SCHOOL OF SCIENCE AND HUMANITIES

DEPARTMENT OF ENGLISH

UNIT –I – Literary Theory and Criticism –SHS5009

 CLASSICAL- NINETEENTH CENTURY

I. INTRODUCTION
Criticism is an overall term for studies concerning with defining, analyzing, interpreting and
evaluating works of literature. Theoretical criticism speaks of literary theory. Some such
theoretical critics have been Aristotle, Longinus, Horace, Sainte-Beuve, Johnson, Coleridge,
Arnold, Poe, Emerson, Richards, Burke and Frye. “Literary criticism” refers to the act of
interpreting and studying literature. A literary critic is not someone who merely evaluates the
worth or quality of a piece of literature but, rather, is someone who argues on behalf of an
interpretation or understanding of the particular meaning(s) of literary texts. The task of a
literary critic is to explain and attempt to reach a critical understanding of what literary texts
mean in terms of their aesthetic, as well as social, political, and cultural statements and
suggestions. A literary critic does more than simply discuss or evaluate the importance of a
literary text; rather, a literary critic seeks to reach a logical and reasonable understanding of
not only what a text’s author intends for it to mean but, also, what different cultures and
ideologies render it capable of meaning.
“Literary theory,” however, refers to a particular form of literary criticism in which
particular academic, scientific, or philosophical approaches are followed in a systematic
fashion while analyzing literary texts. For example, a psychoanalytic theorist might examine
and interpret a literary text strictly through the theoretical lens of psychoanalysis and
psychology and, in turn, offer an interpretation or reading of a text that focuses entirely on the
psychological dimensions of it. Traditional literary criticism tends not to focus on a particular
aspect of (or approach to) a literary text in quite the same manner that literary theory usually
does. Literary theory proposes particular, systematic approaches to literary texts that impose a
particular line of intellectual reasoning to it.
ARISTOTLE
Aristotle lived from 384 B.C. to 322 B.C. He was the most distinguished disciple of
Plato. Among his critical treatise, only two are extant- ‘Poetics’ and ‘Rhetoric’, the former
deals with the art of poetry and the latter with the art of speaking. Aristotle sees that epic
poetry, tragedy, comedy, dithyrambic poetry, and music are alike in that they all imitate.
They differ in the medium, objects, and manner of imitation.
THE PLAN OF POETICS
Poetics contains twenty six small chapters. The first four chapters and the twenty fifth are
devoted to poetry; the fifth in general way to comedy, epic, and tragedy; the following fourteen
exclusively to tragedy; the next three to poetic diction; the next to epic poetry; and the last to a
comparison of epic poetry and tragedy. Aristotle’s main concern thus appears to be tragedy,
which was considered the most developed form of poetry in his day. Poetry, comedy, and epic
come in for consideration because a discussion of tragedy would be incomplete without some
reference to its parent and sister forms.
ARISTOTLE’S OBSERVATION ON POETRY
1. Its Nature.
Aristotle calls poet an imitator. The poet imitates things ‘as they were or are’, ‘as they are said
or thought to be’ or ‘as they ought to be’. In other words the poet imitates what is past or
present, what is commonly believed, and what is ideal. He believes that there is a natural
pleasure in imitation. This is an inborn natural instinct. There is also another inborn instinct
i.e. the instinct for harmony and rhythm. This manifests itself in metrical composition. But
unlike Plato, Aristotle does not consider the poet’s imitations of life as twice removed from
reality, but reveal universal truths. To prove this, Aristotle makes a comparison between poetry
and history. The poet does not relate what has happened, but what may happen. The historian
relates what has happened. Poetry therefore is more philosophical and higher than history.
Poetry expresses the universal, history the particular. The pictures of poetry are truths based on
facts on the laws of probability or necessity. Thus Aristotle answers Plato’s severest charge
against poetry.
1. Its functions.
Aristotle considers pleasure as the end of poetry. Poetry springs from the instincts of imitation
and rhythm and harmony. They are indulged in for the pleasure they give. Poetry is pleasing
both to the poet and to the reader. Aristotle nowhere states that the function of poetry is to
teach. However, he considers teaching desirable, if it is incidental to the pleasure it gives. Such
a pleasure is regarded as superior to all others, for, it has a dual purpose i.e. teaching as well as
pleasing.
2. Its emotional appeal.
Poetry makes an immediate appeal to the emotions. For example, tragedy aroused the emotions
of pity and fear- pity at the undeserved suffering and fear for the worst that may befall him.
Plato considers them harmful to the healthy growth of mind. Aristotle has no such fear.
According to him these emotions are aroused with a view to their purgation or catharsis.
Everybody has occasions of fear and pity in life. If they go on accumulating they become
harmful to the soul. But in tragedy, the sufferings we witness are not our own and these
emotions find a free and full outlet. Thereby they relieve the soul of their excess. We are lifted
of ourselves and emerge nobler than before. It is this that pleases in a tragic tale. Thus tragedy
transmutes these disturbing emotions into “calm of mind”. So the emotional appeal of poetry is
not harmful but health-giving.
ARISTOTLE’S OBSERVATION ON TRAGEDY
1. Its origin
Poetry can imitate two kinds of actions- the nobler actions of good men or the mean actions of
bad men. Tragedy was born from the former and comedy from the latter. Tragedy has
resemblances to epic and comedy to satire. Aristotle considers tragedy superior to epic.
Tragedy has all the epic elements in a shorter compass.
2. Its characteristics.
Aristotle defines tragedy as “ an imitation of an action that is serious, complete and of certain
magnitude, in a language embellished in with each kinds of artistic ornaments, the several
kinds being found in the separate part of the play, in the form of action, not of narrative,
through pity and fear effecting the proper purgation of these emotions”. By a serious action
Aristotle means a tale of suffering exciting the emotions of pity and fear. The action should be
complete which means that it must have a proper beginning, middle and end. It should also be
arranged sequentially also. In other words it should have an organic unity. The action must be
of certain magnitude. i.e. It should have reasonable length. It should be neither too long nor too
short. Then only it can be easily remembered. It should have a length enough to unfold the
events naturally. By artistic ornament, Aristotle means rhythm, harmony and song. They are
all designed to enrich the language of the play. The form of action in tragedy distinguishes it
from narrative verse. In tragedy, the tale is told with the help of characters.
Their speeches and actions make the tale. In the narrative the poet is free to speak in his own
person. In tragedy, the dramatist is nowhere seen. All is done by his characters. It is meant to
be acted as well as read. The narrative, on the other hand is meant to be read only.
 3. Its constituent Parts.
Aristotle finds six constituent parts in tragedy. They are: Plot, character, thought, diction, song
and spectacle. The Greek equivalents of these terms are: ethos, muthos, dianoia, lexis, melos
and opsis. By plot is meant the arrangement of the incidents in the play in a logical and
coherent way. Aristotle considers plot as the chef part of the tragedy because tragedy is an
imitation not of men but men in action. Aristotle says: “without action there cannot be a
tragedy; there may be without character’. The actions themselves issue from characters.
Character, he says, determines men’s qualities, but it is by their action that they are happy or
sad. It is by their deeds that we know them. So it is these deeds that are woven into plot that
matters. Character, is thus next only in importance to plot. Thought refers to what the character
thinks or feels. It reveals itself in speech. As plot imitates action, character imitates men, so
thought imitates men’s mental and emotional reactions to the circumstances in which they find
themselves. All these three i.e. plot, character and thought constitutes the poet’s objects in
imitation in tragedy. To accomplish them, he employs the medium diction. By diction is
meant, words embellished with each kind of artistic ornament.
Song is one of them. Spectacle, the last of the six parts, is in fact the work of the stage
mechanic. But it constitutes the manner in which the tragedy is presented to the audience.
4. The Structure of the Plot.
The plot is the soul of the tragedy. It should have unity of action. It means that only those
actions in the life of the hero which are intimately connected with one another and appear
together as one whole forms the plot. If any one of them is displaced or removed, the whole
will be disjoined. The events comprising the plot will concern only one man. Otherwise there
will be no necessary connection between them. By unity of time, Aristotle means the
conformity between the time taken by the events of the play and that taken in their
representation on the stage. The unity of place means the conformity between the scene of
tragic events and the time taken by them to happen. A good tragic plot arouses the feelings of
pity and fear in the audience- pity for the undeserved suffering of the hero and fear for the
worst that may happen to him. The plot is divisible into two parts- complication and
denouement. The former ties the events into a tangle knot, latter untie it. Complication includes
all the actions from the beginning to the point where it takes a turn for good or ill.
The denouement extends from the turning point to the end. The first is commonly called the
rising action, and the second the falling action.
5. Simple and Complex Plot.
The plot may be simple or complex. In a simple plot there are no puzzling situations such as
peripeteia and anagnorisis. Peripeteia is generally explained a ‘reversal of the situation’ and
anagnorisis as ‘recognition’ or ‘discovery’. By reversal of situation is meant reversal of
intention (e.g. a move to kill an enemy turning on one’s own head, or killing an enemy and later
discovering him to be a friend.) The discovery of these false moves is anagnoris. In other words
it means a change from ignorance to knowledge. Both peripeteia and anagnorisis please
because there is an element of surprise in them. A plot that makes use of them is complex. A
perfect tragedy should be arranged not on the simple but on the complex plot.
6. Tragic Hero.
According to Aristotle, the ideal tragic hero should be good but neither too bad not too perfect.
He should be a man whose misfortune is brought about not by vice or depriving but by some
error or frailty. This error is hamartia or the tragic flaw. For example, in ‘Hamlet’, it is his
procrastination or inability to take action that leads to his down-fall. It is not a deliberate vice
but flaw of characters and it makes the play tragic one.
6. Aristotle’s opinion about Comedy.
Aristotle regards comedy as inferior to tragedy. He traces its roots to satire. Satiric verse
originated in phallic songs sung in honour of Dionysus, the god of fertility, as epic originated
from hymns to gods and praises of famous men. Consequently tragedy represents men as noble
as they can be, and comedy taking its origin from satirical verse, represents men as worse than
they are, but satire ridicules personality or rather the “sinner’ while comedy ridicules sin or
rather human vices. Unlike Plato, Aristotle does not consider the characters in comedy as
vicious. According to him they are rendered ludicrous by some defect that is neither painful
nor destructive. They are not contemptible also. Like poetry, comedy shows not what has
happened, but what may happen. The characters are presented in particular situations in which
every human being would have acted in the same way. Thus, general, not individual weakness
is displayed in them.
8. Aristotle’s opinion about epic.
The epic is earlier in origin than tragedy or comedy. In its nature it resembles tragedy, for it is
an imitation of a serious action, whole, with a beginning, middle and an end. The structure also
is like that of the tragedy, for the plot has a complication, and denouement, it can be complex,
or simple, with or without perepeteia and anagnorisis. Its effect is the same, namely catharsis.
But it lacks the song and spectacle found in tragedy. In its form it is different from tragedy, for
it is narrative and is much longer than a tragedy. It is meant to be read or recited. While the
tragedy presents only one main event, an epic contains several events which add to its variety
and grandeur. Thirdly, an epic poet can introduce many improbable but marvelous incidents
which presented on the stage may appear absurd, while they remain unnoticed when perceived
by the imagination. They add to the pleasure of the poem, and Aristotle recommended probable
impossibilities though not improbable possibilities. The supernatural element in the epic is an
example of it. Aristotle still considers tragedy superior to epic though the latter appeals to the
cultured, refined people and has no need of theatrical aid to achieve its effect. But Aristotle
finds that tragedy with its music produced greater pleasure and its limited length attains more
unity.
9. Aristotle’s observation on Style.
Aristotle lays down clearness and propriety as two essentials of good writing. According to
him current words are the best. But writing should aim at dignity and charm. These are best
attained by the use of archaic words, foreign words, dialect words and newly coined words.
They have an element of surprise in them. Metaphorical use of words is to be preferred to the
plain. Aristotle says that a perfect poetic style uses words of all kinds in a judicious
combination. Compound words are the most suitable for the lyric, rare or unfamiliar words suit
the epic form, and metaphorical use of language is best for drama. In the “Rhetoric” Aristotle
comments that common, familiar words are best for prose that deals with everyday subjects.
But metaphorical language may be employed to introduce an element of novelty and surprise.
Multiplicity of clauses, parenthesis and ambiguity should be avoided in prose.
Words may be arranged in two ways called loose style and periodic style. The former consists
of a whole sentence with a beginning and an end. The periodic style is more intelligible and
graceful
10. The Value of Aristotle’s Criticism.
Aristotle’s approach to literature is that of a scientist. Aristotle wanted literature to be an art
and not to do the work of morality. He points the difference between politics and poetry.
Politics is a social science, therefore it should be judged by the contribution it makes to social
well-being. Poetry, on the other hand, should be judged by its capacity to please the audience.
He judges literature by aesthetic standards alone. Unlike Plato, he does not regard poetry as
twice removed from reality. Instead, he considers the representations in poetry as true to the
facts of human life. He points out its capacity to see the permanent features of life. He suggests
what kind of plot, character and style please men. He finds that perepetiea and anagnorisis,
please most in a tragic plot, hamartia in the tragic hero, and metaphor in style.
Tragedy, comedy and epic are all, in this way, considered with reference to the effect on the
minds and hearts of their spectators. Poetics deals with the art of poetry and many more
problems of literature and has therefore attracted greater attention than any other works of
criticism.
Dryden:
John Dryden (9 August 1631 – 1 May 1700) was a prominent English poet, critic, translator,
and playwright who dominated the literary life of the Restoration Age; therefore, the age is
known as the Age of Dryden. He was a Cambridge Scholar, literary genius and critic,
considering his extraordinary literary contribution was credited with the honour of Poet
Laureate of England in 1668.
He was a critic of contemporary reality. His critical observation of contemporary reality is
reflected in MacFlecknoe(1682). Dryden’s mature thoughts of literary criticism on ancient,
modern and English Literature, especially on Drama, are presented in dialogue forms in An
Essay on Dramatic Poesy. In An Essay on Dramatic Poesy there are four speakers. Each one
argues strongly as to which one is better, “Ancient or Modern, and French or English?”
Dryden as a Critic
Dryden was both a writer and a critic and he had rather a dogmatic bent. Most of his critical
interpretations are found in the prefaces to his own works. In Dryden we find an interest in the
general issues of criticism rather than in a close reading of particular texts. We call Dryden a
neoclassical critic, just as Boileau. Dryden puts emphasis on the neoclassical rules. His best-
known critical work, An Essay on Dramatic Poesy, partly reflects this tension in Dryden's
commitments. Its dialogue form has often been criticized as inconclusive, but actually, as in
most dialogues, there is a spokesman weightier than the others. Dryden carried out his critical
thoughts effectively, stating his own ideas but leaving some room for difference of opinion.
Neander's overall statement on the literary standards is that, the norms can be added to make
the work ideal, but the norms will not improve a work which does not contain some degree of
perfection. And as Dryden believes, we may find writers like Shakespeare who did not follow
the rules but are nevertheless obviously superior to any "regular" writer. Shakespeare
disconcerts Dryden; he recognises his superiority but within himself he would feel closer
affiliations with Ben Jonson. In Dryden, then, we find a "liberal" neo-classicist, although he is
most coherent (a trait of classicism) when he is dealing with that which can be understood and
reduced to rule.
Dryden on The Nature of Poetry
Dryden agrees in general terms with Aristotle’s definition of poetry as a process of imitation
though he has to add some qualifiers to it. The generally accepted view of poetry in Dryden’s
day was that it had to be a close imitation of facts past or present. While Dryden has no
problem with the prevalent neo-classical bias in favour of verisimilitude (likeness/fidelity to
reality) he would also allow in more liberties and flexibilities for poetry. In the The Grounds of
Criticism in Tragedy he makes out a case for double-legged imitation. While the poet is free to
imitate “things as they are said or thought to be”, he also gives spirited defence of a poet’s right
to imitate what could be, might be or ought to be. He cites in this context the case of
Shakespeare who so deftly exploited elements of the supernatural and elements of popular
beliefs and superstitions. Dryden would also regard such exercises as ‘imitation’ since it is
drawing on “other men’s fancies”.
Dryden on the Function of Poetry:
As we know, Plato wanted poetry to instruct the reader, Aristotle to delight, Horace to do both,
and Longinus to transport. Dryden was a bit moderate and considerate in his views and familiar
with all of them. He was of the opinion that the final end of poetry is delight and transport
rather than instruction. It does not imitate life but presents its own version of it.
According to Dryden, the poet is neither a teacher nor a bare imitator – like a photographer –
but a creator, one who, with life or Nature as his raw material, creates new things altogether
resembling the original. According to him, poetry is a work of art rather than mere imitation.
Dryden felt the necessity of fancy, or what Coleridge later would call “the shaping spirit of
imagination”.
An Essay on Dramatic Poesy: An Introduction
John Dryden’s An Essay on Dramatic Poesy presents a brief discussion on Neo-classical theory
of Literature. He defends the classical drama saying that it is an imitation of life and reflects
human nature clearly.
An Essay on Dramatic Poesy is written in the form of a dialogue among four gentlemen:
Eugenius, Crites, Lisideius and Neander. Neander speaks for Dryden himself. Eugenius favours
modern English dramatists by attacking the classical playwrights, who did not themselves
always observe the unity of place. But Crites defends the ancients and points out that they
invited the principles of dramatic art paved by Aristotle and Horace. Crites opposes rhyme in
plays and argues that though the moderns excel in sciences, the ancient age was the true age of
poetry. Lisideius defends the French playwrights and attacks the English tendency to mix
genres.
Neander speaks in favour of the Moderns and respects the Ancients; he is however critical of
the rigid rules of dramas and favours rhyme. Neander who is a spokesperson of Dryden, argues
