
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• Applying- Using the new knowledge in a familiar or different context
• Analyzing- Breaking the new knowledge down into discrete parts and identifying how the
parts relate to the whole.
• Evaluating- Making judgments and critiquing
• Creating- Putting pieces together to form something new
Why the changes?
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1. Knowledge is a product of thinking, not a category of thinking in itself. So it was changed
to Remembering.
2. The taxonomy changed from nouns to actionable verbs.
3. Comprehension changed to Understanding.
4. Synthesis changed to Creating because creative thinking is a more complex skill than
critical thinking (synthesis) and therefore, not only did the word change but where it is
located on the taxonomy.
Older Bloom was more applicable toward younger audiences (elementary) but the New Blooms
accommodates a more comprehensive audience.
Activity
For each question, indicate the level of Bloom’s taxonomy.
1. What events led to the troubleshooting the computer?

2. What is the definition of input devices?
3. Who created Microsoft?
4. What is an example of a storage device?
5. What is the difference between input and output devices?
6. What changes would you make to the Core ICT curriculum? Why?
7. Do you believe that constructivism is the best learning theory to apply to ICT teaching?
Defend your position.
8. Design a software for SHS to teach geometry to Form one students.
9. Explain why ICT plays an important role in society.
Affective Domain
 This domain deals with the manner in which learners deal with emotions, such as feeling
values, appreciation, motivation and attitudes.
 It has five major categories
• Receiving (asks)
• Responding (helps)
• Valuing (demonstrates)
• Organization (adheres)
• Internalizing (performs)
Receiving Stimuli
Listening to others with respect; listening to new knowledge. Examples: replies, selects, names,
follows, describes, identify, points to, asks, and chooses
Responding to Stimuli
Active participation; willingness to respond and satisfaction in responding (motivation).
Examples: Answers, aids, assists, complies, conforms, presents, read, write, labels, helps,
performs, practices
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Valuing
The worth or value one assigns to the stimuli. Even though they are internalized, they are overtly
identifiable. Willing to be involved. Examples: Differentiates, demonstrates, completes, justifies,
reads, proposes, shares, selects, initiates, follows.
Organizing
Willing to support and be an advocate. Prioritizing values, comparing and contrasting values;
managing conflict and creating resolutions based upon these values and the priorities ascribe to
each. Examples: Compare, contrast, organize, adhere, resolve, prepares, relate,
Internalizing
A value system established that controls behavior; it is consistent and pervasive. Work well with
others and independently, self-advocacy practiced. Willing to change behavior for good and
revise judgment when new insight comes into play.
Examples: Influences, acts, discriminates, proposes, questions, revises, re/solves
Psychomotor Domain
• The domain includes physical movement, co-ordination and use of motor skills.
• The development of these skills requires practice, speed, precision, procedures and
techniques to perform.
• It has five categories.
• Naturalization
• Articulation
• Precision
• Manipulation
• Imitation
Naturalization-mastering skill to automaticity. Examples: design, develop, create

Articulation- combining, producing, and performing several skills consistently. Examples: adapt,
construct, generate, create, modify, teach, solve, combine, co-ordinate
Precision- performing a skill independently without assistance. Examples: demonstrate, master,
perfect, complete, control, show
Manipulation- performing by memory or following instructions. Examples: act, execute, produce,
perform, implement
Imitation- mimicking and observing behavior. Examples: copy, follow, mimic, reproduce,
replicate, trace
Exercise 2.2
a. State any five examples of instructional objectives of ICT under cognitive domain.
b. Give any three examples of instructional objectives of ICT under affective domain.
c. State any two examples of instructional objectives of ICT under psychomotor domain.
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SESSION 3: GENERAL AIMS AND OBJECTIVES OF ICT TEACHING SYLLABUS FOR
PRIMARY SCHOOLS/JHS
Objectives
a. State the general aims of ICT teaching syllabus for primary school/JHS.
b. State at least five general and specific objectives of ICT teaching syllabus for primary
school .
c. State at least five general and specific objectives of ICT teaching syllabus for JHS.
3.1 General Aims (Primary Schools)/JHS
The syllabus is designed to help pupils to:

1. acquire basic ICT literacy
2. communicate effectively using ICT tools
3. develop interest and acquire skills in the use of the internet
4. develop basic ethics in using ICT tools
5. acquire basic mouse and keyboarding skills
3.2 General and specific objectives (Primary Schools)
Read
TEACHING SYLLABUS FOR INFORMATION AND COMMUNICATIONS
TECHNOLOGY(PRIMARY 1 - 6)
3.3 General and specific objectives (JHS)
Read
TEACHING SYLLABUS FOR INFORMATION AND COMMUNICATIONS
TECHNOLOGY(JHS 1 - 3)
Exercise 2.3
a. What are the five general aims of ICT teaching syllabus for both primary school
and JHS?
b. State at least five general and specific objectives of ICT teaching syllabus for
primary school.
c. State at least five general and specific objectives of ICT teaching syllabus for JHS.
UNIT 3: INNOVATIVE AND EFFECTIVE TEACHING METHODS
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Unit Outline
Session 1: Conventional Methods