that ‘tragic-comedy’ (Dryden’s phrase for what we now call ‘tragi-comedy’) is the best form
for a play; because it is closer to life in which emotions are heightened by mirth and sadness.
He also finds subplots as an integral part to enrich a play. He finds single action in French
dramas to be rather inadequate since it so often has a narrowing and cramping effect.
Neander gives his palm to the violation of the three unities because it leads to the variety in the
English plays. Dryden thus argues against the neo-classical critics. Since nobody speaks in
rhyme in real life, he supports the use of blank verse in drama and says that the use of rhyme in
serious plays is justifiable in place of the blank verse.
Definition on Drama: Dryden defines Drama as:
Just and lively image of human nature, representing its passions and humours, and the changes
of fortune to which it is subject, for the delight and instruction of mankind.
According to the definition, drama is an ‘image’ of ‘human nature’, and the image is ‘just’ and
‘lively’. By using the word ‘just’ Dryden seems to imply that literature imitates (and not merely
reproduces) human actions. For Dryden, ‘poetic imitation’ is different from an exact, servile
copy of reality, for, the imitation is not only ‘just’, it is also ‘lively’.
When the group talks about the definition of Drama Lisidieus expresses his views about Drama
as “a just and lively Image of Humane Nature.” And then each character expresses his views
about Drama and they compare French Drama and English Drama and discuss the advantages
and disadvantages of French and English Drama. The debate goes on about the comparison
between ancient writers and modern writers. They also discuss the importance of “Unity in
French Drama”. So far as the Unities of Time, Place and Action are concerned French Drama
was closer to classical notions of Drama. With the influence of Platonic Dialogues Dryden had
designed the group that further discusses the Playwrights such as Ben Jonson, Molière, and
Shakespeare with a deeper insight. Crites offers an objection specifically to the use of rhyme as
he privileges the verisimilitude of the scene while citing Aristotle. On the other hand, Neander
favours the natural rhyme since that, according to him, adds artistry to the plays. It was
Twilight when the four friends had their final speech at the Somerset-Stairs and then the four
friends parted along their separate ways.
Violation of the Three Unities
In an age of pseudo- classic criticism, with its precise rules and definitions, Dryden had the
boldness to defend the claims of genius to write according to its own convictions, without
regard for the prescription and rules which had been laid down for good writing. He cleared the
ground for himself by brushing away all the arbitrary bans upon freedom of judgment and
refused to be cowed down by the French playwrights and critics.
Dryden’s Defence:
Dryden’s liberalism, his free critical disposition, is best seen in his justification of the violation
of three unities on the part of the English dramatists and in his defense of English tragi-
comedies. As regards the unities, his views are as under:
a) The English violation of the three unities lends greater copiousness (existing in large
amounts, profuse in speech) and variety to the English plays. The unities have narrowing and
cramping effects on the French plays, and they are often betrayed into absurdities from which
English plays are free.
b) The English disregard of the unities enables them to present a more ‘just’ and ‘lively’ picture
of human nature. The French plays may be more regular but they are not as lively, not so
pleasant and delightful as that of English. e.g., Shakespeare’s plays which are more lively and
just images of life and human nature.
c) The English when they do observe the rules as Ben Jonson has done in The Silent Woman,
show greater skill and art than the French. It all depends upon the ‘genius’ or ‘skill’ of the
writer. d) There is no harm in introducing ‘sub-plots’, for they impart variety, richness, and
liveliness to the play. In this way the writer can present a more ‘just’ and ‘lively’ picture than
the French with their narrow and cramped plays.
e) To the view that observance of the unities is justified on the ground that (i) their violation
results in improbability , (ii) that it places too great a strain on the imagination of the spectators
, and (iii) that credibility is stretched too for, Dryden replies that it is all a question of ‘dramatic
illusion’. Lisideius argues that “we cannot so speedily recollect ourselves after a scene of great
passion and concernment to pass to another of mirth and humour, and to enjoy it with any
relish”. Neander questions this assumption and replies to it by saying why should he imagine
the soul of man more heavy than his senses? “ Does not the eye pass from an unpleasant object
to a pleasant in a much shorter time?” – ‘gratification of sense is primary, secondary that of
soul’. Sensory perception helps in dramatic illusion
Eugenius’s Arguments on the Superiority of the Moderns over the Ancients:
Eugenius says that "the moderns have profited by the rules of the ancients" but moderns have
"excelled them." He points first to some discrepancies in the applications of the Unities,
mentioning that there seem to be four parts in Aristotle's method: the entrance, the intensifying
of the plot, the counter-turn, and the catastrophe. But he points out that somewhere along the
line, and by way of Horace, plays developed five acts (the Spanish only 3). As regards the
action, Eugenius contends that they are transparent, everybody already having known what will
happen; that the Romans borrowed from the Greeks; and that the deus ex machina convention
is a weak escape. As far as the unity of place is concerned, he suggests that the Ancients were
not the ones to insist on it so much as the French, and that insistence has caused some artificial
entrances and exits of characters. The unity of time is often ignored in both. As to the liveliness
of language, Eugenius countersfutes Crites by suggesting that even if we do not know all the
contexts, good writing is always good, wit is always discernible, if done well. He goes on to say
also that while the Ancients portrayed many emotions and actions, they neglected love, "which
is the most frequent of all passions" and known to everyone. He mentions Shakespeare and
Fletcher as offering "excellent scenes of passion."
Crites’s Arguments in favour of the Ancients:
Crites develops the main points in defending the ancients and raises objections to modern
plays. The Moderns are still imitating the Ancients and using their forms and subjects, relying
on Aristotle and Horace, adding nothing new and yet not following their good advice closely
either, especially with respect to the Unities of time, place and action. While the unity of time
suggests that all the action should be portrayed within a single day, the English plays attempt
to use long periods of time, sometimes years. In terms of place, the setting should be the same
from beginning to end with the scenes marked by the entrances and exits of the persons having
business within each. The English, on the other hand, try to have all kinds of places, even far
off countries, shown within a single play. The third unity, that of action, requires that the play
"aim at one great and complete action", but the English have all kinds of sub-plots which
destroy the unity of the action.
In anticipating the objection that the Ancients' language is not as vital as the Moderns’s, Crites
says that we have to remember that we are probably missing a lot of subtleties because the
languages are dead and the customs are far removed from this time.
Crites uses Ben Jonson as the example of the best in English drama, saying that he followed the
Ancients "in all things" and offered nothing really new in terms of "serious thoughts".
Lisideius’s view in favour of the Superiority of the French
Drama over the English Drama:
Lisideius speaks in favour of the French. He agrees with Eugenius that in the last generation the
English drama was superior. Then they had their Jonson, Beaumont and Fletcher. But English
drama has decayed and declined since then. They live in an awful age full of bloodshed and
violence, and poetry is an art of peace. In the present age, it flourishes in France and not in
England. The French have their Corneille (1606-84), and the English have no dramatist equal to
him.
The French are superior to the English for various reasons:
1. They follow the Ancients. They favour the Unity of time and they observe it so
carefully. When it comes to the Unity of Place, they are equally careful. In most of their
plays, the entire action is limited to one place. And the Unity of Action is even more
obvious. Their plays are never over-loaded with sub-plots as is the case with the English
plays. The attention of the English playwrights is constantly diverted from one action to
the other, and its due effects. This fault of double-action gives rise to another fault till
the end. Lisideius therefore concludes: no drama in the world is as absurd as the
English tragic-comedy. The French plays also have much variety but they do not
provide it in such a bizarre manner. The English are guilty of the folly, while the French
are not.
2. The Plots of the French tragedies are based on well-known stories with reference to the
theory and practice of the Ancients. But these stories are transformed for dramatic
purposes; in this regard they are superior even to the Ancients. So their stories are
 mixture of truth with fiction, based on historical invention. They both delight and
instruct, at one and the same time. But the English dramatists for example Shakespeare,
do not modify and transform their stories for dramatic purpose. In order to satisfy the
human soul, the drama must have verisimilitude (likeness to reality). The French plays
have it, while the English do not.
3. The French do not burden the play with a fat plot. They represent a story which will be
one complete action, and everything which is unnecessary is carefully excluded. But the
English burden their plays with actions and incidents which have no logical and natural
connection with the main action so much so that an English play is a mere compilation.
Hence the French plays are better written than the English ones.
4. The English devote considerable attention to one single character, and the others are
merely introduced to set off that principal character. But Lisideius does not support or
favour this practice. In the English plays, one character is more important than the
others, and quite naturally, the greater part of the action is concerned with him. The
English play the character relates to life and therefore, it is proper and reasonable that it
should be so also in the drama. But in French plays, the other characters are not
neglected. While in the French plays such narrations are made by those who are in some
way or the other connected with the main action. Similarly the French are more skilled
than the Ancients.
5. Further, the French narrations are better managed and more skilful than those of the
English. The narration may be of two kinds. The action of the play which is dull and
boring, and is often not listened to by the audience. The narration of things happening
during the course of the play. The French are able to avoid the representation of scenes
of bloodshed, violence and murder on the stage, such scenes of horror and tumult has
disfigured many English plays. In this way, they avoid much that is ridiculous and
absurd in the English plays.
6. The major imperfection of English plays is the representation of Death on the stage. All
passions can be in a lively manner represented on the stage, only if the actor has the
necessary skill, but there are many actions which cannot be successfully represented,
and dying is one of them. The French omit the same mistake. Death should better be
described or narrated rather than represented.
7. It is wrong to believe that the French represent no part of their action on the stage.
Instead, they make proper selection. Cruel actions which are likely to cause hatred, or
disbelief by their impossibility, must be avoided or merely narrated. They must not be
represented. The French follow this rule in practice and so avoid much of the tumult of
the English plays by reducing their plots to reasonable limits. Such narrations are
common in the plays of the Ancients and the great English dramatists like Ben Jonson
and Fletcher. Therefore, the French must not be blamed for their narration, which are
judicious and well managed.
 8. The French are superior to the English in other ways, too: Neander’s View in Favour of
Modern (English) Drama:
Based on the definition of the play, Neander suggests that English playwrights are best at "the
lively imitation of nature" (i.e.,human nature). French poesy is beautiful; it is beautiful like a
"statue". He even says that the newer French writers are imitating the English playwrights.
One fault he finds in their plots is that the regularity also makes the plays too much alike. He
defends the English invention of tragi-comedy by suggesting that the use of mirth with tragedy
provides "contraries" that "set each other off" and gives the audience relief from the heaviness
of straight tragedy. He suggests that the use of well-ordered sub-plots makes the plays
interesting and help the main action. Further, he suggests that English plays are more
entertaining and instructive because they offer an element of surprise that the Ancients and the
French do not. He brings up the idea of the suspension of disbelief. While the audience may
know that none of them are real, why should they think scenes of deaths or battles any less
"real" than the rest? Here he credits the English audience with certain robustness in suggesting
that they want their battles and "other objects of horror." Ultimately he suggests that it may be
there are simply too many rules and often following them creates more absurdities than they
prevent.
The Ancients versus Modern Playwrights:
Dryden in his essay, An Essay on Dramatic Poesy, vindicated the Moderns. The case for the
‘Ancients’ is presented by Crites. In the controversy Dryden takes no extreme position and is
sensible enough to give the Ancients their respect. Through his wit and shrewd analysis, he
removes the difficulty which had confused the issue. He makes us see the achievement of the
Ancients and the gratitude of the Moderns to them. Thus, he presents the comparative merits
and demerits of each in a clearer way.
Crites Favours the Ancients:
i. The superiority of the Ancients is established by the very fact that the Moderns simply
imitate them, and build on the foundations laid by them. The Ancients are the
acknowledged models of the Moderns.
ii. The Ancients had a special genius for drama, and in their particular branch of poetry
they could reach perfection. Just as they excel them in drama.
iii. Thirdly, in ancient Greece and Rome poetry was more honoured than any other branch
of knowledge. Poets were encouraged to excel in this field through frequent
competitions, judges were appointed and the dramatists were rewarded according to
their merits. But in modern times there is no such spirit of healthy rivalry and
competition. Poets are neither suitably honoured nor are they rewarded.
iv. The Ancient drama is superior because the Ancients closely observed Nature and
faithfully represented her in their work. The Moderns do not observe and study Nature
carefully and so they distort and disfigure her in their plays.
v. The rules of Dramatic Composition which the Moderns now follow have come down to
them from the Ancients.
vi. Crites makes special mention of the Unities, of Time, Place, and Action. The Ancients
vii. followed these rules and the effect is satisfying and pleasing. But in Modern plays the
Unity of Time is violated and often of the Action of a play covers whole ages.
viii. The Ancients could organize their plays well. We are unable to appreciate the art and
beauty of their language, only because many of their customs, stories, etc, are not known
to us. There is much that is highly proper and elegant in their language but we fail to
appreciate it because their language is dead, and remains only in books.
Eugenius’ Case for the Moderns:
Eugenius then replies to Crites and speaks in favour of the Moderns.
In the very beginning, he acknowledges that the Moderns have learnt much from the Ancients.
But he adds that by their own labour the Moderns have added to what they have gained from
them, with the result that they now excel them in many ways. The Moderns have not blindly
imitated them. Had they done so, they would have lost the old perfection, and would not achieve
any new excellences. Eugenius proceeds to bring out some defects of the Ancients, and some
excellences of the Moderns.
i. The Moderns have perfected the division of plays and divided their plays not only into
Acts but also into scenes. The Spaniards and the Italians have some excellent plays to their
credit, and they divided them into three Acts and not into five. They wrote without any
definite plan and when they could write a good play their success was more a matter of
chance and good fortune than of ability. In the characterization they no doubt, imitate
nature, but their imitation is only narrow and partial – as if they imitated only an eye or a
hand and did not dare to venture on the lines of a face, or the proportion of the body.
They are inferior to the (English) Moderns in all these respects.
ii. Even the Ancients’ observance of the three unities is not perfect. The Ancient critics, like
Horace and Aristotle, did not make mention of the Unity of Place. Even the Ancients did
not always observe the Unity of Time. Euripides, a great dramatist, no doubt, confines his
action to one day, but, then, he commits many absurdities.
iii. There is too much of narration at the cost of Action. Instead of providing the necessary
information to the audience through dialogues the Ancients often do so through
monologues. The result is, their play becomes monotonous and tiresome.
iv. Their plays do not perform one of the functions of drama, that of giving delight as well as
instruction. There is no poetic justice in their plays. Instead of punishing vice and
rewarding virtue, they have often shown a prosperous wickedness, and an unhappy piety.
v. Eugenius agrees with Crites that they are not competent to judge the language of the
Ancients since it is dead, and many of their stories, customs, habits, etc., have been lost to
them. However, they have certain glaring faults which cannot be denied. They are often
too bold in their metaphors and in their coinages. As far as possible, only such words
should be used as are in common use, and new words should be coined only when
absolutely necessary. Horace himself has recommended this rule, but the Ancients
violated it frequently.
 vi. Ancient themes are equally defective. The proper end of Tragedy is to arouse “admiration
and concernment (pity)”. But their themes are lust, cruelty, murder, and bloodshed, which
instead of arousing admiration and pity arouse “horror and terror”.
vii. The horror of such themes can be softened a little by the introduction of love scenes, but
in the treatment of this passion they are much inferior to such Moderns as Shakespeare
and Fletcher. In their comedies, no doubt they introduce a few scenes of tenderness but,
then, their lovers talk very little.
Mixture of Tragedy and Comedy
Dryden is more considerate in his attitude towards the mingling of the tragic and the comic
elements and emotions in the plays. He vindicates tragi-comedy on the following grounds:
i. Contrasts, when placed near, set off each other.
ii. Continued gravity depresses the spirit, a scene of mirth thrown in between refreshes. It
has the same effect on us as music. In other words, comic scene produces relief, though
Dryden does not explicitly say so.
iii. Mirth does not destroy compassion and thus the serious effect which tragedy aims at is
not disturbed by mingling of tragic and comic.
iv. Just as the eye can pass from an unpleasant object to a pleasant one, so also the soul can
move from the tragic to the comic. And it can do so much more swiftly.
v. The English have perfected a new way of writing not known to the Ancients. If they had
tragic-comedies, perhaps Aristotle would have revised his rules.
vi. It is all a question of progress with the change of taste. The Ancients cannot be a model
for all times and countries, “What pleased the Greeks would not satisfy an English
audience”. Had Aristotle seen the English plays “He might have changed his mind”. The
real test of excellence is not strict adherence to rules or conventions, but whether the aims
of dramas have been achieved. They are achieved by the English drama.
Dryden’s view on Tragi-comedy (Dryden’s own phrase is ‘Tragic-comedy’) clearly brings out
his liberal classicism, greatness and shrewdness as a critic. Dryden is of the view that mingling of
the tragic and the comic provides dramatic relief.
Advocacy of writing plays in Rhymed Verse Rhymed