Session 2: Inquiry-Based learning and Guided Discovery
Session 3: Concept Mapping
Session 4: Cooperative learning and Peer Learning
Session 5: Project Method
Session 6: Didactic Teaching
Dear learner, you are once again welcome to this unit. I hope you understood what we discussed
in Unit 2. Teaching methods may be defined simply as a way of carrying out actual teaching in the
‘classroom’. They are the means by which the teacher attempts to impart the desired learning or
experience. The concern is with the way the teacher organizes and uses teaching techniques or
skills, subject matter, teaching aids or resources to meet teaching objectives. The particular method
that a teacher uses is determined by a number of factors. These include; content to be taught,
objectives which the teacher plans to achieve, availability of teaching and learning resources and
the ability and willingness of the teacher to improvise if convectional teaching aids are not
available, evaluation and follow-up activities, individual learner differences and size of the class.
Objectives
By the end of this unit, you will be able to:
By the end of this unit, you should be able to:
a. Describe a classroom situation where you would use any three conventional methods of
teaching.
b. State at least two advantages and disadvantages of each method of inquiry-based learning
and guided discovery.
c. State any three characteristics of concept mapping.
d. Explain cooperative and peer learning.
e. Describe project method.
f. Define didactic teaching.
WEEK 5 (SESSION 1 AND 2)
SESSION 1: CONVENTIONAL METHODS
Welcome to the first session of unit 3. I hope you have prepared cognitively to enjoy this lesson.
You have already learnt about instructional objectives which dealt with the three domains of
learning. We are going to now look into conventional methods of teaching. This session will focus
on the definitions, characteristics, advantages and disadvantages of different conventional
methods.
Objectives
a. Describe any three types of conventional methods
b. Explain any three characteristics of brainstorming and lecture method.
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1.1 Conventional methods
They are the traditional way of teaching. Many teachers adopt these methods of teaching often.
These are, demonstration, discussion, lecture and role play.
Demonstration
A demonstration is a method of teaching whereby the teacher performs a task step-by-step so that
the learner would be able to complete the same task independently. A method of instruction where
the instructor by actually performing an operation or doing a job shows the students what to do,
how to do it, and through explanations brings out why, where, and when it is done. The purpose
of a demonstration is to provide a means by which the teacher can explain or clarify certain parts
of the context quickly and economically. It is essential that the students should be involved
actively. One way in which this can be achieved is through questioning as the demonstration
progresses. Whenever possible the teacher should also give students an opportunity to set up the
apparatus required for carrying out a certain procedure. The students should be organized in such
a way that every student is able to observe the demonstration. Demonstration can also be used to
explain an experimental set up before the students begin to set up their own apparatus and/or
materials to be used are not enough for the whole class; or when the materials are too dangerous
or equipment too delicate to be entrusted to the students.
Characteristics of demonstration
• It involves active participation of students and teachers at the same time.
• It encourages maximum amount of participation among students.
• The interest or zeal of student is maintained.
• Students display competency of the skills and concepts they observed.
• Demonstration method through group participation develop keen observation power and
scientific reasoning in students.
• Students are gathered round, prepared, observing and listening to the teacher whiles
demonstration is going on.
Uses of demonstration
• To teach manipulative operations or procedures.
• To teach troubleshooting.
• To illustrate principles.
• To teach operation or functioning of equipment.
• To teach teamwork.
• To set standards of workmanship.
• To teach safety procedures.
Advantages of demonstrations
• It helps in using various senses to make learning permanent.
• It develops interest in the learners and motivates them for their active participation.
• It helps in achieving psychomotor skills.
• Any simple or complex skill becomes easy to understand.
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Disadvantages of demonstrations
• It can be used only for skills subjects.
• Only the attention of the learners is invited towards the activity. Learners are not free to
discuss about it.
Lecture
A lecture is an oral presentation purposely to present information or teach people about a particular
subject. A formal or semi-formal discourse is which the instructor presents a series of events, facts,
or principles, explores a problem or explains relationships. Lecture method is the most commonly
used method of teaching. involves giving factual information with very little or no participation
by the learners. It is the method of relaying factual information which includes principles, concepts
and ideas about a given topic. In a lecture the instructor tells, explains, describes or relates
whatever information the students are required to learn through listening and understanding. It is
therefore teacher-centred. The instructor is very active, doing all the talking. Students on the other
hand are very inactive, doing all the listening. Despite the popularity of lectures, the lack of active
involvement of students limits its usefulness as a method of instruction. The lecture method of
instruction is recommended for students with very little knowledge or limited background
knowledge on the topic. It is also useful for presenting an organized body of new information to
the learner. To be effective in promoting learning, the lecture must involve some discussions and,
question and answer period to allow students to be involved actively.
Characteristics of lecture
• This method is convenient and usually make the most sense for large classes.
• This method is the oldest teaching method in education.
• It is teacher centered method; most of the activities are done by the instructor.
• Students learn better through listening and taking notes.
• The new knowledge is linked with previous knowledge.
Qualities of a good lecture
1. A good lecture should not be too long as to exceed the students attention span (up to 25
minutes).
2. A good lecture should address a single theme.
3. In a good lecture technical terms are carefully explained.
4. Familiar examples and analogies are given.
5. A good lecture establishes fluency in content.
6. A good lecture uses illustrations and examples.
7. A good lecture builds on existing knowledge.
8. A good lecture employs a variety of approaches.
Uses of a lecture
1. To orient students.
2. To introduce a subject.
3. To give directions on procedures.
4. To present basic material.
5. To introduce a demonstration, discussion, or performance.
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6. To illustrate application of rules, principles, or concepts.
7. To review, clarify, emphasise or summarise.
Advantages of lecture
• It is quite an economical method because it is possible to handle a large number of students
at a time and no laboratory equipment, aids, materials are required.
• Using this method, the knowledge can be imparted to students quickly and prescribed
syllabus can be covered in short time.
• It is quite attractive and easy to follow and also by this method teacher can develop his own
style of teaching and exposition.
• It simplifies the task of teacher as he/she dominates the lesson and students just passively
listen.
• Some good lectures, delivered by the teacher may motivate, instigate and inspire a student
for creative thinking.
• Teachers are able to enliven facts and ideas that seem tedious in the text and clarify issues
relating to confusing points
• Teacher is known to be an expert in a specific area or topic
• It encourages and allows for deductive reasoning.
Disadvantages of lecture
• The student’s participation is negligible and students become passive recipients of
information.
• It is not certain if the students are able to concentrate and understand the subject matter
being taught to them by teacher.
• Knowledge is imparted so rapidly that weak students are not have a full grasp of what is
being taught in an attempt to cover too much material in given time
• It is presumed that all students are learning at the same pace.
• It is not suitable to higher levels of learning.
• It is an undemocratic and authoritarian method as students cannot challenge or question the
verdict of the teacher.
• It does not provide for corrective feedback and remedial help to slow learners.
However, this method is most effective for transmission of large amounts of matter. In spite of this
criticism this method is still very useful an instructional technique as long as it is used
appropriately.
Role Play
In many courses, role playing can be used to develop empathy, to enliven a historical,
philosophical, or literary topic, or to provide a concrete enactment of an abstract topic. Volunteers
are asked to portray certain roles and given sufficient information on the context to enable them to
improvise dialogue and actions. In some classes, the instructors have attended class in the role of
a character and have enlisted colleagues to join them in enacting a situation for the students. The
class is asked to play the role of those in the situation as well, asking questions or engaging in
dialogue in ways that would be appropriate for the setting.
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Role play is any speaking activity when you either put yourself into somebody's shoes, or when
you stay in your own shoes but put yourself into an imaginary situation. Role play is a technique
that allows students to explore realistic situations by interacting with other people in a managed
way in order to develop experience and knowledge in different strategies in a supported
environment. In role plays, participants use their own experiences to play a real life situation.
When done well, role plays increase the participants self-confidence, give them the opportunity to
understand or even feel empathy for other people’s viewpoints or roles, and usually end with
practical answers, solutions or guidelines.
Role plays are useful for exploring and improving interviewing techniques and examining the
complexities and potential conflicts of group meetings. They help participants to consolidate
different lessons in one setting and are good energizers. However, role plays can be time-
consuming and their success depends on the willingness of participants to take active part. Some
students may feel a role play is too exposing, threatening or embarrassing. This reluctance may be
overcome at the outset by careful explanation of the objectives and the outcome. Some role plays
can generate strong emotions amongst the participants. It is therefore essential that a role play is
followed by a thorough debriefing. This provides the opportunity for the trainer and the
participants to raise and assess new issues.
Characteristics of role play

• Learner places themselves in another's shoes.
• Role-play should build on the learner’s previous knowledge and experience.
• Role-play enables people to experience a situation from the past or to prepare for a future
situation.
• Role-play is valuable in learning situations where it is not reasonable to practice the
required skills directly in the field. For example, role playing a public meeting with rate
citizens or a child protection worker removing a child from their homes.
• Debriefing and reflection are important aspects for a successful learning situation.
Uses of role play

1. Exploring and improving interviewing techniques and examining complexities and
potential conflicts of groups.
2. To consolidate different lessons in one setting.
Advantages of role play

• Student interest in the topic is raised.
• Active participation.
• Long term retention.
• It enhances communication and interpersonal skills.
• It helps individuals to learn to accept both their own feelings and those of others.
• It develops confidence and self-efficacy.
Disadvantages of role play
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• Can be time-consuming.
• Can lack focus unless well planned and monitored.
• Embarrassment for some students.
• Less effective in large groups.
• Can be unpredictable in terms of outcomes.
• Role play may awaken previously subdued or suppressed emotions.
Brainstorming
Brainstorming is a group of creativity techniques by which efforts are made to find a conclusion
for a specific problem by gathering a list of ideas spontaneously contributed by its members.
Another scholastic group defines brainstorming as a method of eliciting ideas without judgement
or filtering. In brainstorming, the teaching group is divided into smaller groups, which are then
told to come up with solutions, questions or factors. The groups think up their ideas simultaneously
so that each member can write down their ideas. It is important to emphasise to the students that
even the craziest ideas can be presented during brainstorming and that all critique is forbidden
during the brainstorming phase. The ideas are criticised after the brain-storming session. After the
ideas are assembled, the best suggestions are then found by voting or otherwise filtering the
ideas. The purpose of a brainstorming session is to discover new ideas and responses very quickly.
It is particularly a good way of getting bright ideas.
Students are encouraged to let ideas flow freely, building on and improving from previous ideas.
No idea, however crazy, should be rejected. These ideas are listed exactly as they are expressed
on a board or written on bits of paper. The combination of swiftly generated ideas usually leads to
a very animated and energizing session. Even the more reserved students should feel bold enough
to contribute. The purpose of listing responses is to collect existing experiences and thoughts. It is
useful to collect answers to questions when you expect much repetition in the responses. After a
brainstorm session, the ideas can be discussed further and evaluated, for example listing the best
options in a systematic way. Ideas can be grouped and analyzed so that they belong to the group
rather than individuals.
Characteristics of brainstorming
• Brainstorming is not instructor centered.
• Ideas are brought forth and discussed.
• Brainstorming withholds criticisms.
• Brainstorming welcomes wild ideas.
• Brainstorming goes for quality.
Advantages of brainstorming
• It moves participants out of conflict to consensus.
• The cost of brainstorming session is very low as compared to other ways of eliciting ideas.
• The biggest advantage is the high number of generated ideas.
• Participants see each other’s ideas, which can also inspire them to come up with new
ones.
Disadvantages of brainstorming
• It produces ideas without screening.
• It is time wasting technique.
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• It can produce lots of production blocking. Production blocking is the tendency for one
individual during a brainstorming to block or inhibit other people from offering ideas.
Discussion
Discussion involves two-way communication between participants that is used to reach

instructional objectives. In the classroom situation an instructor and students all participate in
discussion. During discussion, the instructor spends some time listening while the students spend
sometimes talking. The discussion is, therefore, a more active learning experience for the students
than the lecture. A discussion is the means by which people share experiences, ideas and attitudes.
As it helps to foster students involvement in what they are learning. Discussions may be used in
the classroom for the purpose of lesson development, making students apply what they have learnt
or to monitor students learning by way of feedback. It may contribute to desired attitudinal
changes. Discussion is an important component any teaching /learning situation. It allows students
to share their ideas. It can be used at the beginning of a topic to ascertain students’ pre conceived
notions of the subject matter or towards the end of a topic by presenting students with a new
situation and asking them to explain it in terms of what they have just learned. Discussion is
important to learning in all disciplines because it helps students process information rather than
simply receive it. The goal of a discussion may be to produce an solution, to analyse a situation or
to present various perspectives on the subject, for example. The teacher may start the teaching
discussion by asking questions or using a stimulus (a story, a newspaper clip, a piece of news, a
video, etc.) to inspire discussion. The teachers' role is that of facilitator.
Characteristics of discussion
• Students actively participates in the lesson.
• Students have the opportunity to criticize and evaluate each other’s viewpoint.
• Logical and meaningful criticism are accepted.
• Students should anchor the discussion themselves.
• Teacher and students are involved in the lesson, but teacher acts as a facilitator.
Uses of discussion
1. To stimulate thinking and interest and to secure student participation.
2. To emphasize main teaching points.
3. To supplement lectures, reading, or laboratory exercises.
4. To determine how well student understands concepts and principles.
5. To prepare students for application of theory of procedure.
6. To summarize, clarify points or review.
Advantages of discussion
• Allows less experienced learners to benefit from more experienced nurses’ knowledge
• Can stimulate critical thinking
• Utilises student knowledge and experience.
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• Results in more permanent learning because of high degree of student participation.
• Increase students interest.
• It enables sharing of thoughts, solving problems together and analysing subjects from
various perspectives.
Disadvantages of discussion
• It is time consuming.
• Not adaptable to all teaching-learning situations.
• If it is not properly guided, a discussion can degenerate into a consideration of
inappropriate topics adding confusion rather than clarification to the lesson.
• Sometimes, it can be difficult to keep on track.
• It may be difficult to deal with emotions that arise from different views.
• It can be challenging to prevent some students from monopolizing the discussion.
• It takes a great deal of preparation if done correctly.
•
Exercise 3.1
a. Discuss any four conventional methods used in teaching. (definition, characteristics, use,
advantage and disadvantage)
SESSION 2: INQUIRY-BASED LEARNING AND GUIDED DISCOVERY
Welcome to the second session of unit 3. I hope you have prepared cognitively to enjoy this lesson.
You have already learnt about conventional methods of teaching. We are going to now look into
inquiry-based learning and guided discovery. This session will focus on the definitions and
explanation, characteristics, advantages and disadvantages of inquiry-based learning and guided
discovery. Gird up and be ready for this lesson.
Objectives
1. Explain inquiry-based and guided discovery learning
2. State the characteristics of both inquiry-based and guided discovery learning
3. Describe any two advantages and disadvantages of inquiry-based learning
4. Describe any two advantages and disadvantages of guided discovery
2.1 Inquiry-based learning

Inquiry-based learning is an approach to learning that emphasizes the student’s role in the learning
process. It can be defined as a form of active learning that starts by posing questions, problems or
scenarios-rather than simply presenting established facts or portraying a smooth path to
knowledge. The process is often assisted by a facilitator. Inquirers will identify and research issues
and questions to develop their knowledge or solutions. It starts from a place of questioning.
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Students may spontaneously ask questions or be prompted to ask questions about a particular topic.
They might research to find answers, engage in activities that will help them pursue answers, or
work collaboratively in pursuit of answers; regardless, all learning stems from these questions. By
engaging in inquiry-based learning, students come to understand that they can take responsibility
for their learning. Taking part in inquiry-based learning means learning how to learn - how to
formulate insightful questions and go about pursuing answers to them.
Characteristics of Inquiry-based learning

• Students are engaged with complex problems or scenarios.
• Students direct the line of enquiry and the methods employed.
• The enquiry requires students to draw on existing knowledge and to identify their
required learning needs.
• Tasks stimulate curiosity in students, encouraging them to actively explore and seek new
evidence.
• Responsibility falls to the students for analyzing and presenting the evidence in
appropriate ways and in support of their own response to the problem.
Advantages of Inquiry-based learning

• Students’ engagement is high because they are actively working to solve a problem.
• Students develop as critical thinkers rather than sponges that gain information the way
they are presented.
• Teacher observation provides students with feedback and ensures their learning meets
curricular outcomes.
• Pre-assessments provide the teacher a window into students’ understanding of contents to
be explored.
• Portfolios allow students choice of the work they want to have evaluated.
• Because inquiry-based learning starts with questions, students are often very
authentically motivated to learn. Since they are driving the learning, they are studying the
things they care and wonder about the most; they will also acquire many other skills
along the way.
Disadvantages of Inquiry-based learning

• Requires much time and efforts to prepare for and conduct experiments.
• Constraints curriculum, students’ abilities and classroom structure.
• Incorrect outcomes from an experiment may result in anxiety.
• Students may find peer-assessments difficult due to the competitive nature of some
schools.
2.2 Guided discovery