Verse versus Blank Verse Controversy:

In the Restoration era rhymed verse or Heroic Couplet was generally used as the medium of
expression for Heroic Tragedy, while the great Elizabethan dramatists had used blank verse for
their plays. Dryden himself used rhyme for his plays upto ‘Aurangzebe’. But in the Preface to
this play he bids farewell to his ‘mistress rhyme’, and express his intention of turning to blank
verse. However, in the Essay, he has expressed himself strongly in favour of rhyme through the
mouth of Neander.
Crites’s attack on Rhyme occurs towards the end of the Essay, the discussion turns on rhyme and
blank verse, and Crites attacks rhyme violently on the following grounds:
Rhyme is not to be allowed in serious plays, though it may be allowed in comedies.
Rhyme is unnatural in a play, for a play is in dialogues, and no man without premeditation
speaks in rhyme.
– Blank Verse is also unnatural for no man speaks in verse either, but it is nearer to prose
and Aristotle has laid down that tragedy should be written in a verse form which is nearer
to prose
– “Aristotle, 'Tis best to write Tragedy in that kind of Verse which is the least such, or
which is nearest Prose: and this amongst the Ancients was the Iambique, and with us is
blank verse.” (………)
 Drama is a ‘just’ representation of Nature, and rhyme is unnatural, for nobody in Nature
expresses himself in rhyme. It is artificial and the art is too apparent, while true art
consists in hiding art.
 It is said that rhyme helps the poet to control his fancy. But one who has not the judgment
to control his fancy in blank verse will not be able to control it in rhyme either. Artistic
control is a matter of judgment and not of rhyme or verse.
Neander’s defence:
•
• The choice and the placing of the word should be natural in a natural order – that makes the
language natural, whether it is verse or rhyme that is used.
• Rhyme itself may be made to look natural by the use of run-on lines, and variety, and variety
resulting from the use of hemistich, manipulation of pauses and stresses, and the change of
metre. • Blank Verse is no verse at all. It is simply poetic prose and so fit only for comedies.
Rhymed verse alone, made natural or near to prose, is suitable for tragedy. This would satisfy
Aristotle’s dictum. • Rhyme is justified by its universal use among all the civilized nations of
the world.
• The Elizabethans achieved perfection in the use of blank verse and they, the Moderns, cannot
excel; them, or achieve anything significant or better in the use of blank verse. Hence they must
perforce use rhyme, which suits the genius of their age.
• Tragedy is a serious play representing nature exalted to its highest pitch; rhyme being the noblest
kind of verse is suited to it, and not to comedy.
At the end of the Essay, Dryden gives one more reason in favour of rhyme i.e. rhyme adds to the
pleasure of poetry. Rhyme helps the judgment and thus makes it easier to control the free flights
of the fancy. The primary function of poetry is to give ‘delight’, and rhyme enables the poet to
perform this function well.
Let’s sum up
In a nutshell, John Dryden in his essay, An Essay on Dramatic Poesy, gives an account of the
Neo-classical theory. He defends the classical drama saying that it is an imitation of life, and
reflects human nature clearly. He also discusses the three unities, rules that require a play to take
place in one place, during one day, and that it develops one single action or plot.
The Essay is written in the form of a dialogue concerned to four gentlemen: Eugenius, Crites,
Lisideius and Neander. Neander seems to speak for Dryden himself.Eugenius takes the side of
the modern English dramatists by criticizing the faults of the classical playwrights who did not
themselves observe the unity of place. But Crites defends the ancient and pointed out that they
invited the principles of dramatic art enunciated by Aristotle and Horace. Crites opposes rhyme
in plays and argues that through the moderns excel in science; the ancient age was the true age of
poetry. Lesideius defends the French playwrights and attacks the English tendency to mix genres.
He defines a play as a just and lively image of human and the change of fortune to which it is
subject for the delight and instruction of mankind.
Neander favours the Moderns, respects the Ancients, critical to rigid rules of dramas and he
favours rhyme if it is in proper place like in grand subject matter. Neander a spokesperson of
Dryden argues that tragic comedy is the best form for a play; because it is the closest to life in
which emotions are heightened by both mirth and sadness. He also finds subplots as an integral
part to enrich a play. He finds the French drama, with its single action.
Neander favours the violation of the unities because it leads to the variety in the English plays.
The unities have a narrowing and crumpling effect on the French plays, which are often betrayed
into absurdities from which the English plays are free. The violation of unities helps the English
playwright to present a mere, just and lively image of human nature.
In his comparison of French and English drama, Neander characterizes the best proofs of the
Elizabethan playwrights. He praises Shakespeare, ancients and moderns.Neander comes to the
end for the superiority of the Elizabethans with a close examination of a play by Jonson which
Neander believes a perfect demonstration that the English were capable of following the
classical rules. In this way, Dryden’s commitment to the neoclassical tradition is displayed.
Wordsworth (1770-1856): If Johnson wrote of man in as certain class of society,
Wordsworth wrote of man as himself, after the French Revolution shattered the old way of
life. He writes in Lyrical Ballads
“The principal object, then, proposed in these poems was to choose incidents and situations
from common life, and to relate or describe them, throughout, as far as was possible in a
selection of language really used by men, and, at the same time, to throw over them a certain
coloring of imagination, whereby ordinary things should be presented to the mind in an
unusual aspect, and, further, and above all, to make these incidents and situations interesting by
tracing in them, truly though no ostentatiously, the primary laws of our nature.
This view of poetry as a meditated craft is elaborated in Wordsworth’s other renowned
comment in the Preface concerning poetic composition. After repeating his original statement
that
…Poetry is the spontaneous overflow of powerful feelings,’ he adds that poetry, ‘takes its
origin from emotion recollected in tranquility: the emotion is contemplated till, by a species of
re-action, the tranquility gradually disappears, and an emotion, kindred to that which was
before the subject of contemplation, is gradually produced, and does itself actually exist in the
mind. In this mood successful composition generally begins.
F.W. Bateson observes, “The issue of poetic diction had been growing upon the English literary
consciousness steadily since about the time of Chaucer, that is, since the beginning of
Renaissance English literature, and with special intensity since the time of Spenser. A new
linguistic consciousness, the new linguistic expansiveness of the Renaissance nation, promoted
the learned enrichment of vernacular expression and produced a plethora of words.”
Dante insisted on the use of polished language, but Wordsworth used the common man’s
language. He does not believe in the ways of the city folk. Man in nature is better than man in
the city. Wordsworth puts stress on the individualism of the poet. And what is the purpose of
poetry? To teach, said Horace, Scaliger, and Boileau. No, says Wordsworth. The only
restriction the poet writes under is the ‘necessity of giving immediate pleasure to a human
being possessed of that information which may be expected from him, not as a lawyer, a
physician, a mariner, an astronomer, or a natural philosopher, but as a man. Poetry for
Wordsworth is not merely another social or intellectual activity. It is ‘the breath and finer
spirit of all knowledge’; it is the impassioned expression which is in the countenance of all
science.
Summary of Preface to Lyrical Ballads with important Prose Passages
(a) The Occasion and Limitations of his Critical Work:
Wordsworth was dragged into criticism in spite of himself. For neither by temperament nor by
training was he qualified to be a critic. Nor was his upbringing in the beloved lap of Nature, that
bred an indifference to books, at all conducive to a critical frame of mind. Had his share of the
Lyrical Ballads, published by him and his friend Coleridge in 1798, not been violently attacked
by the neo-classical critics of the Edinburgh and the Quarterly Reviews, it is doubtful whether he
would have penned a single line of criticism. As it is, he had to take the field in sheer self-
defense where, however, he not only made the issue more confounded but, unwittingly, proved
the opponents’ point more than his own. The chief of his critical papers is the preface to the
second edition of the Lyrical Ballads dated 1800, which was revised and enlarged in the
subsequent editions of 1802 and 1815. The revision and enlargement also included an Appendix
to the edition of 1802 and an Essay Supplementary to the Preface to the edition of 1815. In all of
them Wordsworth’s subject is poetic diction and his view of poetry, which from their original
enunciation in the others. The work, it appears, was originally to have been eventually left to
Wordsworth who incorporated some of those notes into its.

(b) Neo-classical Poetic Diction

The question of poetic diction or the language fit for poetry, which chiefly compelled
Wordsworth to write his Preface, had also engaged the attention of the neo-classical and earlier
writers. Spenser, thus, had preferred the archaic language to that in vogue in his day. Milton had,
similarly, a predilection for the uncommon in word and phrase in his great rule- loving critics of
the later seventeenth and eighteenth centuries to substitute this caprice or chance in the selection
of poetic language by system. The great Roman orator Cicero had divided style into three
categories: the low, used to prove; the middle, used to please; and the high or lofty, used to move.
Although the categorization originally applied to oratory, it proved no less useful in
distinguishing the ‘kinds’ of poetry by their style. The elegiac, thus, used the low style, the
pastoral the middle, and the epic the lofty. The eighteenth century reduced these three categories
to only two: the low and the lofty. It summarily rejected low words and phrases as unfit for
poetic use, those, that is to say, which being in everyday use became too familiar to the ear and
so lost all their power to impress. There was another variety of words not covered by any of these
categories which also Dr. Johnson found unfit for poetic use- the technical ones which, though
uncommon and therefore perhaps high, are too much so to be intelligible to any but the
professions concerned. With these two exceptions therefore, the low and the technical, poets
were free to use any language they liked. This, according to him and to the neo-classical critics in
general, was the true poetic diction – a ‘system of words at once refined from the grossness of
domestic use, and free from the harshness of terms appropriated to particular art’. It difference
from the diction of prose by its ‘happy combinations of words’ or ‘flowers of speech’, plucked
from the bramble of current forms of expression. Employed judiciously by gifted writers, it
served its purpose well enough, but falling into the hands, of mere versifiers, it soon degenerated
into artifice. In their verses the devices employed to turn the commonplace into the grand-
personification, periphrasis, inversion, antithesis, Latinisms – appear bereft of all the graces
found in those of the former. To illustrate the use of periphrasis only, the device most commonly
resorted to, they turned shepherds into ‘the rural race’, a bright expanse of flowers in the fields
into ‘ their’ flowery carpet’, singing birds into ‘gay songsters of the feather’s train’. In this ay
poetry drifted away from natural expression altogether.