Guided discovery is directing someone to uncover or reveal something. The term “Guided
Discovery” refers to a teaching and learning environment where students are actively participating
in discovering knowledge. Guided discovery learning combines pointing the way to understanding
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or problem-solving by a guide with the discovery of facts, relationships, and solutions by students
themselves, as they explore, manipulate objects, discuss, or perform experiments, drawing upon
their own experience and existing knowledge. The goal of discovery is to facilitate deep learning
on the part of the students – learning that has its basis in fundamental understanding and often
arises from viewing a problem from multiple perspectives. Guided discovery is regarded by many
teachers as an important tool. It encourages independence, makes learning more memorable, and
if analysis is done in groups is a meaningful communicative task. It is important, however, to
understand that some learners are resistant to this approach. Guided-discovery problems can be
incorporated into lecture, lab, and field courses. They fit beautifully into the exploration phase of
the learning cycle approach to teaching. Thus they work best when they are assigned before any
lectures or readings on the topic. Because guided-discovery problems are time-consuming and
foster deep learning, they are best used to teach course material that is especially important or
conceptually difficult.
Characteristics of guided discovery

• A context and frame for student learning through the provision of learning outcomes
• Learners have responsibility for exploration of content necessary for understanding
through self-directed learning
• Study guides are used to facilitate and guide self-directed learning
• Understanding is reinforced through application in problem oriented, task based, and work-
related experiences
Advantages of guided discovery

• Discovery learning fosters curiosity
• Discovery learning builds on learner's prior knowledge and understanding
• Discovery learning can be motivating, it incorporates the individuals pleasure of
successfully solving problems and recalling information
Disadvantages of guided discovery

• Guided discovery prevents dull students from participating in class
• It is too time consuming for all academic activities (for example mathematical operations),
there are not enough hours in a school year for students to 'unearth' everything on their
own.
• Guided discovery requires that the teacher be prepared for too many corrections, a lot of
things individuals discover for themselves turn out to be wrong (trial and error)
Exercise 3.2
1. Describe three characteristics of inquiry-based learning.
2. Explain any two advantages and disadvantages of guided discovery.
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SESSION 3: CONCEPT MAPPING
Hi there! I hope you are having a nice time learning this unit. This is session 3 of unit 3 where we
concentrate on concept mapping. We are going to delve into the definition, characteristics,
advantages and disadvantages of concept mapping.
Objectives
1. State the types of concept mapping.
2. Explain at least three characteristics of concept mapping.
3. State at least two advantages and disadvantages of concept mapping.
3.1 Concept mapping

Concept mapping is a great way to build upon previous knowledge by connecting new information
back to it. This post explores the uses of concept mapping and provides tools for creating concept
maps on the computer. It is a visual organization and representation of knowledge (ideas and
concepts). They show the relationship between ideas and they are usually represented in squares
and circles. You create a concept map by writing key words (sometimes enclosed in shapes such
as circles, boxes, triangles, etc.) and then drawing arrows between the ideas that are related. Then
you add a short explanation by the arrow to explain how the concepts are related. Concept maps
are especially useful for students who learn better visually, although they can benefit any type of
learner. They are a powerful study strategy because they help you see the big picture: by starting
with higher-level concepts, concept maps help you chunk information based on meaningful
connections. In other words, knowing the big picture makes details more significant and easier to
remember.
Concept maps work very well for classes or content that have visual elements or in times when it
is important to see and understand relationships between different things. They can also be used
to analyze information and compare and contrast. They enable teachers to tell at a glance if
students have a deep understanding or are struggling with the content and concepts being studied.
Concept maps aid learning by explicitly integrating new and old knowledge and students can
assess understanding or diagnose misunderstanding through drawing concept maps.
Concept maps are designed with a range of difficulty, all dependent on the given topic (how the
parts relate to the whole and also what information is not yet learned) along with the individual’s
preferred learning style and understanding level. Thus, the information on a map varies to build
understanding of the concept for the given audience. It is also essential to understand how these
maps can enhance learning and how individual learners comprehend learning
Types of concept mapping
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System concept mapping Hierarchical concept mapping
Spider Concept Mapping
Characteristics of concept mapping

• They have a propositional structure: they are linked by words and phrases (linking words
and linking phrases) to explain the connection between the ideas.
• They are hierarchical in nature: they begin with the main topic and branch into smaller
specific topics
• They present only the most important ideas of a concept- they contain the relevant portions
of a topic.
Advantages of concept mapping

• They aid in creating a presentation in a logical manner.
• They make reading and interpretation of concepts much easier.
• They also help students especially visual learners to grasp learning concepts more easily.
• They can also be used as assessment tools.
Disadvantages of concept mapping
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• Sometimes, some relationships are difficult to interpret in some concept maps. E.g: spider
maps.
• Some concept maps discourage critical thinking. E.g: flowchart.
• They are also not suitable for teaching young learners. For instance, lower primary students
may lack the skills to interpret concept maps.
• Not all information about a particular topic can be included in a concept map.
Exercise 3.3
1. Draw the diagrammatical representation of the three various type of concept mapping using
samples of ICT.
2. State any three characteristics of concept mapping.
3. Explain any two advantages of concept mapping.
SESSION 4: COOPERATIVE LEARNING AND PEER TEACHING
Hello dear learner! You are warmly welcomed to the fourth session of the third unit of types of
curriculum studies in computing. I hope you are very much poised to start learning something new
about your teaching profession. We have already discussed the other types of methods of teaching.
However, co-operative learning and peer teaching is very important for this unit.
Objectives
1. Describe cooperative learning and peer teaching
2. State at least two characteristics each of co-operative learning and peer learning
3. Explain one advantage and disadvantage of co-operative learning
4. Explain one advantage and disadvantage of peer teaching
4.1 Co-operative learning

In co-operative learning, students work together in small groups to complete a structured task or
goal. Co-operative learning is a successful teaching strategy in which small teams, each with
students of different levels of ability, use a variety of learning activities to improve their
understanding of a subject. Each member of a team is responsible not only for learning what is
taught but also for helping teammates learn, thus creating an atmosphere of achievement. Co-
operative learning is the process of breaking a classroom of students into small groups so they can
discover a new concept together and help each other learn with the aim of completing tasks
collectively toward academic goals and objectives. Unlike individual learning, which can be
competitive in nature, students learning cooperatively can capitalize on one another’s resources
and skills.
Characteristics of co-operative learning

• Student work together on common tasks or learning activities that are best handled
through group work.
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• Students work together in small groups containing two to five members.
• Students use cooperative, pro-social behavior to accomplish their common tasks or
learning activities.
• Students are positively interdependent. Activities are structured so that students need
each other to accomplish their common tasks or learning activities.
• Students are individually accountable or responsible for their work or learning.
Advantages of co-operative learning

 Raise achievement of students.
 Build positive relationships among students - important for creating a learning
community that values diversity.
 Provide experiences that develop both good learning skills and social skills.
Disadvantages of co-operative learning

• It creates a grading system which could be considered unfair.
• It creates new systems of socialization structure that are not always beneficial.
• It places a teacher’s responsibility onto their students.
• It creates a system of dependency.
4.2 PEER TEACHING