(c) Wordsworth’s Concept of Poetic Diction

It was rather this abuse of poetic diction than perhaps poetic diction itself which Wordsworth
originally disapproved. For in the Advertisement of the Lyrical Ballads of 1798 he stated that his
object in adopting a simpler diction for his poems was merely ‘ to ascertain how far the language
of conversation in the middle and lower classes of society was adapted to the purposes of poetic
pleasure’. But when in spite 3 of this modest apologia they were attached mercilessly by
conservative opinion, his tentative experiment turned into a definite concept. The publication of
a second edition of the Lyrical Ballads in 1800 provided his with the occasion to explain it. His
principal object in these poems, he says, ‘ was to choose incidents and situations from common
lfie, and to relate or describe them, throughout, as far as was possible, in a selection of language
really used by men, and at the same time, to throw over them a certain colouring of imagination,
whereby ordinary things should be presented to the mind in an unusual aspect.’ Explaining why
only low and rustic life was chosen for this purpose, he says that in that condition, free from all
outside influences, men speak from their own personal experience and ‘convey their feelings and
notions in simple and unelaborated expressions’. Such a language, therefore, ‘is a more
permanent, and a far more philosophical language, than that which is frequently substituted for it
by poets, who think that they are conferring honour upon themselves and their art in proportion
as they separate themselves from the sympathies of men and indulge in arbitrary and capricious
habits of expression in order to furnish food for fickle tastes and fickle appetites of their own
creation.’
From this he is led to attaché the diction of the day. ‘The reader,’ he says, ‘ will find that
personifications of abstract ideas rarely occur in these volumes; and are utterly rejected as an
ordinary device to elevate the style and raise it above prose. My purpose was to imitate and, as
far as is possible, to adopt the very language of men; and assuredly such personifications do not
make any natural or regular part of that language ….There will also be found in these volumes
little of what is usually called poetic diction; as much pains has been taken to avoid it as is
ordinarily taken to produce it….to bring my language near to the language of men.’ In poetic
diction, besides the use of personification, Wordsworth includes ‘phrases and figures of speech
which from father to son have long been regarded as the common inheritance of poets’ –
periphrasis, inversion, antithesis, and other devices – and even those expressions, ‘in themselves
proper and beautiful’, which were so frequently repeated by bad poets that they began to arouse
disgust rather than pleasure.
Finally, Wordsworth points out that as a natural corollary to his concept of poetic style the
language of poetry cannot differ materially from that of prose: ‘that not only the language of a
large portion of every good poem, even of the most elevated character, must necessarily, except
with reference to the metre, in no respect differ from that of good prose; but likewise that some
of the most interesting parts of the best poems will be found to be strictly the language of prose,
when prose is well written.’ As an instance, he cites some lines, the only ones he considers
valuable, from Gray’s sonnet. On the Death of Richard West which, in spite of that pot’s
insistence on the difference between the language of poetry and prose, are hardly difference from
what they would be in prose; such as the concluding two:

I fruitless mourn to him that cannot hear, And

weep the more because I weep in vain.
Whence Wordsworth is led to conclude, ‘that there neither is, nor can be, any essential
difference between the language of prose and metrical composition.’ To the possible objection
that metre itself constitutes a distinction between the two and that therefore there are other
distinctions equally valid, such as those of diction, Wordsworth replies that he is only
recommending ‘a selection of the language really spoken by men’ and ‘that this selection,
wherever it is made with true taste and feelings, will of itself form a distinction far greater than
composition from the vulgarity and meanness of ordinary life; and if metre be superadded
thereto, I believe that a dissimilitude (i.e. distinction) will be produced altogether sufficient for
the gratification of a rational mind.’ It is as much as to admit that there is a distinction between
the language 4 of poetry and that of prose or ‘the very language of men’, which was
wordsworth’s original object, and that the distinction lies not only in metre but also in the choice
of words and phrases, which in the case of poetry must be made ‘with true taste and feeling’.
Not only this: Wordsworth even admits the possibility of what Johnson called ‘flowers of
speech’ arising in the process:’ for, if selected truly and judiciously, must necessarily be
dignified and variegated, and alive with metaphors and figures.’ How, then, with the vulgarity of
common speech refined by taste, anddignity and variety added to it by metaphors and figures, is
Wordsworth’s concept of protests? Is not the prodigal son back home, again after all his
wanderings? ‘Wordsworth,’ as Rene Wellek says, ‘actually ends in good neo-classicism.
His poetic practice ‘doth the same tale repeat’. His greatest poems – Tintern Abbey, The
Immortality Ode, The Solitary Reaper, and others too numerous to mention – are not written ‘ in
a selection of language really used by men.’ But this is ot to deny that a good part of
Wordsworth’s poetry, of ‘incidents and situations from common life,’ does succeed nobly in the
language advocated in the Advertisement of 1798. Which all comes to this: that there is a class
of poetry for which such language is certainly suited, and that neo-classical opinion only showed
its inherent narrow mindedness in not judging it on its merits. And from this initial mistake on its
part Wordsworth, as uncritical as his assailants, was led to overstate the possibilities of his own
concept of poetic diction.
 (d) His Concept of Poetry
From a consideration of the language of poetry Wordsworth is led to a consideration of the poetic
art itself. But here, too he is not quite clear in his assertions. To begin with, he defines good
poetry as ‘the spontaneous overflow of powerful feelings’, in which case there is no difference
between it and the song of Shelley’s Skylark that also pours his full heart in profuse strains of an
unpremeditated art.
But if it is only this, how is it that it comes to be clothed ‘in selection of language really used by
men’, with metre superadded thereto, for no sudden rush of emotions can leave a poet any leisure
for these? Wordsworth makes no attempt the explain the anomaly but modifies the statement
later in the Preface in this way: ‘I have said that poetry is the spontaneous overflow of powerful
feelings; it takes its origin from emotion recollected In tranquility: the emotion is contemplated
till by a species of reaction ,the tranquility gradually disappear and an emotion, kindred to that
which was before the subject of contemplation, is gradually produced, and does its actually exist
in the mind. In this mood successful composition generally begins, and in a mood similar to this
it is carried on.’ It will be noticed here that though ‘ the spontaneous overflow of powerful
feelings’ and ‘emotion recollected tranquility’ are the very opposite of each other – the one
coming on a sudden, the other deliberately recalled to memory – Wordsworth makes no
difference between the two and endeavors to explain the one by the other. Did he mean the same
things by the two? If he did, as appears from this elucidation of the first statement by the second,
his meaning in the first seems to have been that poetry ‘is the final product’ of the ‘unforced’
overflow of powerful feelings. For it is only by some such interpretation that these two opposed
statements can be reconciled. That his second statement is the more considered one and explains
his meaning more truly is plain enough. For his own great poems were composed in the way
therein set forth. A moving sight – say the solitary reaper or the daffodils – was seen during a
walk, stored in the memory, and recalled in moments of calm contemplation to be bodied forth
into a poem. In this process the emotion originally aroused by the sight was re-created in
contemplation as nearly as possible till it overpowered the mind completely, driving
contemplation thence. So this is how poetry originates in emotion recollected in tranquility and is
therefore, ultimately, the product of the original free flow of that emotion. Had no emotion been
aroused of itself in the beginning, there would have been no recollection of it in tranquility and so
no expression of it in poetry. The first stage in the poetic process is the spontaneous overflow of
powerful feelings,’ the next their recollection in tranquility, and the last their expression in
poetry. That by spontaneity in poetry Wordsworth did not simply a complete rejection of
workmanship, or artlessness, is poems with the greatest care, not trusting his first expression
which he often found detestable. ‘It is frequently true of second words as of second thoughts,’ he
wrote to Gillis, ‘that they are best. Nor is the principle of spontaneity in poetic composition
advocated anywhere else in the Preface except in that solitary phrase. Here, too, therefore
Wordsworth is not so revolutionary in his concept as he appears.
He also considered the function of poetry. It is not sheer self-expression, as its ‘spontaneous
overflow’ might suggest. It stands or falls by its effect on the reader. For the poet ‘is a man
speaking to men’: apart from them his song is a mere voice in the wilderness. His over-all object
is, no doubt, pleasure but it is pleasure in which the moral gain far outweighs the aesthetic.
The latter chiefly arises from the port’s way of saying things and from his use of metre or rhme
which with their pleasurable recurrence, make even pathetic situations and sentiments painless.
The moral consists partly in the refinement of feelings which true poetry effects, partly in the
knowledge of ‘Man, Nature, and Human Life’ which it conveys, and partly in its emphasis on
whatever makes life richer and fuller: ‘Truth, Grandeur, Beauty, Love, and Hope – And
melancholy Fear subdued by Faith’, As the poet is possessed of a greater power to feel and to
express his feelings than other men, he has a ready access to the reader’s heart; and as his
feelings are saner, purer, and more permanent than can be aroused by the same objects in other
men, the reader is induced to feel the poet’s way in the same situation and even in others. He
emerges saner and purer than before. Next, poetry is the pursuit of truth- of man’s knowledge of
himself and the world around him. Science is engaged in the same pursuit, too, but while the
truths it discovers benefits us only materially, the truths of poetry ‘cleave to us as a necessary
part of our existence’, for they concern man’s relation to man, on the one hand, and his relation
to the external world of nature, on the other, both illustrated in ‘incidents and situation from
common life’, as in the Lines Written in Early Spring where while man harms man, the world of
Nature ,where everything is happy, caters for his hourly delight. It is an instance of unpleasant
truth, no doubt, but in the context of its’ overbalance of pleasure’ in Nature, its sum total is
pleasure. While the pursuit of science pleaes the ceintist, there is nothing in its truths that can
equally please the common man.
They must remain the pleasure of the few who know science. Nor, being purely the product of
the’meddling intellect’, are they ‘felt in the blood, and felt along the heart’, as the truths of poetry
are. ‘Poetry (therefore) is the breath and finer spirit of all knowledge; it is the impassioned
expression which is in the countenance of all science’.
Finally, poetry is a greater force for good. Wordsworth’s own object in writing poetry was ‘to
console the afflicted; to add sunshine to daylight by making the happy happier, to each the young
and the gracious of every age to see, to think, and feel, and therefore to become more actively
and securely virtuous.’ From this he drew the general conclusion that every great poet is a
teacher; I wish either to be considered as a teacher or as nothing.’ This is also what Plato, with
whom Wordsworth has much in common, wanted poetry to the but as the latter everywhere
insists on pleasure as being a necessary condition of poetic teaching, he may be said to follow
Horace more than Plato. But so far as teaching alone is concerned, Wordsworth, in a famous
passage concerning his own poems, seems to echo the very sentiments of Plato: they will
cooperate with the benign tendencies in human nature and society, and will, in their degree, be
efficacious in making men wiser, better, and happier.’ In the preface these benign tendencies are
defined as ‘relationship and love’ which it is the great function of poetry to promote. But they
are to be induced through a purgation of feelings rather than through a mere appeal to the
intellect or good sense. This is what distinguishes Wordsworth’s concept of teaching from that of
his neo-classical predecessors.
(e) The Value of his Criticism
Whether in his attack on poetic diction or in his judgment of poetry by its appeal to the emotions,
Wordsworth opposed the neo-classical practice of judging a work of art by the application of
tests based on ancient models. These tests could at the most judge the external qualities of the
work – its structure, diction, metre, and the like. A work might be flawless in all these and yet
fail ‘to please always and please all’. It may please the critic intent on looking for these niceties
in its extent to which it moves him? Wordsworth applied himself to this great question – the
ultimate test of literary excellence – and came to the conclusion
that it lay neither in a particular diction nor in a particular mode writing. It lay rather in the
hearlthy pleasure it afforded to the reader; and this may arise as much from the use of common
language as from the customary language of poetry, and as much from the writer’s individual
mode of writing as from that laid down by new classicism. What Wordsworth says in this
connection of the style of his Lyrical Ballads applies equally to his generally poetic practice: ‘I
am well aware that others who pursue different track may interest him likewise; I do not interfere
with their claim, I only wish to prefer a difference claim of my own.’ This is actually all that he
meant in the Preface and all that Romanticism means too. It is an application of the common
principle of ‘live and let live’ in the sphere of letters.
Wordsworth also saw that neo-classicism made no provision for originality of genius and seldom
judged it on its merit. It stood all for the beaten track. So consciously or unconsciously it often
proved a hindrance to writers who followed their own path. From the attacks made on his own
works therefore the conclusion was forced upon him ‘that every author, as far as he is great and
at the same time original, has had the task of creating the taste by which he is to be enjoyed; so
has it been, so will it continue to be.’ For what he has in common with his predecessors (i.e. with
the older school) his path has already been smoothed by them, ‘but for what is peculiarly his
own, he will be called upon to clear and often to shape his own road: he will be in the condition
of Hannibal among the Alps.’ This, too, his Preface sought to do: to wean the reader away from
the old mode of writing and to accustom him to his own. This, in spite of opposition, he
succeeded in doing. His critical writings therefore mark the end of the old school and the
beginning of a new or rather the revival of an older one – the Romantic school of the
Elizabethans.
Samuel Taylor Coleridge

Coleridge intended Biographia Literaria to be a short preface to a collection of his poems,

Sibylline Leaves (1817). However, it quickly expanded into a two-volume autobiography, mixing
memoir, philosophy, religion and literary theory, and was heavily influenced by German
criticism, the evaluation and interpretation of literature. Coleridge himself described Biographia
Literaria as an ‘immethodical miscellany’ of ‘life and opinions’. In 1906, the poet Arthur
Symons called the work ‘the greatest book of criticism in English, and one of the most annoying
books in any language’.
Coleridge (1770-1856) takes the trouble to examine and correct Wordsworth’s views on
language and meter. He does it seventeen years later in his Biographia Literaria. Coleridge
acutely remarks that Wordsworth’s own theory of language is based on a selection of the
language of rustics. Now, Coleridge says, if you remove the provincial terms of speech from a
peasant’s language you no longer have rustic language at all. You have the language that any
man speaks. Thus he denies Wordsworth’s main assertion that a special virtue is in the speech
of those in close communication with nature. Yet though he will not accept Wordsworth’s
theory, he is in complete agreement with him as to the falseness and artificiality of much of
the verse of the preceding generation. Writing later than Wordsworth, at a time when the
Romantic movement has more partisans, he can be more reasonable and less polemical than
Wordsworth. Coleridge’s ideas about fancy and imagination, and his Shakespeare criticism
are much useful for us.
Coleridge writes of his ideas of imagination and fancy;“The IMAGINATION then I consider
either as primary, or secondary. The primary IMAGINATION I hold to be the living Power and
prime Agent of all human Perception, and as a repetition in the finite mind of the eternal act of
creation in the infinite I AM. The secondary I consider as an echo of the former, co-existing with
the conscious will, yet still as identical with the primary in the kind of its agency, and differing
only in degree, and in the mode of its operation. It dissolves, diffuses, dissipates, in order to re-
create; or where this process is rendered impossible, yet still at all events it struggles to idealize
and to unify. It is essentially vital, even as all objects (as objects) are essentially fixed and dead.
FANCY, on the contrary, has no other counters to play with, but fixities and definites.
The Fancy is indeed no other than a mode of Memory emancipated from the order of time and
space; and blended with, and modified by that empirical phenomenon of the will, which we
express by the word CHOICE. But equally with the ordinary memory must receive all its
materials ready made from the laws of association. Murray Budny observes, ‘‘During the 17th
century the terms imagination and fancy had often enough been used in a vaguel synonymous
way to refer to the realm of fairy tale or make-believe. Yet here and there (as in the opening of
Hobbes’s Leviathan) the term ‘imagination’ had tended to distinguish itself from ‘fancy’ and
settle toward a meaning centered in the sober literalism of sense impressions and the survival of
these in memory. This was in accord with medieval and Renaissance tradition, where
imagination and phantasia had all along been fairly close together, but where, so far as a
distinction of this kind had been made, it was phantasia which meant the lighter and less
responsible kind of imaging.”
Poetic theory in Biographia Literaria
Biographia Literaria includes some of the most important English writing on poetic theory. Some
of it is a response to ideas of poetry advanced by his close friend and collaborator William
Wordsworth, first in the 1800 preface to their joint publication Lyrical Ballads and then in the
preface to Wordsworth’s Collected Poems (1815). Referring to the latter, Coleridge says he
wants in Biographia Literaria to make clear ‘on what points I coincide with the opinions in that
preface, and in what points I altogether differ’.
Imagination and the suspension of disbelief
In one of the most famous passages in Biographia Literaria, Coleridge offers a theory of
creativity (pp. 95-96). He divides imagination into primary and secondary. Primary imagination
is common to all humans: it enables us to perceive and make sense of the world. It is a creative
function and thereby repeats the divine act of creation. The secondary imagination enables
individuals to transcend the primary imagination – not merely to perceive connections but to
make them. It is the creative impulse that enables poetry and other art.
Biographia Literaria contains the first instance of the phrase ‘suspension of disbelief’. Writing
about his contributions to the Lyrical Ballads, which includes The Rime of the Ancient Mariner,
Coleridge says that although his characters were ‘supernatural, or at least romantic’, he tried to
give them a ‘human interest and a semblance of disbelief’ that would prompt readers to the
‘willing suspension of disbelief… which constitutes poetic faith’.
The Transformative Power of the Imagination

Coleridge believed that a strong, active imagination could become a vehicle for transcending
unpleasant circumstances. Many of his poems are powered exclusively by imaginative flights,
wherein the speaker temporarily abandons his immediate surroundings, exchanging them for an
entirely new and completely fabricated experience. Using the imagination in this way is both
empowering and surprising because it encourages a total and complete disrespect for the
confines of time and place. These mental and emotional jumps are often well rewarded. Perhaps
Coleridge’s most famous use of imagination occurs in “This Lime-Tree Bower My Prison”
(1797), in which the speaker employs a keen poetic mind that allows him to take part in a
journey that he cannot physically make. When he “returns” to the bower, after having imagined
himself on a fantastic stroll through the countryside, the speaker discovers, as a reward, plenty of
things to enjoy from inside the bower itself, including the leaves, the trees, and the shadows. The
power of imagination transforms the prison into a perfectly pleasant spot.
The Interplay of Philosophy, Piety, and Poetry
Coleridge used his poetry to explore conflicting issues in philosophy and religious piety. Some
critics argue that Coleridge’s interest in philosophy was simply his attempt to understand the
imaginative and intellectual impulses that fueled his poetry. To support the claim that his
imaginative and intellectual forces were, in fact, organic and derived from the natural world,
Coleridge linked them to God, spirituality, and worship. In his work, however, poetry,
philosophy, and piety clashed, creating friction and disorder for Coleridge, both on and off the
page. In “The Eolian Harp” (1795), Coleridge struggles to reconcile the three forces. Here, the
speaker’s philosophical tendencies, particularly the belief that an “intellectual breeze” (47)
brushes by and inhabits all living things with consciousness, collide with those of his orthodox
wife, who disapproves of his unconventional ideas and urges him to Christ. While his wife lies
untroubled, the speaker agonizes over his spiritual conflict, caught between Christianity and a
unique, individual spirituality that equates nature with God. The poem ends by discounting the
pantheist spirit, and the speaker concludes by privileging God and Christ over nature and praising
them for having healed him from the spiritual wounds inflicted by these unorthodox views.
Nature and the Development of the Individual
Coleridge, Wordsworth, and other romantic poets praised the unencumbered, imaginative soul
of youth, finding images in nature with which to describe it. According to their formulation,
experiencing nature was an integral part of the development of a complete soul and sense of
personhood. The death of his father forced Coleridge to attend school in London, far away from
the rural idylls of his youth, and he lamented the missed opportunities of his sheltered, city-
bound adolescence in many poems, including “Frost at Midnight” (1798). Here, the speaker sits
quietly by a fire, musing on his life, while his infant son sleeps nearby. He recalls his boarding
school days, during which he would both daydream and lull himself to sleep by remembering his
home far away from the city, and he tells his son that he shall never be removed from nature, the
way the speaker once was. Unlike the speaker, the son shall experience the seasons and shall
learn about God by discovering the beauty and bounty of the natural world. The son shall be
given the opportunity to develop a relationship with God and with nature, an opportunity denied
to both the speaker and Coleridge himself. For Coleridge, nature had the capacity to teach joy,
love, freedom, and piety, crucial characteristics for a worthy, developed individual.
Conversation Poems
Coleridge wanted to mimic the patterns and cadences of everyday speech in his poetry. Many of
his poems openly address a single figure—the speaker’s wife, son, friend, and so on—who
listens silently to the simple, straightforward language of the speaker. Unlike the descriptive,
long, digressive poems of Coleridge’s classicist predecessors, Coleridge’s so-called conversation
poems are short, self-contained, and often without a discernable poetic form.
Colloquial, spontaneous, and friendly, Coleridge’s conversation poetry is also highly personal,
frequently incorporating events and details of his domestic life in an effort to widen the scope of
possible poetic content. Although he sometimes wrote in blank verse, unrhymed iambic
pentameter, he adapted this metrical form to suit a more colloquial rhythm. Both Wordsworth
and Coleridge believed that everyday language and speech rhythms would help broaden poetry’s
audience to include the middle and lower classes, who might have felt excluded or put off by the
form and content of neoclassicists, such as Alexander Pope, Lady Mary Wortley Montagu, and
John Dryden.

Delight in the Natural World

Like the other romantics, Coleridge worshiped nature and recognized poetry’s capacity to
describe the beauty of the natural world. Nearly all of Coleridge’s poems express a respect for
and delight in natural beauty. Close observation, great attention to detail, and precise
descriptions of color aptly demonstrate Coleridge’s respect and delight. Some poems, such as
“This Lime-Tree Bower My Prison,” “Youth and Age” (1834), and “Frost at Midnight,” mourn
the speakers’ physical isolation from the outside world. Others, including “The Eolian Harp,”
use images of nature to explore philosophical and analytical ideas.
Still other poems, including “The Nightingale” (ca. 1798), simply praise nature’s beauty. Even
poems that don’t directly deal with nature, including “Kubla Khan” and “The Rime of the
Ancient Mariner,” derive some symbols and images from nature. Nevertheless, Coleridge
guarded against the pathetic fallacy, or the attribution of human feeling to the natural world. To
Coleridge, nature contained an innate, constant joyousness wholly separate from the ups and
downs of human experience.
Prayer
Although Coleridge’s prose reveals more of his religious philosophizing than his poetry, God,
Christianity, and the act of prayer appear in some form in nearly all of his poems. The son of an
Anglican vicar, Coleridge vacillated from supporting to criticizing Christian tenets and the
Church of England. Despite his criticisms, Coleridge remained defiantly supportive of prayer,
praising it in his notebooks and repeatedly referencing it in his poems. He once told the novelist
Thomas de Quincey that prayer demanded such close attention that it was the one of the hardest
actions of which human hearts were capable. In the sad poem, “Epitaph” (1833), Coleridge
composes an epitaph for himself, which urges people to pray for him after he dies. Rather than
recommend a manner or method of prayer, Coleridge’s poems reflect a wide variety, which
emphasizes his belief in the importance of individuality.
 Symbols
The Sun

the first phase of the mariner’s punishment to the sun, as it dehydrates the crew. All told, this
poem contains eleven references to the sun, many of which signify the Christian conception of a
wrathful, vengeful God. Bad, troubling things happen to the crew during the day, while smooth
sailing and calm weather occur at night, by the light of the moon. Frequently, the sun stands in
for God’s influence and power, as well as a symbol of his authority. The setting sun spurs
philosophical musings, as in “The Eolian Harp,” and the dancing rays of sunlight represent a
pinnacle of nature’s beauty, as in “This Lime-Tree Bower My Prison.”
The Moon
Like the sun, the moon often symbolizes God, but the moon has more positive connotations than
the sun. In “The Rime of the Ancient Mariner,” the sun and the moon represent two sides of the
Christian God: the sun represents the angry, wrathful God, whereas the moon represents the
benevolent, repentant God. All told, the moon appears fourteen times in “The Rime of the
Ancient Mariner,” and generally favorable things occur during night, in contrast to the horrors
that occur during the day. For example, the mariner’s curse lifts and he returns home by
moonlight. “Dejection: An Ode” (1802) begins with an epitaph about the new moon and goes on
to describe the beauty of a moonlit night, contrasting its beauty with the speaker’s sorrowful soul.
Similarly, “Frost at Midnight” also praises the moon as it illuminates icicles on a winter evening
and spurs the speaker to great thought.
Dreams and Dreaming
Coleridge explores dreams and dreaming in his poetry to communicate the power of the
imagination, as well as the inaccessible clarity of vision. “Kubla Khan” is subtitled “A Vision in
a Dream.” According to Coleridge, he fell asleep while reading and dreamed of a marvelous
pleasure palace for the next few hours. Upon awakening, he began transcribing the dream-vision
but was soon called away; when he returned, he wrote out the fragments that now comprise
“Kubla Khan.” Some critics doubt Coleridge’s story, attributing it to an attempt at increasing the
poem’s dramatic effect. Nevertheless, the poem speaks to the imaginative possibilities of the
subconscious. Dreams usually have a pleasurable connotation, as in “Frost at Midnight.” There,
the speaker, lonely and insomniac as a child at boarding school, comforts himself by imagining
and then dreaming of his rural home. In his real life, however, Coleridge suffered from
nightmares so terrible that sometimes his own screams would wake him, a phenomenon he
details in “The Pains of Sleep.” Opium probably gave Coleridge a sense of well-being that
allowed him to sleep without the threat of nightmares.

REFERENCE
1.Braziel, Jana Evans and Anita Mannur (Ed.) Theorizing Diaspora. London: Blackwell, 2003.
2.Enright, D.J. and Chickera, Ernst de. (Ed.) English Critical Texts. Delhi: OUP, 1962.
UNIT –II – Literary Theory and Criticism –SHS5009
Criticism is an overall term for studies concerning with defining, analyzing, interpreting and
evaluating works of literature. Theoretical criticism speaks of literary theory. Some such
theoretical critics have been Aristotle, Longinus, Horace, Boileau, Sainte-Beuve, Goethe,
Johnson, Coleridge, Arnold, Poe, Emerson, Richards, Burke and Frye. Practical criticism or
applied criticism concerns with particular works and writers. Here the theoretical principles
are implicit, not explicit. The literary essays of Dryden, Johnson, Coleridge, Hazlitt, Arnold,
Richards, Eliot, Woolf, Leavis, Trilling and Brooks are good examples. The types of
traditional critical theories and of applied criticism are as follows: mimetic criticism,
pragmatic criticism, expressive criticism, objective criticism, and the like. Criticism of any
type and nature aims at establishing a valid text for a literary work. These types bear upon
literature various areas of knowledge. Accordingly we have historical criticism, biographical
criticism, sociological criticism, psychological criticism, and myth criticism.

According to Griffith, before 20th century, there was little systematic attempt to interpret
works of literature, to probe their meanings. Gerald Graff, in Professing Literature (1987), his
book on the history of literary studies in higher education, noted that before then there was a
widespread "assumption that great literature was essentially self-interpreting and needed no
elaborate interpretation." But as knowledge increases, there was a shift in attitude to the
methods of literary theorizing. In fact, by the end of the 19th century, universities began to
include courses in modern literature, and teachers and writers began to give serious attention
to interpreting literature.

In Literary Theory: A Very Short Introduction (1999), Jonathan Culler defines literary theory
generally as "the systematic account of the nature of literature and of the methods for
analysing it." Culler further says that:
One of the most dismaying features of theory today is that it is endless. It is not something that
you could learn so as to 'know theory.' It is an unbounded corpus of writings which is always
being augmented as the young and the restless, in critiques of the guiding conceptions of their
elders, promote the contributions to theory of new thinkers and rediscover the work of older,
neglected ones.
Generally, a theory is a body of rules or principles used to appraise works of literature. And on
the other hand, literary theory (critical theory), tries to explain the assumptions and values
upon which various forms of literary criticism rest.
Distinction between literary theory and literary criticism: Theory as a body of rules or
principles used to appraise works of literature, while literary theory (critical theory), on its
own, tries to explain the assumptions and values upon which various forms of literary
criticism rest. When we interpret a literary text, we are doing literary criticism, but when we
examine the criteria upon which our interpretation of a text rests, we are applying literary
theory.

Matthew Arnold
Introduction: Matthew Arnold (1822-1888), the Victorian poet and critic, was 'the first
modern critic' , and could be called 'the critic's critic', being a champion not only of great
poetry, but of literary criticism itself. The purpose of literary criticism, in his view, was 'to
know the best that is known and thought in the world, and by in its turn making this known,
to create a current of true and fresh ideas', and he has influenced a whole school of critics
including new critics such as T. S. Eliot,
F. R. Leavis, and Allen Tate. He was the founder of the sociological school of criticism, and
through his touchstone method introduced scientific objectivity to critical evaluation by
providing comparison and analysis as the two primary tools of criticism.
Arnold's evaluations of the Romantic poets such as Wordsworth, Byron, Shelley, and Keats
are landmarks in descriptive criticism, and as a poet-critic he occupies an eminent position in
the rich galaxy of poet-critics of English literature. T. S. Eliot praised Arnold's objective
approach to critical evaluation, particularly his tools of comparison and analysis, and Allen
Tate in his essay Tension in Poetry imitates Arnold's touchstone method to discover 'tension',
or the proper balance between connotation and denotation, in poetry. These new critics have
come a long way from the Romantic approach to poetry, and this change in attitude could be
attributed to Arnold, who comes midway between the two schools.

The social role of poetry and criticism

To Arnold a critic is a social benefactor. In his view the creative artist, no matter how much of
a genius, would cut a sorry figure without the critic to come to his aid. Before Arnold a
literary critic cared only for the beauties and defects of works of art, but Arnold the critic
chose to be the educator and guardian of public opinion and propagator of the best ideas.

Cultural and critical values seem to be synonymous for Arnold. Scott James, comparing him to
Aristotle, says that where Aristotle analyses the work of art, Arnold analyses the role of the
critic. The one gives us the principles which govern the making of a poem, the other the
principles by which the best poems should be selected and made known. Aristotle's critic
owes allegiance to the artist, but Arnold's critic has a duty to society.

To Arnold poetry itself was the criticism of life: 'The criticism of life under the conditions
fixed for such criticism by the laws of poetic truth and poetic beauty', and in his seminal essay
The Study of Poetry' 1888) he says that poetry alone can be our sustenance and stay in an era
where religious beliefs are fast losing their hold. He claims that poetry is superior to
philosophy, science, and religion. Religion attaches its emotion to supposed facts, and the
supposed facts are failing it, but poetry attaches its emotion to ideas and ideas are infallible.
And science, in his view is incomplete without poetry. He endorses Wordsworth's view that
‘poetry is the impassioned expression which is in the countenance of all Science', adding
‘What is a countenance without its expression?’ and calls poetry 'the breath and finer spirit of
knowledge'.

It was Matthew Arnold, the great Victorian poet, who stated that, poetry would replace
religion, when faith would be abolished from the world.

Through poetry, he says, life can be criticized, and these poems must be high poetry. The
poems should be elevated, must possess grandeur in style and content. Morality should prevail
there so that they can teach humans almost like religion. Any morally depraved things are
disallowed in poetry according to Arnold. On the basis of high poetry, life can be interpreted,
and criticized.

In many of his famous poems like "Dover Beach", "The Scholar Gipsy", "Thyrsis" and
"Morality", he has directly transformed his expressions into words, and portrayed the picture
of the contemporary human world. He has brilliantly depicted the lives of human and
becomes critical about them in his poems. For example, "Dover Beach", at a time mourns for
the lost traditions and faith, and criticizes modern human life comparing them with soldiers
fighting each other in deep darkness without any purpose or reason. Thus, Arnold has
successfully criticized life via poetry, and opines that, "poetry is criticism of life" which can
be a sort of substitute of religion.
A moralist

As a critic Arnold is essentially a moralist, and has very definite ideas about what poetry
should and should not be. A poetry of revolt against moral ideas, he says, is a poetry of revolt
against life, and a poetry of indifference to moral ideas is a poetry of indifference to life.

Arnold even censored his own collection on moral grounds. He omitted the poem Empedocles
on Etna from his volume of 1853, whereas he had included it in his collection of 1852. The
reason he advances, in the Preface to his Poems of 1853 is not that the poem is too subjective,
with its Hamlet- like introspection, or that it was a deviation from his classical ideals, but that
the poem is too depressing in its subject matter, and would leave the reader hopeless and
crushed. There is nothing in it in the way of hope or optimism, and such a poem could prove
to be neither instructive nor of any delight to the reader.

Aristotle says that poetry is superior to History since it bears the stamp of high seriousness and
truth. If truth and seriousness are wanting in the subject matter of a poem, so will the true
poetic stamp of diction and movement be found wanting in its style and manner. Hence the
two, the nobility of subject matter, and the superiority of style and manner, are proportional
and cannot occur independently.

Arnold took up Aristotle's view, asserting that true greatness in poetry is given by the truth and
seriousness of its subject matter, and by the high diction and movement in its style and
manner, and although indebted to Joshua Reynolds for the expression 'grand style', Arnold
gave it a new meaning when he used it in his lecture On Translating Homer (1861):
I think it will be found that that the grand style arises in poetry when a noble nature,
poetically gifted, treats with simplicity or with a severity a serious subject.
According to Arnold, Homer is the best model of a simple grand style, while Milton is the best
model of severe grand style. Dante, however, is an example of both. Even Chaucer, in
Arnold's view, in spite of his virtues such as benignity, largeness, and spontaneity, lacks
seriousness. Burns too lacks sufficient seriousness, because he was hypocritical in that while
he adopted a moral stance in some of his poems, in his private life he flouted morality.