Peer teaching essentially refers to students learning with and from each other. Peer teaching
is also an educational practice in which students interact with other students to attain educational
goals. Students learn a great deal by explaining their ideas to others and by participating in
activities in which they can learn from their peers. Students will engage
themselves intellectually, emotionally and socially in constructive conversation and learn by
talking and questioning each other’s views and reaching consensus or dissent.
Characteristics of peer-teaching
• Ideas come from different sources.
• Students feel free to ask questions.
• Opinions are debated on and final conclusions are made.
• Variety of models are used.
Advantages of peer-teaching
• To create a sense of belonging among peers.
• Increases confidence among peers.
• Student develops critical thinking and problem-solving skills.
• Peer teaching also develops communication, interpersonal and teamwork skills.
• Peer teaching also strongly motivates learning.
• Peer teaching optimises student learning outcomes.
• It can help peers gain confidence and sharpen their skills
Disadvantages of peer-teaching
• Students may go off task as they are working with their friends.
• Individuals may not learn as much because leaders are not as experienced as the teacher.
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• It does not promote positive relationship between students and teachers since they are
mostly working with their colleagues.
Exercise 3.4
1. Define Cooperative learning.
2. List three characteristics of peer teaching.
3. State any two advantages of co-operative learning.
4. State any two disadvantages of peer teaching.
SESSION 5: PROJECT METHOD
Hello dear learner! You are warmly welcomed to the fifth session of the third unit of innovative
and effective teaching methods. I hope you are very much poised to start learning something new
about your teaching profession. We have already discussed the many types of teaching methods
like conventional, peer teaching, inquiry-based learning, cooperative learning, etc. This chapter
seeks to elaborate on the definition, characteristics, the pros and cons of project methods.
Objectives
1. Explain project method
2. Describe at least three characteristics of project method
3. State one advantage and disadvantage of project method
5.1 Project method

The project method is a teacher-facilitated collaborative approach in which students acquire and
apply knowledge and skills to define and solve realistic problems using a process of extended
inquiry. Projects are student-centered, following standards, parameters, and milestones clearly
identified by the instructor. Students have control over the planning, refining, presenting, and
reflecting of the project. Through projects, students are engaged in innovation and creativity.
Project method requires that the participants work actively and commit themselves to the project.
The durations of the projects may differ, and they can be guided in various ways. The teacher’s
role is to support and guide the work. The teacher should not give the groups any straight answers,
but instead should let the students come up with their own solutions. It is a student-centered
pedagogy that involves a dynamic classroom approach in which it is believed that students acquire
a deeper knowledge through active exploration of real-world challenges and problems. It is a style
of active learning and inquiry-based learning. It also contrasts with paper-based, rote memorization
or teacher-based instruction which presents established facts by instead posing questions, problems
or scenarios. In project method, students can develop their self study activities: they will get used
to educate beyond the program, to use the knowledge, to solve communicative, informative
problems, to have an opportunity to study cultural- informative competencies. That is why it is
considered very effective.
Characteristics of project work
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• Learners are at the centre of the learning process.
• Project method focuses on learning that is aligned with assessment standards.
• Project method has real-world connections.
• Learners demonstrate knowledge through a product of performance.
• I.C.T supports and enhances learning.
Advantages of project work

• Gives more personal investment into an activity.
• Deeper understanding of material.
• Helps develop independence, creativity and self-control.
• Students learn to listen to others’ ideas and opinions.
• It helps students teach themselves.
Disadvantages of project method

• Students may not feel encouraged to finish their work.
• There can be a lack of interest in their project subject which would lead them not to want
to participate.
• Accidentally accessing inappropriate content.
• Could be uncomfortable for students if they have no or less knowledge about the project.
Exercise 3.5
1. Define project method.
2. State three characteristics of project methods.
3. State two reasons why as a teacher you would choose project method over others.
4. Give one advantage and disadvantage of project method.
SESSION 6: DIDACTIC TEACHING
Hello dear learner! You are warmly welcomed to the sixth session of the unit 5. We will delve
more into didactic teaching as we have done with the other methods of teaching. Tighten your
belt as we move to the lesson.
Objectives
1. Define didactic teaching
2. State any two characteristics of didactic teaching.
3. Describe one advantage and disadvantage of didactic teaching.
6.1 Didactic teaching
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A didactic approach to teaching refers to a manner of instruction in which information is
presented directly from the teacher to the pupil, in which the teacher selects the topic of
instruction, controls instructional stimuli, obligates a response from the child, evaluates child
responses, and provides reinforcement for correct responses and feedback for incorrect ones. A
didactic method is a teaching method that follows a consistent scientific approach or educational
style to engage the student’s mind. Didactic methods focuses on the baseline knowledge students
possess and seeks to improve upon and convey this information. It also refers to the foundation or
starting point in a lesson plan, where the overall goal is knowledge. A teacher or educator functions
in this role as an authoritative figure, but also as both a guide and a resource for students.
Characteristics of didactic teaching

• The teacher unlocks reality and learning is spontaneous
• Students emancipate, free themselves from control
• Students orientate themselves to new: learning environments
• The teacher guides students into certain directions
• Students make sound judgements, based on experiences
• Students progresses: pass a subject
• Students have opportunities to demonstrate their skills
• Students learn to socialise and exchange ideas
• Teacher identifies desired learning outcome and selects tasks accordingly
• Teachers asks questions to check understanding and recall of information
• Teacher feeds results and comments on performance back to students. Students listen to or
read feedback and possibly try again
• Students follows teacher’s plan and do pre-selected tasks as required
• Teacher presents information for students to read, watch or listen to new learning content
• Students try and recall information they received from teacher in order to answer questions
Advantages of didactic teaching
• There is a greater involvement, both of the teacher and the student, in the teaching-learning
processes.
• Generates interaction dynamics in which the teacher and the group of students work together
in the construction of learning.
• Students acquire an active role, developing a sense of responsibility for their learning.
• The development of the student’s autonomy favours the creation of their own learning
strategies, which they can also apply to other similar areas, generating in them feelings of self-
sufficiency and usefulness.
• Efficiently presents a large volume of foundational knowledge.
• Provides students a "mental break" from more intensive learning activities.
• Is familiar to students from past learning experiences.
Disadvantages of didactic teaching

 Often perceived as boring
 May be viewed as irrelevant or unnecessary by students
 Too much information is given at a time that may cause cognitive load on students
 Lacks interactivity
49
 Does not always emphasize critical thinking
 Does not cater for all learning needs
 Slow learners may suffer because the pace of teacher is quite fast
Exercise 3.5
1. What is didactic teaching?
2. State four characteristics each for what teachers and students are required to do in didactic
teaching.
3. What are two advantages of didactic teaching?
4. What is one disadvantages of didactic teaching?
50
UNIT 4: LESSON PREPARATION AND PRESENTATION
Unit Outline
Session 1: Ways of planning lessons in teaching computing
Session 2: Concept of lesson plan
Session 3: Lesson plan and its components
Hello Student! You are welcome to this unit. I believe you are much poised for this unit and ready
action. This unit will talk about lesson preparation and presentations. It is very important for
teachers to know how a lesson is prepared and presented to students for ultimate understanding of
the content. Session one deals with characteristics of productive lesson planning. This refers about
the ways of planning lessons in teaching computing. The second session talks the features that
makes a lesson plan effective. Thus, before, during and after. Session 3 discusses about the lesson
plan and components and session 4 deals with the rationale for writing lesson plan.
Unit Objectives
By the end of this unit, you should be able to:
1. Explain ways of preparing lesson before teaching
2. Describe what to do during and after teaching lesson
3. State at least three characteristics of productive lesson planning
4. Describe the value of effective planning
5. Define lesson plan
6. Discuss and utilize various components of effective lesson plans
SESSION 1: WAYS OF PLANNING LESSON IN TEACHING COMPUTING

Welcome to the first session of unit 4. We will delve into ways of planning lesson before, during
and after teaching. This is to ensure the smooth delivery of lesson in the learning and teaching
process.
Objectives
1. Explain steps of preparing lesson before teaching
2. Describe what to do during and after teaching lesson
Before Class: Steps for preparing a lesson plan

1. Identify the learning objectives
Before you plan your lesson, you will first need to identify the learning objectives for the lesson.
A learning objective describes what the learner will know or be able to do after the learning
experience rather than what the learner will be exposed to during the instruction (i.e. topics).
Typically, it is written in a language that is easily understood by students and clearly related to the
program learning outcomes.
2. Plan the specific learning activities
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When planning learning activities, you should consider the types of activities students will need to
engage in, in order to develop the skills and knowledge required to demonstrate effective learning
in the course. Learning activities should be directly related to the learning objectives of the course,
and provide experiences that will enable students to engage in, practice, and gain feedback on
specific progress towards those objectives.
As you plan your learning activities, estimate how much time you will spend on each. Build in
time for extended explanation or discussion, but also be prepared to move on quickly to different
applications or problems, and to identify strategies that check for understanding. Some questions
to think about as you design the learning activities you will use are:
 What will I do to explain the topic?