Return to Classical values

Arnold believed that a modern writer should be aware that contemporary literature is built on
the foundations of the past, and should contribute to the future by continuing a firm tradition.
Quoting Goethe and Niebuhr in support of his view, he asserts that his age suffers from
spiritual weakness because it thrives on self-interest and scientific materialism, and therefore
cannot provide noble characters such as those found in Classical literature.

He urged modern poets to look to the ancients and their great characters and themes for
guidance and inspiration. Classical literature, in his view, possess pathos, moral profundity
and noble simplicity, while modern themes, arising from an age of spiritual weakness, are
suitable for only comic and lighter kinds of poetry, and don't possess the loftiness to support
epic or heroic poetry.

Arnold turns his back on the prevailing Romantic view of poetry and seeks to revive the
Classical values of objectivity, urbanity, and architectonics. He denounces the Romantics for
ignoring the Classical writers for the sake of novelty, and for their allusive (Arnold uses the
word 'suggestive') writing which defies easy comprehension.
Preface to Poems of 1853

In the preface to his Poems (1853) Arnold asserts the importance of architectonics; ('that
power of execution, which creates, forms, and constitutes') in poetry - the necessity of
achieving unity by subordinating the parts to the whole, and the expression of ideas to the
depiction of human action, and condemns poems which exist for the sake of single lines or
passages, stray metaphors, images, and fancy expressions. Scattered images and happy turns
of phrase, in his view, can only provide partial effects, and not contribute to unity. He also,
continuing his anti-Romantic theme, urges, modern poets to shun allusiveness and not fall into
the temptation of subjectivity.

He says that even the imitation of Shakespeare is risky for a young writer, who should imitate
only his excellences, and avoid his attractive accessories, tricks of style, such as quibble,
conceit, circumlocution and allusiveness, which will lead him astray.

Arnold commends Shakespeare's use of great plots from the past. He had what Goethe called
the architectonic quality, that is his expression was matched to the action (or the subject). But
at the same time Arnold quotes Hallam to show that Shakespeare's style was complex even
where the press of action demanded simplicity and directness, and hence his style could not
be taken as a model by young writers. Elsewhere he says that Shakespeare's 'expression tends
to become a little sensuous and simple, too much intellectualised'.

Shakespeare's excellences are 1)The architectonic quality of his style; the harmony between
action and expression. 2) His reliance on the ancients for his themes. 3) Accurate construction
of action. 4) His strong conception of action and accurate portrayal of his subject matter. 5)
His intense feeling for the subjects he dramatises.

His attractive accessories (or tricks of style) which a young writer should handle carefully are
1) His fondness for quibble, fancy, conceit. 2) His excessive use of imagery. 3)
Circumlocution, even where the press of action demands directness. 4) His lack of simplicity
(according to Hallam and Guizot). 5)
His allusiveness.

As an example of the danger of imitating Shakespeare he gives Keats's imitation of

Shakespeare in his Isabella or the Pot of Basil. Keats uses felicitous phrases and single happy
turns of phrase, yet the action is handled vaguely and so the poem does not have unity. By
way of contrast, he says the Italian writer Boccaccio handled the same theme successfully in
his Decameron, because he rightly subordinated expression to action. Hence Boccaccio's
poem is a poetic success where Keats's is a failure.

Arnold also wants the modern writer to take models from the past because they depict human
actions which touch on 'the great primary human affections: to those elementary feelings
which subsist permanently in the race, and which are independent of time'. Characters such as
Agamemnon, Dido, Aeneas, Orestes, Merope, Alcmeon, and Clytemnestra, leave a permanent
impression on our minds. Compare 'The Iliad' or 'The Aeneid' with 'The Childe Harold' or
'The Excursion' and you see the difference. A modern writer might complain that ancient
subjects pose problems with regard to ancient culture, customs, manners, dress and so on
which are not familiar to contemporary readers.
But Arnold is of the view that a writer should not concern himself with the externals, but with
the 'inward man'. The inward man is the same irrespective of clime or time.

The Function of Criticism

It is in his The Function of Criticism at the Present Time (1864) that Arnold says that criticism
should be a 'dissemination of ideas, a disinterested endeavour to learn and propagate the
best that is known and thought in the world'. He says that when evaluating a work the aim is
'to see the object as in itself it really is'. Psychological, historical and sociological background
are irrelevant, and to dwell on such aspects is mere dilettantism. This stance was very
influential with later critics. Arnold also believed that in his quest for the best a critic
should not confine himself to the literature of his own country, but should draw
substantially on foreign literature and ideas, because the propagation of ideas should be an
objective endeavour.

The Study of Poetry

In The Study of Poetry, (1888) which opens his Essays in Criticism: Second series, in support
of his plea for nobility in poetry, Arnold recalls Sainte-Beuve's reply to Napoleon, when latter
said that charlatanism is found in everything. Sainte-Beuve replied that charlatanism might be
found everywhere else, but not in the field of poetry, because in poetry the distinction
between sound and unsound, or only half-sound, truth and untruth, or only half-truth, between
the excellent and the inferior, is of paramount importance.

For Arnold there is no place for charlatanism in poetry. To him poetry is the criticism of life,
governed by the laws of poetic truth and poetic beauty. It is in the criticism of life that the
spirit of our race will find its stay and consolation. The extent to which the spirit of mankind
finds its stay and consolation is proportional to the power of a poem's criticism of life, and the
power of the criticism of life is in direct proportion to the extent to which the poem is genuine
and free from charlatanism.

In The Study of Poetry he also cautions the critic that in forming a genuine and disinterested
estimate of the poet under consideration he should not be influenced by historical or personal
judgements, historical judgements being fallacious because we regard ancient poets with
excessive veneration, and personal judgements being fallacious when we are biased towards a
contemporary poet. If a poet is a 'dubious classic, let us sift him; if he is a false classic, let us
explode him. But if he is a real classic, if his work belongs to the class of the very best . . .
enjoy his work'.

As examples of erroneous judgements he says that the 17th century court tragedies of the
French were spoken of with exaggerated praise, until Pellisson reproached them for want of
the true poetic stamp, and another critic, Charles d' Héricault, said that 17th century French
poetry had received undue and undeserving veneration. Arnold says the critics seem to
substitute 'a halo for physiognomy and a statue in the place where there was once a man. They
give us a human personage no larger than God seated amidst his perfect work, like Jupiter on
Olympus.'

He also condemns the French critic Vitet, who had eloquent words of praise for the epic poem
Chanson de Roland by Turoldus, (which was sung by a jester, Taillefer, in William the
Conqueror's army), saying that it was superior to Homer's Iliad. Arnold's view is that this
poem can never be compared to Homer's work, and that we only have to compare the
description of dying Roland to Helen's words about her wounded brothers Pollux and Castor
and its inferiority will be clearly revealed.

The Study of Poetry: a shift in position - the touchstone method

Arnold's criticism of Vitet above illustrates his 'touchstone method'; his theory that in order to
judge a poet's work properly, a critic should compare it to passages taken from works of great
masters of poetry, and that these passages should be applied as touchstones to other poetry.
Even a single line or selected quotation will serve the purpose.

From this we see that he has shifted his position from that expressed in the preface to his
Poems of 1853. In The Study of Poetry he no longer uses the acid test of action and
architectonics. He became an advocate of 'touchstones'. 'Short passages even single lines,' he
said, 'will serve our turn quite sufficiently'.

Some of Arnold's touchstone passages are: Helen's words about her wounded brother, Zeus
addressing the horses of Peleus, suppliant Achilles' words to Priam, and from Dante; Ugolino's
brave words, and Beatrice's loving words to Virgil.

From non-Classical writers he selects from Henry IV Part II (III, i), Henry's expostulation with
sleep
- 'Wilt thou upon the high and giddy mast . . . '. From Hamlet (V, ii) 'Absent thee from felicity
awhile
. . . '. From Milton's Paradise Lost Book 1, 'Care sat on his faded cheek . . .', and 'What is else
not to be overcome . . . '

The Study of Poetry: on Chaucer

The French Romance poetry of the 13th century langue d'oc and langue d'oil was extremely
popular in Europe and Italy, but soon lost its popularity and now it is important only in terms
of historical study. But Chaucer, who was nourished by the romance poetry of the French, and
influenced by the Italian Royal rhyme stanza, still holds enduring fascination. There is an
excellence of style and subject in his poetry, which is the quality the French poetry lacks.
Dryden says of
Chaucer's Prologue 'Here is God's plenty!' and that 'he is a perpetual fountain of good sense'.
There is largeness, benignity, freedom and spontaneity in Chaucer's writings. 'He is the well of
English undefiled'. He has divine fluidity of movement, divine liquidness of diction. He has
created an epoch and founded a tradition.

Some say that the fluidity of Chaucer's verse is due to licence in the use of the language, a
liberty which Burns enjoyed much later. But Arnold says that the excellence of Chaucer's
poetry is due to his sheer poetic talent. This liberty in the use of language was enjoyed by
many poets, but we do not find the same kind of fluidity in others. Only in Shakespeare and
Keats do we find the same kind of fluidity, though they wrote without the same liberty in the
use of language.

Arnold praises Chaucer's excellent style and manner, but says that Chaucer cannot be called a
classic since, unlike Homer, Virgil and Shakespeare, his poetry does not have the high poetic
seriousness which Aristotle regards as a mark of its superiority over the other arts.
The Study of Poetry: on the age of Dryden and Pope

The age of Dryden is regarded as superior to that of the others for 'sweetness of poetry'. Arnold
asks whether Dryden and Pope, poets of great merit, are truly the poetical classics of the 18th
century. He says Dryden's post-script to the readers in his translation of The Aeneid reveals
the fact that in prose writing he is even better than Milton and Chapman.

Just as the laxity in religious matters during the Restoration period was a direct outcome of the
strict discipline of the Puritans, in the same way in order to control the dangerous sway of
imagination found in the poetry of the Metaphysicals, to counteract 'the dangerous prevalence
of imagination', the poets of the 18th century introduced certain regulations. The restrictions
that were imposed on the poets were uniformity, regularity, precision, and balance. These
restrictions curbed the growth of poetry, and encouraged the growth of prose.

Hence we can regard Dryden as the glorious founder, and Pope as the splendid high priest, of
the age of prose and reason, our indispensable 18th century. Their poetry was that of the
builders of an age of prose and reason. Arnold says that Pope and Dryden are not poet
classics, but the 'prose classics' of the 18th century.

As for poetry, he considers Gray to be the only classic of the 18th century. Gray constantly
studied and enjoyed Greek poetry and thus inherited their poetic point of view and their
application of poetry to life. But he is the 'scantiest, frailest classic' since his output was small.

The Study of Poetry: on Burns

Although Burns lived close to the 19th century his poetry breathes the spirit of 18th Century
life. Burns is most at home in his native language. His poems deal with Scottish dress, Scottish
manner, and Scottish religion. This Scottish world is not a beautiful one, and it is an
advantage if a poet deals with a beautiful world. But Burns shines whenever he triumphs over
his sordid, repulsive and dull world with his poetry.

Perhaps we find the true Burns only in his bacchanalian poetry, though occasionally his
bacchanalian attitude was affected. For example in his Holy Fair, the lines 'Leeze me on
drink! it gies us mair/ Than either school or college', may represent the bacchanalian attitude,
but they are not truly bacchanalian in spirit. There is something insincere about it, smacking
of bravado.

When Burns moralises in some of his poems it also sounds insincere, coming from a man who
disregarded morality in actual life. And sometimes his pathos is intolerable, as in Auld Lang
Syne.

We see the real Burns (wherein he is unsurpassable) in lines such as, 'To make a happy fire-
side clime/ to weans and wife/ That's the true pathos and sublime/ Of human life' (Ae Fond
Kiss). Here we see the genius of Burns.

But, like Chaucer, Burns lacks high poetic seriousness, though his poems have poetic truth in
diction and movement. Sometimes his poems are profound and heart-rending, such as in the
lines, 'Had we never loved sae kindly/ had we never loved sae blindly/ never met or never
parted/ we had ne'er been broken-hearted'.

Also like Chaucer, Burns possesses largeness, benignity, freedom and spontaneity. But instead
of Chaucer's fluidity, we find in Burns a springing bounding energy. Chaucer's benignity
deepens in Burns into a sense of sympathy for both human as well as non-human things, but
Chaucer's world is richer and fairer than that of Burns.

Sometimes Burns's poetic genius is unmatched by anyone. He is even better than Goethe at
times and he is unrivalled by anyone except Shakespeare. He has written excellent poems
such as Tam O'Shanter, Whistle and I'll come to you my Lad, and Auld Lang Syne.

When we compare Shelley's 'Pinnacled dim in the of intense inane' (Prometheus Unbound III,
iv) with Burns's, 'They flatter, she says, to deceive me' (Tam Glen), the latter is salutary.

Arnold on Shakespeare

Praising Shakespeare, Arnold says 'In England there needs a miracle of genius like
Shakespeare's to produce a balance of mind'. This is not bardolatory, but praise tempered by a
critical sense. In a letter he writes. 'I keep saying Shakespeare, you are as obscure as life is'.

In his sonnet On Shakespeare he says; 'Others abide our question. Thou are free./ We ask and
ask - Thou smilest and art still,/ Out-topping knowledge'.

Arnold's limitations

For all his championing of disinterestedness, Arnold was unable to practise disinterestedness
in all his essays. In his essay on Shelley particularly he displayed a lamentable lack of
disinterestedness.
Shelley's moral views were too much for the Victorian Arnold. In his essay on Keats too
Arnold failed to be disinterested. The sentimental letters of Keats to Fanny Brawne were too
much for him.

Arnold sometimes became a satirist, and as a satirical critic saw things too quickly, too
summarily. In spite of their charm, the essays are characterised by egotism and, as Tilotson
says, 'the attention is directed, not on his object but on himself and his objects together'.

Arnold makes clear his disapproval of the vagaries of some of the Romantic poets. Perhaps he
would have agreed with Goethe, who saw Romanticism as disease and Classicism as health.
But Arnold occasionally looked at things with jaundiced eyes, and he overlooked the positive
features of Romanticism which posterity will not willingly let die, such as its
humanitarianism, love of nature, love of childhood, a sense of mysticism, faith in man with all
his imperfections, and faith in man's unconquerable mind.

Arnold's inordinate love of classicism made him blind to the beauty of lyricism. He ignored
the importance of lyrical poems, which are subjective and which express the sentiments and
the personality of the poet. Judged by Arnold's standards, a large number of poets both
ancient and modern are dismissed because they sang with 'Profuse strains of unpremeditated
art'.

It was also unfair of Arnold to compare the classical works in which figure the classical
quartet, namely Achilles, Prometheus, Clytemnestra and Dido with Heamann and Dorothea,
Childe Harold, Jocelyn, and 'The Excursion'. Even the strongest advocates of Arnold would
agree that it is not always profitable for poets to draw upon the past. Literature expresses the
zeitgeist, the spirit of the contemporary age. Writers must choose subjects from the world of
their own experience. What is ancient Greece to many of us? Historians and archaeologists are
familiar with it, but the common readers delight justifiably in modern themes. To be in the
company of Achilles, Prometheus, Clytemnestra and Dido is not always a pleasant experience.
What a reader wants is variety, which classical mythology with all its tradition and richness
cannot provide. An excessive fondness for Greek and Latin classics produces a literary diet
without variety, while modern poetry and drama have branched out in innumerable directions.

As we have seen, as a classicist Arnold upheld the supreme importance of the architectonic
faculty, then later shifted his ground. In the lectures On Translating Homer, On the Study of
Celtic Literature, and The Study of Poetry, he himself tested the greatness of poetry by single
lines. Arnold the classicist presumably realised towards the end of his life that classicism was
not the last word in literature.

Arnold's lack of historic sense was another major failing. While he spoke authoritatively on his
own century, he was sometimes groping in the dark in his assessment of earlier centuries. He
used to speak at times as if ex cathedra, and this pontifical solemnity vitiated his criticism.

As we have seen, later critics praise Arnold, but it is only a qualified praise. Oliver Elton calls
him a 'bad great critic'. T. S. Eliot said that Arnold is a 'Propagandist and not a creator of
ideas'. According to Walter Raleigh, Arnold's method is like that of a man who took a brick to
the market to give the buyers an impression of the building.

Arnold's legacy

In spite of his faults, Arnold's position as an eminent critic is secure. Douglas Bush says that
the breadth and depth of Arnold's influence cannot be measured or even guessed at because,
from his own time onward, so much of his thought and outlook became part of the general
educated consciousness. He was one of those critics who, as Eliot said, arrive from time to
time to set the literary house in order. Eliot named Dryden, Johnson and Arnold as some of
the greatest critics of the English language.

Arnold united active independent insight with the authority of the humanistic tradition. He
carried on, in his more sophisticated way, the Renaissance humanistic faith in good letters as
the teachers of wisdom, and in the virtue of great literature, and above all, great poetry. He
saw poetry as a supremely illuminating, animating, and fortifying aid in the difficult
endeavour to become or remain fully human.

Arnold's method of criticism is comparative. Steeped in classical poetry, and thoroughly

acquainted with continental literature, he compares English literature to French and German
literature, adopting the disinterested approach he had learned from Sainte-Beuve.

Arnold's objective approach to criticism and his view that historical and biographical study are
unnecessary was very influential on the new criticism. His emphasis on the importance of
tradition also influenced F. R. Leavis, and T. S. Eliot.

Eliot is also indebted to Arnold for his classicism, and for his objective approach which paved
the way for Eliot to say that poetry is not an expression of personality but an escape from
personality, because it is not an expression of emotions but an escape from emotions.
Although Arnold disapproved of the Romantics' approach to poetry, their propensity for
allusiveness and symbolism, he also shows his appreciation the Romantics in his Essays in
Criticism. He praises Wordsworth thus: 'Nature herself took the pen out of his hand and wrote
with a bare, sheer penetrating power'. Arnold also valued poetry for its strong ideas, which he
found to be the chief merit of Wordsworth's poetry. About Shelley he says that Shelley is 'A
beautiful but ineffectual angel beating in a void his luminous wings in vain'.

In an age when cheap literature caters to the taste of the common man, one might fear that the
classics will fade into insignificance. But Arnold is sure that the currency and the supremacy
of the classics will be preserved in the modern age, not because of conscious effort on the part
of the readers, but because of the human instinct of self-preservation.

In the present day with the literary tradition over-burdened with imagery, myth, symbol and
abstract jargon, it is refreshing to come back to Arnold and his like to encounter central
questions about literature and life as they are perceived by a mature and civilised mind.

T S Eliot

Thomas Stearns Eliot is perhaps the greatest English poet, critic and dramatist of the century.
He was also the editor of the Criterion one of the most influential literary reviews of this
century. He became a naturalized British citizen in 1927 (Born in St. Louis-Missouri, USA).
Ezra pound and F. H. Bradley were profound influence on him while he studied at Harvard
and Oxford. As a playwright experiments in the revival of poetic drama ushered in age of
poetic drama. His “Murder in the Cathedral” is perhaps the most admired play.

Eliot as a critic comes in the tradition of Philip Sidney, Dryden, Wordsworth, Coleridge and
Arnold. His criticism in linked with influence as a poet. His most significant work came in
1920 between two volumes of poetry. The most significant of critical essays are anthologized
in selected Essays Edited by Frank Kermode. His earlier essays, (prescribed for study) are
known for their Motive power to attempt to fuse poetic and critical production. They are
the uses of poetry (1933) and on poetry and poets (1957). He also has famous works
written by him as a critic of society and civilization, they are After Strange Gods and Notes
towards the Definition of Culture. In a close study of his essays one can understand the poet-
critic’s views about poetry and also examine them in relation to his own practice of poetry. A
careful study of his famous poem The Wasteland and his advanced theory of poetry called
Imagism also details the same.

TRADITION AND THE INDIVIDUAL TALENT

This is one of the seminal essays in the Literary criticism of the 20th century. Eliot makes as
attempt to relate the art of an individual artist to the tradition of the whole of European
Literature. He describes British tendency of using the term tradition it its deploring sense
or as a “phrase of censure” He is angry with those who indulge in pretending “to find
what is individual what is the peculiar essence of the man” He says that the general
tendency is to examine to find “the poet’s difference from his predecessors, his
immediate predecessors”. While attacking contemporary critics for isolating those parts of
a creative writer’s work that are idiosyncratic for praise he argues that those very parts of
his work may be most derivative of other earlier writer.

Eliot begins the essay by pointing out that the word 'tradition' is generally regarded as a
word of censure. It is a word disagreeable to the English ears. When the English praise a
poet, they praise him for those aspects of his work which are ‘individual’ and original. It is
supposed that his chief merit lies in such parts. This undue stress on individuality shows that
the English have an uncritical turn of mind. They praise the poet for the wrong thing. If
they examine the matter critically with an unprejudiced mind, they will realize that the best
and the most individual part of a poet's work is that which shows the maximum influence of
the writers of the past. To quote his own words: “Whereas if we approach a poet without this
prejudice, we shall often find that not only the best, but the most individual part of his work
maybe those in which the dead poets, his ancestors, assert their immortality most vigorously.”

The experience, you will notice, the elements which enter the presence of the transforming
catalyst, are of two kinds: emotions and feelings. The effect of a work of art upon the
person who enjoys it is an experience different in kind from any experience not of art. It
may be formed out of one emotion, or may be a combination of several; and various
feelings, inhering for the writer in particular words or phrases or images, may be added to
compose the final result. Or great poetry may be made without the direct use of any emotion
whatever: composed out of feelings solely if you compare several representative passages of
the greatest poetry you see how great is the variety of types of combination, and also how
completely any semi-ethical criterion of “sublimity” misses the mark.

For it is not the “greatness,” the intensity, of the emotions, the components, but the
intensity of the artistic process, the pressure, so to speak, under which the fusion takes place,
that counts. The episode of Paolo and Francesca employs a definite emotion, but the
intensity of the poetry is something quite different from whatever intensity in the supposed
experience it may give the impression of. It is no more intense, furthermore than the
murder of Agamemnon, or the agony of Othello, gives an artistic effect apparently closer
to a possible original than the scenes from Dante. In the Agamemnon, the artistic
emotion approximates to the emotion of an actual spectator; in Othello to the emotion of
the protagonist himself. But the difference between art and the event is always absolute; the
combination which is the murder of Agamemnon is probably as complex as that which is
the voyage of Ulysses. In either case there has been a fusion of elements. The ode of Keats
contains a number of feelings which have nothing particular to do with the nightingale, but
which the nightingale, partly, perhaps, because of its attractive name, and partly because of
its reputation, served to bring together.

In fact the heart of the essay is his definition of tradition which in his opinion cannot be
inherited; one has to strive in order to acquire a sense of tradition. Then he says it involves
Historical sense; Eliot argues. “the historical sense involves perception not only of the
pastness of the past, but its presence, the historical sense compels a man to write not
merrily with his generation in his bones, but with a feeling that the whole of the literature
of Europe from Homer and within it the whole of the literature of his country has a
simultaneous existence and composes a simultaneous order.” This is Eliot’s concept of
seeing literature as an organic whole. It involves a “sense of the timeless as well as the
temporal” which he asserts makes a writer truly traditional.

That is, Eliot insists that an Individual writer will have no meaning “alone”, i.e, “No
poet, no artist of any art, has his complete meaning alone”. He insists on an evaluation of a
work of art by constructing the same with the works of his dead ancestor’s works. He argues
that a really new work of alters and change the “order” formed by existing works and
consequently necessitates alteration and readjustment i.e. “past should be altered by the
preset as much as the present is directed by the past”.

Eliot warns that a new writer should not consider past as a limp or an indiscriminate bolus.
He says that a critic must be aware “of the obvious fact that art never improves, but the
material of art is never the same. He must be aware that the mind of Europe the mind of
his own country a mind which he learns in time to be much more important than his own
private mind is a mind which changes, and that this change is a development which
abandons nothing en route, which does not superannuate either Shakespeare or
Homer……..” Based on this argument he comes to his assertion that. “The difference
between the present and the past is that the conscious present is an awareness of t he past in
a way and to an extent which the past’s awareness of itself cannot show”

Eliot insists on a poet procuring the consciousness of the past and his endeavour to
continue to develop this consciousness throughout his carrier. After all the coming up of a
work of art becomes meaningful only when the work is perceived against a literary tradition,
i.e. in relation to writers of the past. Eliot’s argument is that “it is a living whole of all the
poetry that has ever been written. Notice how Eliot builds up a dialectic between the poetry
of the present and the past, this also explains how genuinely good work of art causes
revolution in terms of new alteration and changes in the existing order of works and vice-
versa. This naturally demands that any practitioner of poetry should strive to develop a
great amount of erudition; one wonders if that is an acceptable statement. Can’t there be
great poetry without any erudition whatever. Then, how would you accept Keat’s “ AH, for
a life of sensations” and his view that if poetry does not come as naturally as leaves come
to a tree let it not come at all. Yet one can see the point of relevance when Eliot
underlines the need to develop a “historical consciousness”.

Eliot comes in the line or poet-critics like Arnold who did categorically declare that one
should be studying languages other than one’s own that are “a poet should cross-breed
English with continental and classical tradition.” Eliot with his Mastery of French
Symbolism and thorough reading of Dante is himself the supreme model to emulate what he
is suggesting here (Note (a) Points to ponder: perhaps we add Kalidas, Mirza Ghalib, Tagore
and Vinda Karandikar.) What naturally flows out of this theory is the other concomitant his
impersonal theory is the other concomitant his impersonal theory of art. Many critics read
this essay as a manifesto of impersonality”. Writing about the process of creation in the
essay Eliot states “What happens is a continual self surrender of himself as he is at the
moment to something which is more valuable. The progress of an artist is a continual
self sacrifice, continual extinction of personality.”

He adds “It remains to define this process of depersonalization and its relation to the
sense of tradition. It is in this depersonalization that art may be said to approach the
condition of science. I therefore invite you to consider, as a suggestive analogy, the action
which takes place when a bit of finely foliated platinum is introduced into a chamber
containing oxygen and sulphur dioxide”.

This is Eliot’s analogy for the role of the poet’s personality in the act of creation. He
explains the individual talent (Apoorvatha) is that endowment best comparable to the
role of a catalyst (Note: Remember from school chemistry the meaning and role of
catalyst) in certain chemical reaction. This is the core of his anti romantic reaction. That is
creation, far from being an expression of the poet’s personality or emotions (as the
Romantics believe) is actually as escape from natural emotions and personality.
 His analogy tries to explain the “chemical process” of creation in which the mind like
a catalyst accelerates or decelerates the reaction but it remains unaffected. Similarly, says
Eliot.

“ It may partly or exclusively operate upon the experience of the man himself, the more
perfect the artist, the more completely separate in him will be the man who suffers and the
mind which creates, the more perfectly will the mind digest and transmute the passions
which are its material.” Eliot clearly points out that emotion and feelings are the two
kind’s elements that make up the catalyst, i.e. the mind. He says that sometimes.

“Great poetry may be made without the direct use of any emotion whatever
composed out of feelings.” For Eliot, the poet’s mind is “a receptacle for seizing and
storing up numberless feelings, phrases, images, which remain there until all the particles
which can unite to form a new compound are present together. ”

If a poet has to write with any enduring excellence he must convert his mind into a
receptacle for storing myriad human emotions, numberless feeling, phrases and images. This
is the ground on which in the creative process various particles unite in order to form a
compound.

Eliot’s next thesis is his debunking of Wordsworth’s formula. For him seeking to
express new emotions in poetry appears as a fact of eccentricity. He feels that a poet should
utilize ordinary emotion and work them up into poetry in order “to express feelings which
are not emotions at all” Therefore, he says“….We must believe that emotion recollected in
tranquility is an inexact formula. For it is neither emotion nor recollection without
distortion of meaning tranquility.” Eliot seems to think that those experiences are not
recollected and “They finally unite in an atmosphere which is ‘tranquil’ only in that it is a
passive ascending upon the event.”

Explaining the whole story Eliot’s states “of course, this is not quite the whole story.
There is a great deal in the writing of poetry, which must be conscious and deliberate. In
fact that bad poet is usually unconscious where he ought to be conscious. Both the errors
tend to make him personal. Poetry is not a turning loose of motion, but an escape from
emotion: it is not the expression of personality. But, of course, only those who have
personality and emotions know what it means to escape from these things.”

A major emphasis in this essay is Eliot’s call to “divert interest from the poet to the
poetry.”In any age the tendency to indulge in autobiographical criticism has to be clearly
discouraged and to create a conductive atmosphere to estimate value of poetry this
declaration of Eliot has had great impact.

One can’t afford to ignore Eliot’s emphasis of tradition, the impersonality of art and
his organic view of poetry. He was an avowed anti-romantic and his criticism and poetry
were also reaction to “romanticism”. His ideal of participating in the tradition from Homer
to the present day is rooted in its classicism. His appeal for a historical consciousness and
his attempts to rehabilitate a literary tradition remain unparallel. If you like to know more
about the sources of Eliot’s anti-romantic attitude you must try to trace the influence of
T. E. Hume, Ezra Pound, and Irving Babbit on his consciousness. There are some who still
believe that Tradition and the individual talent is a sort of a poet’s version of living Babbit’s
Roseau and Romanticism.
Joy and sorrow, excitement and disappointment, love and fear, attraction and repulsion,
hope and dismay – all these are feelings we often experience. Emotions are intense feeling
that are directed at someone or something. Emotions are object specific. One is happy about
something, angry at someone or afraid of something. Psychology considers the following six
as basic emotions; anger, fear, sadness, happiness, disgust and surprise. These vary in
intensity, frequency and duration. Felt and displayed emotions may vary.

Eliot is to British literary criticism what Einstein is to modern physics in our century. He is
easily the most influential poet and critic of the twentieth century in the English speaking
world. While he is classified often under the New Humanist tradition of Irving Babbit
and the Imaginistic School his genius has varied sources and several other ingredients.
It was his” Tradition and the individual Talent”(1917) that made the big difference to
new critics. Eliot argues that a contemporary writer acquires meaning only in terms of
his literary ancestors and tradition with which comparison of his work is inescapable. He
sees poetic tradition as a growing continue comprising all the poetry ever written in a
given language and can never be represented by an individual poet or a school of poets.
Though he recognizes that all poets do contribute to tradition each contribution of every poet
may not be of value. In his case for metaphysical poets we see how Eliot chose Donne
and his school as an indication of the real course of English poetry though they had been
abandoned by critics from John Milton’s time till the beginning of the 20th century. He
also challenged the Wordsworthian dictum of ‘spontaneous overflow…tranquility’ and
argued that the poet’s contribution does not lie in the ‘peculiar essence’ of that poet or how
he differs from tradition but “that part of his work is important where it is most harmony
with the dead poets who preceded him.”