 What will I do to illustrate the topic in a different way?
 How can I engage students in the topic?
 What are some relevant real-life examples, analogies, or situations that can help students
understand the topic?
 What will students need to do to help them understand the topic better?
Many activities can be used to engage learners. The activity types (i.e. what the student is doing)
and their examples provided below are by no means an exhaustive list, but will help you in thinking
through how best to design and deliver high impact learning experiences for your students in a
typical lesson.
It is important that each learning activity in the lesson must be (1) aligned to the lesson’s learning
objectives, (2) meaningfully engage students in active, constructive, authentic, and collaborative
ways, and (3) useful where the student is able to take what they have learnt from engaging with
the activity and use it in another context, or for another purpose.
3. Plan to assess student understanding
Assessments (e.g., tests, papers, problem sets, performances) provide opportunities for students to
demonstrate and practice the knowledge and skills articulated in the learning objectives, and for
instructors to offer targeted feedback that can guide further learning.
Planning for assessment allows you to find out whether your students are learning. It involves
making decisions about:
 the number and type of assessment tasks that will best enable students to demonstrate
learning objectives for the lesson
o Examples of different assessments
o Formative and/or summative
 the criteria and standards that will be used to make assessment judgements
o Rubrics
 student roles in the assessment process
o Self-assessment
o Peer assessment
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 the weighting of individual assessment tasks and the method by which individual task
judgements will be combined into a final grade for the course
o information about how various tasks is to be weighted and combined into an overall
grade must be provided to students
 the provision of feedback
o giving feedback to students on how to improve their learning, as well as giving
feedback to instructors how to refine their teaching
4. Plan to sequence the lesson in an engaging and meaningful manner
Robert Gagne proposed a nine-step process called the events of instruction, which is useful for
planning the sequence of your lesson. Using Gagne’s 9 events in conjunction with Bloom’s
Revised Taxonomy of Educational Objectives aids in designing engaging and meaningful
instruction.
i. Gain attention: Obtain students’ attention so that they will watch and listen while the
instructor presents the learning content.
a. Present a story or a problem to be solved
b. Utilize ice breaker activities, current news and events, case studies, YouTube
videos, and so on. The objective is to quickly grab student attention and interest in
the topic
c. Utilize technologies such as clickers, and surveys to ask leading questions prior to
lecture, survey opinion, or gain a response to a controversial question
ii. Inform learner of objectives: Allow students to organize their thoughts regarding what
they are about to see, hear, and/or do.
a. Include learning objectives in lecture slides, the syllabus, and in instructions for
activities, projects and papers
b. Describe required performance
c. Describe criteria for standard performance
iii. Stimulate recall of prior knowledge:
a. Help students make sense of new information by relating it to something they
already know or something they have already experienced.
b. Recall events from previous lecture, integrate results of activities into the current
topic, and/or relate previous information to the current topic
c. Ask students about their understanding of previous concepts
iv. Present new content: Utilize a variety of methods including lecture, readings, activities,
projects, multimedia, and others.
a. Sequence and chunk the information to avoid cognitive overload
b. Blend the information to aid in information recall
c. Bloom's Revised Taxonomy can be used to help sequence the lesson by helping
you chunk them into levels of difficulty.
v. Provide guidance: Advise students of strategies to aid them in learning content and of
resources available. With learning guidance, the rate of learning increases because students
are less likely to lose time or become frustrated by basing performance on incorrect facts
or poorly understood concepts.
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a. Provide instructional support as needed – as scaffolds (cues, hints, prompts) which
can be removed after the student learns the task or content
b. Model varied learning strategies – mnemonics, concept mapping, role playing,
visualizing
c. Use examples and non-examples
vi. Practice: Allow students to apply knowledge and skills learned.
a. Allow students to apply knowledge in group or individual activities
b. Ask deep-learning questions, make reference to what students already know or have
students collaborate with their peers
c. Ask students to recite, revisit, or reiterate information they have learned
d. Facilitate student elaborations – ask students to elaborate or explain details and
provide more complexity to their responses
vii. Provide feedback: Provide immediate feedback of students’ performance to assess and
facilitate learning.
a. Consider using group / class level feedback (highlighting common errors, give
examples or models of target performance, show students what you do not want)
b. Consider implementing peer feedback
c. Require students to specify how they used feedback in subsequent works
viii. Assess performance: To evaluate the effectiveness of the instructional events, test to see
if the expected learning outcomes have been achieved. Performance should be based on
previously stated objectives.
a. Utilise a variety of assessment methods including exams/quizzes, written
assignments, projects, and so on.
ix. Enhance retention and transfer: Allow students to apply information to personal
contexts. This increases retention by personalising information.
a. Provide opportunities for students to relate course work to their personal
experiences
b. Provide additional practice
5. Create a realistic timeline

A list of ten learning objectives is not realistic, so narrow down your list to the two or three key
concepts, ideas, or skills you want students to learn in the lesson. Your list of prioritized learning
objectives will help you make decisions on the spot and adjust your lesson plan as needed. Here
are some strategies for creating a realistic timeline:
 Estimate how much time each of the activities will take, then plan some extra time for each
 When you prepare your lesson plan, next to each activity indicate how much time you
expect it will take
 Plan a few minutes at the end of class to answer any remaining questions and to sum up
key points
 Plan an extra activity or discussion question in case you have time left
 Be flexible – be ready to adjust your lesson plan to students’ needs and focus on what
seems to be more productive rather than sticking to your original plan
54
6. Plan for a lesson closure
Lesson closure provides an opportunity to solidify student learning. Lesson closure is useful for
both instructors and students.
You can use closure to:
 Check for student understanding and inform subsequent instruction (adjust your teaching
accordingly)
 Emphasize key information
 Tie up loose ends
 Correct students’ misunderstandings
 Preview upcoming topics
Your students will find your closure helpful for:
 Summarizing, reviewing, and demonstrating their understanding of major points

 Consolidating and internalizing key information
 Linking lesson ideas to a conceptual framework and/or previously-learned knowledge
 Transferring ideas to new situations
There are several ways in which you can put a closure to the lesson:
 State the main points yourself (“Today we talked about…”)

 Ask a student to help you summarize them
 Ask all students to write down on a piece of paper what they think were the main points of
the lesson
During class: Presenting your lesson plan

Letting your students know what they will be learning and doing in class will help keep them more
engaged and on track. Providing a meaningful organisation of the class time can help students not
only remember better, but also follow your presentation and understand the rationale behind the
planned learning activities. You can share your lesson plan by writing a brief agenda on the
whiteboard or telling students explicitly what they will be learning and doing in class
After Class: Reflecting on your lesson plan

Take a few minutes after each class to reflect on what worked well and why, and what you could
have done differently. Identifying successful and less successful organization of class time and
activities would make it easier to adjust to the contingencies of the classroom. If needed, revise
the lesson plan.
Exercise 4.1
1. Discuss the six steps for preparing your lesson plan before your class.
2. As a teacher, what is involved in during and after a lesson?
55
SESSION 2: CONCEPT OF A LESSON PLAN
Welcome to your second session of Unit 4. I hope you have prepared very well in order to enjoy
this lesson. You have learnt something about innovative and effective teaching methods which is
very important for the good delivery of content. This helps the teacher to know the right methods
to use in the lesson delivery. Lesson planning is very important. Therefore, it is prudent for the
teacher to understand the characteristics of productive lesson planning. Plans are developed to
provide students with meaningful learning experiences. Plans connect to related learning
opportunities. Teaching is based instructional strategies that focus on best practice and research.
Teaching is supported by strategies that foster interest and progress. Therefore, teachers must know
what is involved in good planning.
Good planning involves; keeps the teacher and students on track, achieves the objectives, helps
teachers to avoid “unpleasant” surprises, provides the roadmap and visuals in a logical sequence,
provides direction to a substitute, encourages reflection, refinement, and improvement as well as
enhances student achievement. If a teacher also does not plan well, the following could occur;
frustration for the teacher and the student, aimless wandering, unmet objectives, no connections to
prior learnings, disorganization, lack of needed materials, a waste of time and poor management.
Objectives
1. Define lesson plan
2. Explain at least three characteristics of productive lesson planning
3. Describe the value of effective lesson planning
4.1 Concept of lesson plan

A lesson plan is a format of upcoming learning experience to achieve short term and long-term
objectives. A lesson plan is a written guide for the trainer’s plan in order to achieve the intended
learning outcome. It provides specific definition and direction for learning in terms of objectives,
equipment, instructional media, material requirement and conduct of training. A lesson plan is the
teacher's detailed guide for running a particular lesson, and it includes the objective(s) (what the
students are supposed to learn), how the objective(s) will be reached (the method, procedure) and
a way of measuring how well the objective(s) was reached (test, worksheet, homework etc). It
covers the learning trajectory and course of action for each lesson taught and acts as a
comprehensive daily guide for what students need to learn. Lesson plans help teachers be more
effective in the classroom by providing a detailed outline to follow each class period. The lesson
plan itself will vary based on each teacher's individual preference, what subject is being covered
in the lesson as well as the needs of each student in the class. Lesson plans are really effective
tools to use in the classroom, it makes the best use of class time and ensures as much lesson time
as possible is used to teach new concepts, build on students' prior knowledge and to promote
meaningful discussions. It gives teachers a detailed outline to follow, so it helps them be even
better teachers. It plays a role in the learning experience of students and how engaged they will be
in their subjects. It is important to develop a lesson plan for every lesson you teach, as to approach
students with a clear path in mind in order to get your entire class on the right track. Students
should be made aware of what the lesson will be about so they are aware of what they should be
learning.
56
4.2 Characteristics of a productive lesson plan
A Productive Lesson Plan:
a. Is based upon previous knowledge.
b. Ensure you have clear objective(s).
c. Caters to the age level of students.
d. Uses motivational techniques.
e. Includes necessary materials.
f. Activities and tasks should be designed to suit each stage and
g. Considers which methods will best suit learners needs and styles
h. Is student centered, flexible, complete, interesting & activity based.
i. Allocate timing for each activity appropriately.
j. Anticipate problems related to classroom management, language, topic and content, and
think about possible solutions.
k. Includes evaluation process.
l. Includes all the essential elements of a lesson plan.
4.3 Writing lesson plans

 Know your students. Understand who you are going to educate. Anticipate various learning
styles (visual, auditory, tactile or a combination). Tailor your lesson plan to incorporate all
learning styles through independent and group exercises. If you are familiar with the students'
group dynamics you may choose to plan ahead of time to increase engagement and interaction.
Keep in mind that you may alter any activity to be done independently, in pairs, or in small
groups. Depending on the amount of time and size of the class you can be selective or mix it
up and use all of these techniques.
 Set learning objectives. A learning objective is a statement that provides a detailed description
of what students will be able to do upon completing a course. The statement should be simple
and to the point. It is the teacher's role to help students understand how to use the information
they will learn during the lesson in a practical way.
 Write the objective for the lesson. Outline the main topics or ideas you wish to cover during
the lesson. The overview will function as the foundation upon which the lesson will be built.
 Plan your timeline. The curriculum you wish to cover may be too much for the time allotted.
If this is the case, simply break your lesson plan into sections. This allows you to speed up or
slow down depending on the amount of time remaining. Learning is dynamic. As you engage
with students, encourage them to question and share ideas during the course of the class but be
mindful of the time and the lesson plan. The lesson plan is your guide to ensure the learning
goals you've set for your students are met in the time allowed.
4.4 Rationale for writing lesson plan

A teacher should be professional and his professionalism and authenticity all appear from using
an effective lesson plan as a guide. In this way, teacher present himself/herself as a good role
model for your students. In order to gain the respect of your students and making them achieve the
learning lesson targets, you have to go to the class with lesson plans. Here, are some reasons why
it is important to write lesson plans.
1. Inspiration
57
A thorough lesson plan inspired the teacher to improve the lesson plan further. You can make it
better for the purpose of achieving the lesson plan in a better way.
2. Evaluation
A lesson plan helps the teacher to evaluate his teaching and to compare it with set objectives. This
evaluation will help you in achieving the set targets in a better way.
3. Self-confidence
These lesson plans develop self-confidence in the teacher and make them to work towards definite
goal.
4. Previous Knowledge of the Students
A teacher can take a proper care by considering the level and previous knowledge of the students
in your class.
5. Organized Matter
A teacher will be able to finish a particular lesson in a limited time frame. This will help him or
her to make the students learn a better and precise manner.
6. Ask Questions
A teacher will be able to ask proper and important questions to the students in the classroom. This
will engage the students in communication and help them in retaining the lesson.
7. Guidance
A lesson plan works as a guide for the teacher in the classroom. It tells you what to teach so that
they can cover the entire lesson within a limited time frame.
8. Interest
A lesson plan creates the interest of the students in the lesson and makes them learn with curiosity
in subject matter.
9. Stimulation
A lesson plan stimulates the teacher to think in an organized way. This helps you to match the
ideal standard of teaching more quickly than ever.
10. Understand the Objectives

Through a lesson plan, a teacher is able to understand the objectives of the lesson properly and
make his students to understand them too, with ease
Exercise 4.2
1. What is a lesson plan?
2. State any four characteristics of a productive lesson plan.
3. Describe the four key points when developing a lesson plan.
4. List any four reasons why it is important to develop lesson plans.
SESSION 3: LESSON PLAN AND ITS COMPONENTS

Hi there! I hope you are having a nice time learning this unit. This is session 3 of unit 4 where
lesson plan and its components will be discussed. Lesson plan is an integral part of teaching and it
cannot be forfeited for anything. It guides the teacher during delivery of content.
58
Objectives
a. Discuss and utilize various components of effective lesson plans
3.1 Components of lesson plan
A lesson plan includes

 Pre-assessment
 Content
 Instructional objectives
 List of materials and equipment
 Introduction
 Pre-requisite
 Instructional procedures and presentation
 Application
 Practice
 Assessment/evaluation
 Closure
 Reflection (Self-Assessment)
Pre-assessment
 What are the characteristics of the learners in the class?
 What do the students already know and understand?
 How do my students learn best?
 What modifications in instruction might I need to make?
Content
 This is a statement that relates to the subject-matter content. The content may be a concept
or a skill. Phrase this as follows: i want my students to: (be able to [name the skill) or (i
want my students to understand a description of the concept).
Instructional objectives
 Indicate what is to be learned - this must be a complete objective. Write this objective in
terms of what an individual student will do, not what a group will do.
 A description of what the student will be able to do at the end of the lesson
 Use behavioral verbs to describe the expected outcomes (ACTION)
Setting objectives
What will the learner be able to:
 Know (concept…cognitive)
 Do (skill… psychomotor)
59
 Feel (behavior, attitude, appreciation or ideas…affective)
Each defined objective is matched with:
 Teaching Method
 Learning Activities
 Type of Assessment
Objectives should be SMART:

 Specific
 Measurable
 Attainable
 Realistic
 Time bound
Materials and equipment

 Plan! Prepare! Have on hand!
 Envision your needs.
 List all materials, resources and equipment to be used by both the teacher and learner and
how they will be used.
Role of learning materials

 Defines Instructional Objectives
 Sets Tasks to Attain Objectives
 Informs Learners of Tasks they have to Perform
 Provides Guidance and Practice
 Provides Feedback on Retention of acquired Skills
 Makes the teaching effective.
 Supplies concrete basis for conceptual thinking.
 Makes learning permanent
Teaching Materials / Resources
A. Course books
B. Supplementary materials:
1. Teacher’s book
2. Work book
C. Supporting material:
1. Audio Material
2. Visual materials
3. Audio-visual materials.
4. Multi media
Introduction
 Grab the attention of the students
 Provides the interest/motivation factor
 Set the tone for the lesson connected to the objective
 A question
 A story
60
 A saying
 An activity
 A discussion starter
Previous knowledge
Prerequisites:
Indicate what the student must already know or be able to do in order to be successful with this
lesson.
Instructional procedures and presentation

• Description of what you will do in teaching the lesson, and, as appropriate, includes a
description of how you will introduce the lesson to the students, what actual instructional
techniques you will use, and how you will bring closure to the lesson. Include what specific
things students will actually do during the lesson. In most cases, you will provide some
sort of summary for the students.
 Sets up a step-by-step plan
 Provides specific activities to assist students in developing the new knowledge
 Provides modeling of a new skill
Learning activities
 Problem-solving
 Peer teaching
 Role playing
 Debates
 Games
 Cooperative groups
 Inquiry learning
 Direct Instruction
 Projects
Role of activities
 source of motivation
 making learning interesting
 decrease the anxiety of learner
 concrete base for abstract learning
 develop confidence (individually, group work)
 develop creativity
 flexible and friendly environment
 capture the attention and involve the students in learning situation
Application
 Application activities will lead the students to appreciate the overall themes and ideas in
lesson.
61
 In order to create further understanding, the student must go beyond rote memorization and
demonstrate real-world application of the newly-learned information.
 This process requires "higher-level critical-thinking skills" which result in ideas generated
by the student rather than ideas presented by the teacher or by the text.
Practice: applying what is learned

 Provide multiple learning activities
 Guided practice (teacher controlled)
• Use a variety of questioning strategies to determine the level of understanding
• Journaling, conferencing
 Independent practice
Closure
 Closure is the act of reviewing and clarifying the key points of a lesson, tying them together
into a coherent whole.
 Lesson Wrap-up: Leave students with an imprint of what the lesson covered.
• Students summarize the major concepts
• Teacher recaps the main points
• Teacher sets the stage for the next phase of learning
Follow-up activities
Indicate how other activities/materials will be used to reinforce and extend this lesson. Include
homework, assignments, and projects.
Assessment/evaluation
 Describe how you will determine the extent to which students have attained the instructional
objective. Be sure this part is directly connected to the behavior called for in the instructional
objective.
 Assess the learning

 Teacher made test
 In-class or homework assignment
 Project to apply the learning in real-life situation
 Recitations and summaries
 Performance assessments
 Use of rubrics
 Portfolios
 Journals
 Informal assessment
Reflection (Self-Assessment)
 Address the major components of the lesson plan, focusing on both the strengths, and areas
of needed improvement. Determine here how you plan to collect information that will be
useful for planning future lessons. A good idea is to analyze the difference between what
you wanted (the objective) and what was attained (the results of the assessment).
 What went well in the lesson?
62
 What problems did I experience?
 Are there things I could have done differently?
 How can I build on this lesson to make future lessons successful?
Exercise 4.3
1. Describe any five components of a lesson plan.
63

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UNIT 1: TEACHING AND LEARNING

SESSION 1: LEARNING THEORIES AND ITS IMPLICATION ON TEACHING AND

The role of learners

Implications of behaviorism on teaching and learning

• Teacher’s Role in Behaviorism:

• Students Role in Behaviorism:

Implications of cognitivism on teaching and learning

• Careful planning of lessons

Implications of constructivism on teaching and learning

Assignment on learning theories (Groupwork)

SESSION 2: EFFECTIVE TEACHING

2.1. Definition of teaching

The role of the teacher

The information provider

The role model

The Resource Developer

According to Piaget, an individual interprets reality via intellectual structures characterized by

1.2. Effective teaching

Characteristics of effective teaching

• Begins class promptly and in a well-organized way.

3.1. LEARNING STYLES

This session will go into greater detail about learning styles.

3.1. VAK learning styles

• Visual Learners learn by sight

Auditory learners (A)

Kinesthetic learners (K)

1. Concrete Experience - (a new experience of situation is encountered, or a reinterpretation of

3. Abstract Conceptualization (Reflection gives rise to a new idea, or a modification of an existing

3.3 Howard Gardner’s Theory of Multiple Intelligences

Mathematical-Logical Intelligence (“math smart” or “logic smart”)

Visual-Spatial Intelligence (“art smart” or “picture smart”)

Intrapersonal Intelligence (“self smart” or “introspection smart”)“self smart” or “introspection

Bodily-Kinesthetic Intelligence ("body smart" or "movement smart")

Interpersonal (“people smart” or “group smart”)

Naturalist Intelligence (“nature smart” or “environment smart”)

SESSION 4: TEACHING STYLES

a. Define teaching styles,

4.1. Teaching styles

4.2. Types of teaching styles

The Authority, or lecture style

The Demonstrator, or coach style

The Delegator, or group style

The Hybrid, or blended style

WEEK THREE (SESSION 5)

SESSION 5: Reflective teaching

There are many definitions for reflecting teaching.

The process of reflection comes with a cycle to follow:

5.2. Reflective teaching strategies

Video/Audio-Recorded Teaching Practices: Video or audio recordings of lessons can provide

5.3. Characteristics of reflective teacher

Aims and consequence

Gathering and Evaluating

• Reviewing relevant, existing Research

Attitudes towards Teaching

Reflective teaching requires attitude of open-mindedness, responsibility and whole heartedness.

Reflecting teaching is based on teacher judgment , informed by evidence –based enquiry

Collaboration reflective discussion capitalizes on the social nature of learning , this is as

a. What is reflective teaching?

WEEK FOUR (SESSION 1, 2 AND 3)