He does not mean that a poet must be judged from anachronistic canons of criticism when he
says that
poet must be judged by standards from the past. For Eliot a poet’s work is in “The degree to
which he fits into tradition”. His greatest contribution lies in focusing the critic’s attention
away from the poet,
i.e. upon poetry, not upon a poet. For him a poet does not express his personality in a poem
but makes use of a medium that has amazing way of uniting myriad experiences and
impression in the most unpredictable ways. Such experiences of the poet may not be crucial
ones in the poet’s life but may be just marginal experiences. Eliot finds that they are
significant with reference to the tradition of poetry in a given language. Eliot is concerned
with readers who are ‘schooled’ and instructed readers who can effortlessly react to a given
poem based on an acquaintance with the tradition. It is useful to study Walter Jackson
Bate’s anthology Criticism: The major texts to find an exquisite and short statement of
Eliot’s creed. Mr. Bateson argues that “a significant artist may modify the direction in
which the stream of tradition will flow; but he never abandons the stream, he simply
produces it”. His view is that the reader will not respond according to a set literary theory.
But “Eliot deduces criteria from the practice of the metaphysical poets, who represent the
farthest production of the tradition before poet’s abandoned true course of the stream.”

Eliot’s influence is apparent in several phrases from his essays which have today become
standard critical terminology. Critics like M .K. Heiser and W. Allston have shown how a
term like “objective correlative” today has become the standard term, a term to denote
expression of complex emotions in art. The other term which has drawn global attention
is “dissociation of sensibility”. Besides his exquisite views in his insightful study of
Dante have brought to the world of literary criticism new force of what are called as
“hierarchical principle” and “allegorical modes” of criticism. He diametrically argues who
claimed that criticism is creative and made a case to prove that criticism is not “autogenic”;
its aims are only “interpretation” and “correction of taste”. It was Eliot who brought to
currency the need to see criticism as collaborative exercise and the need to accord
centrality to “guardianship” of language (Criticism as common pursuit of true judgment)
Eliot feels that a good critic, (every critic should endeavour to become one) must have a
keen and abiding sensibility along with highly discriminated reading, on such critics even
the most powerful personalities dominate. That is how like life itself good criticism will be
pursuit of rounded and integrated life in art and not merely appendages to ethics and
theology, John Paul Prichard says.

“Younger critics it is true often disagree with his pronouncements. His belief that the English
criticism should state beliefs rather than argue or persuade, has brought complaints that he
has become prone to speak ex-Cathedra. Others have been alienated by his capping of
literary criticism with theological judgment which in his case means traditional, Anglo-
catholic Christianity, Still others, while agreeing that the critic needs a religious belief have
ludicrously tried to have a religion upon the law of supply and demand; and not being
conspicuously successful, have discounted Eliot’s emphasis upon ethics and theology by
asserting that he wanders too far from critical matters”. In the 1920’s, other big name is that
of I. A. Richards who used the physiological approach to literary criticism. Almost always
we find his ideas corroborated by critical ideas from the times of Aristotle. Serious students
of Eliot must consider Eliot’s interest in Coleridge’s theory of imagination also.

Nature of Eliot’s influence as a critic has always been felt to be mysterious and indefinable.
Tillyard in his history of the Cambridge English school, has told how the essay in the
sacred wood (1920) they first appeared made me uncomfortable and I knew I could not be
ignored. Disciples – even enemies – have hardly succeeded in identifying what is new and
special in Eliot’s criticism, though they have been loud in praise and censure.

Eliot believes that every age should revalue the literature of the past ages according to
its own standards. This is what he himself tried to achieve in his career. He has given fresh
interpretation of the works of Elizabethan dramatist, metaphysical poet the Caroline poets,
poets of the eighteenth century poets and romantics. Describing Eliot’s criticism, Watson
says, ‘The formal properties of Eliot’s criticism are clear enough’. An Eliot essay is a
statement of attitude, a prise de positions, an evaluation. It does not pretend to be
biolographical. Eliot hardly ever stoops to purvey information. To him ‘relevance’ means
relevance to modern poets rather than modern readers.

Thirdly, Eliot eschews close analysis in favour of general judgment; his taste and
techniques were formed decades before the new criticism of the thirties and he never
practices the ‘close analysis’ of the characteristics of that school.

Eliot declared himself classicist in literature, an Ango-Catholic in religion and a royalist in

politics. He is classicist because he believes in order in literature, faith in system of writing
and that a work of art must conform to the past tradition. The new classicists believed that
the writer must follow rules and ancients and that literature must be didactic. Eliot’s idea of
‘conformity to tradition’ is totally different from this. A work of art must conform to the
tradition in such a way that it alters the tradition as it is directed by it. In ‘tradition and the
individual talent’ he says the existing order is complete before the new work arrives; for
order to persist after the supurvention novelty, the whole existing order must be, if even so
slightly, altered towards the whole are readjusted and this is conformity between old and
new.

Pointing out the difference between Eliot and the noe-classicist of the eighteenth
century poetry Maxwell says : the structure of modern classical poetry is analogous to that of
eighteenth century. Each accepts a poetic framework, the rules of objective authority and
makes a conscious effort to work with in that framework. Satirical wit plays an important
role in both and with it goes a concern for the necessity of cultivating precision of form
and word. This requires an intellectual rather than on emotional, instinctive approach to
the task of selecting words of relating them to each other and to the whole. Yet each of these
similarities involves also a difference. The system to which Eliot relates his poetry has a
greater scope that Augustan classical authority and it becomes a more vital part of the
poetry which depends on it. By its relationship with Eliot’s poetry the traditional system
acquires new significance and it becomes living part of the poetic experience transcribed in
the poetry. Not only does tradition clarify the relation between symbol and object reduce
the need for elaboration and add a dimension to the poem but it is itself altered by
relationship and so shown to be a vital force. This is more intimate contact than existed
between the eighteenth century classicism and Greco-Roman literature and it is a contact
which can be common to all poets without inevitable resulting uniformity.

George Watson thinks that there is an element of intellectual snobber in Eliot’s

criticism. Its real purpose is not the correction of taste, but justification of his own
achievement as a poet. The object of Eliot’s criticism is not just an Addisonian ambition to
correct taste, more narrowly, it is the correction of taste with a view to conditioning his
own future readership and audiences. The real parallel among our classic critic lies not in
Addison but in Dryden, and an Eliot essay thought not openly pre factoral and self justifying
like most of Drydens criticism – serves a comparable purpose.

Stanley Hywan notices two other defects in his criticism fuzzy contradictory thinking and
extra-literary irritation. The result is that the key terms are meaningless or nebulous. The
extra-litereary irritation grows more frequent with his subject. About Dante Eliot says that
belief in a poet’s philosophy of idea is not necessary for appreciating his (Dante’s) poetry.
While Eliot rejects Shelley’s poetry because of his repellent ideas, ‘The idea of Shelley
seems to me always to be ideas of adolescent’. Eliot’s unsymphathatic attitude to
Milton’s poetry was caused by antipathy towards Milton the man. The other form which
Eliot’s growing irritation with writers takes is his habit of reproaching them for not being
something else he would have found more satisfactory. Blake and Shakespeare should have
a better philosophy, the Victorian poets should not have written so much.

Summing up despite these short comings Eliot’s reputation as leading critic of twentieth
century is secure. He made a positive contribution to the literature of criticism. In the age
of falling values, he upheld the cause of poetry. Here we find him almost quoting
Sanskrit Subhashit in expression ‘the people which cease to care for its literary inheritance
become barbaric’. Those who produce less and less sensible. He is against impressionistic
school of crisis. He emphasises on the need of a strict critical method of the application
of the method of science of study if literature. He has a faith in the draftsman – critic
provided that he possess a highly developed ‘sense of fact’. There is lucidity and severity
in his prose style which is admired by all eminent critics. He is more successful in judicial
criticism than theoretic criticism. He analyzed works of specific writers with lucidity and
subtlety. He has wide influence in modern age and has influence writers like F.R.Leavis.
He has been rightly recognized as the leader of modern criticism.

Northrop Frye

H. Northrop Frye (14 July 1912 – 23 January 1991) is Canada’s greatest literary
and cultural theorist. Criticism in its true form, said Frye, is a creative act of the
imagination. As such, it deals synoptically with the entire body of literature,
assimilating it to “a total order of words” that illuminates human understanding and
eventually transforms the shape of Imagination itself (Anatomy 17). In fact, literature is a
“human apocalypse” (The Educated Imagination 22). This theory owes as much to the
opening of John’s gospel, where the Word is the primary vehicle of creation, as it does to
Blake, in whose works Frye discovered a series of archetypes (Zoas), demolished in the
fallen world and reconstructing themselves into their Original Form in the Giant Man, Albion
(Fearful Symmetry). His full theoretical system was worked out in the Anatomy where the
constituent genres of literature (Comedy, Romance, Tragedy, and Irony or Satire) are
conceived as a series of verbal epiphanies governed by the cycle of the (mental)
seasons. Inductive analysis of literature—Frye affirms that Aristotle is his critical ancestor—
confirms that the organized scheme of true critical thought is as much a science as an art
form. Its intrinsic language is derived from the pre-literate, specifically forms of ritual, myth,
and folk-tale whose symbols and archetypes are the real discourse within society: the basis of
knowledge, imagination, and prophetic vision. Frye’s reading of the 18th century Italian
philosopher Giambattista Vico’s The New Science confirmed his view that mankind’s
recorded history and thought originated in these poetic and archetypal frameworks, and
that the human creative imagination was more real than the externally perceived world.

The insights gained from his study of Blake set Frye on his critical path and shaped his
contributions to literary criticism and theory. He was the first critic to postulate a
systematic theory of criticism, "to work out," in his own words, "a unified commentary on
the theory of literary criticism". In so doing, he shaped the discipline of criticism. Inspired by
his work on Blake, Frye developed and articulated his unified theory ten years after Fearful
Symmetry, in the Anatomy of Criticism (1957). He described this as an attempt at a "synoptic
view of the scope, theory, principles, and techniques of literary criticism" (Anatomy 3). He
asked, “what if criticism is a science as well as an art?” (7), Thus, Frye launched the pursuit
which was to occupy the rest of his career—that of establishing criticism as a "coherent field
of study which trains the imagination quite as systematically and efficiently as the
sciences train the reason”.

Criticism as a science

As A. C. Hamilton outlines in Northrop Frye: Anatomy of his Criticism, Frye's assumption of

coherence for literary criticism carries important implications. Firstly and most
fundamentally, it presupposes that literary criticism is a discipline in its own right,
independent of literature. Claiming with John Stuart Mill that "the artist . . . is not heard but
overheard," Frye insists that,

The axiom of criticism must be, not that the poet does not know what he is talking about, but
that he cannot talk about what he knows. To defend the right of criticism to exist at all,
therefore, is to assume that criticism is a structure of thought and knowledge existing in its
own right, with some measure of independence from the art it deals with (Anatomy 5).

This “declaration of independence” is necessarily a measured one for Frye. For coherence
requires that the autonomy of criticism, the need to eradicate its conception as “a parasitic
form of literary expression, . . . a second-hand imitation of creative power” (Anatomy 3),
sits in dynamic tension with the need to establish integrity for it as a discipline. For Frye,
this kind of coherent, critical integrity involves claiming a body of knowledge for
criticism that, while independent of literature, is yet constrained by it: “If criticism
exists,” he declares, “it must be an examination of literature in terms of a conceptual
framework derivable from an inductive survey of the literary field” itself (Anatomy 7).

The function of criticism

In effect, Frye’s theory freed criticism from its former dependency on the dialectic of
history, philosophy, and psychology. On “the assumption of total coherence” (Anatomy 16),
he demonstrated that literature and its analysis were located within a verbal universe
governed by its own laws and linguistic protocols. By understanding those laws, the
student could observe how literature functioned as an agent for social transformation. The
process was rather simple: first, critical inquiry proceeds centrifugally (inward toward the
core of a text whose metaphorical pattern alters and transfigures the reader’s understanding)
and, second, centripetally (outward toward the reader’s society whose moral and spiritual
ignorance he is obliged to dispel). The trajectory of his criticism followed that pattern:
following Blake, he posited that the Old and New Testaments were the “Great Code of
Art.” His last books, Words With Power and The Double Vision (the latter published
posthumously in 1991), developed linguistic forms (i.e., the metaphoric and the
metonymic) that were intended to further liberate the imagination from distracting
rhetoric and thereby to ground the transcendent in human thought.

Frye was convinced that he succeeded to both Arnold’s and Eliot’s critical project in his
perspective “to see literature as showing a progressive evolution in time,” in relation to
which he seeks, by establishing the scientific study of critical genres, “the possibility of
a critical progress toward a total comprehension of literature which no critical history gives
any hint of” (667). He begins this ambitious project with the suggestion that “what if
criticism is a science as well as an art?” (660). But what he means by art is in the sense that
“the writing of history is an art” (660). Diagnosing that “literary criticism is now in such
a state of nave induction as we find in a primitive science,” he suggests that “it is time
for criticism to leap to a new ground from which it can discover what the organizing or
containing forms of its conceptual framework are” (662).

Unlike Leavis who sees literary criticism as “antithetically remote from mathematics”
(Principle 21), Frye finds some parallel in both fields: just as “form and content become
the same thing” in mathematics which, having begun with “a form of understanding an
objective world regarded as its content,” “conceives of the content as being itself
mathematical in form,” so can literature at first begin with “a commentary on an external
‘life’ or ‘reality’” and end up with “an autonomous language” in “a verbal universe” (665-
66). This ‘verbal universe’ is for Frye “the first postulate" of a science of criticism, in
which life and reality are contained in "a system of verbal relationships" without any
"direct reference to external criteria" (666). In his view, the 'verbal' universe is not only
one of the compartmentalised universes which similarly "exist for all the arts," but it is
also shared in by other specialist disciplines such as metaphysics and social sciences (666).
In this argument, it is no wonder that Frye sees 'English literature' merely as "the
miscellaneous pile of literary works that happened to get written in English" (663). In this
way he relegates language to a "secondary aspect of literature" (663). In his new science
of literary criticism, 'research' is naturally set in opposition to a 'value- judgment' of
which Leavis thinks so highly, and criticism "proper" is deprived of value judgments
which Frye suggests are likely to be "either unorganized and tentative or over-organized
and irrelevant" (665 & 658).

As Northrop Frye states in his article “The function of criticism at the present time”, he
attempts to make clear what the function of criticism is. In the first place, he argues
that criticism mediates between the artist and his public. As for him: “Criticism exists
because it can talk, and all arts are dumb.” He does not neglect the possibility of having
authors analyzing and interpreting their own pieces of work for poets and writers in
general may as well have critical abilities. Also, Frye makes a distinction between two
types of critics: (a) one who faces the public (the one we would call the critical reader),
and (b) the one who is involved in the literary work; that is, the author himself.

The primordial task of a critic is then to evaluate the state of literature as it is

presented, and exemplify how literature is to be absorbed into a particular society. It is also
stated that both (the critic proper and the critical reader) are supposed (though not all the
time) to fulfill different functions buy approaching different aspects of the same text
simultaneously. In order to do so, the critic’s first step to take is reading literature in order
to shape the principles he or she is going to use according to the knowledge of the field
of expertise of the critic. The ideal step to take would be to, somehow, systematize the
process of criticism to make its scientific by integrating, not only religion and philosophy,
but other sciences as well.

What is taken as criticism is basically the work of critical readers with several and
different critical attitudes and standpoints depending on the relevant facts collected by the
critic. Still, the work of a critic is not a systematic process following the scientific method
because the literary text is not viewed as phenomena that can be explained and / or
analyzed taking into consideration a theoretical or conceptual framework which can only
be used by criticism. So, if research and criticism are not combined in order to make
more valid analyses, critical readers and critical authors will be excluded from making
meaningful contributions in terms of culture. Therefore, according to Frye, it is high time for
criticism to start defining a conceptual framework within which the scientific method can be
used; it will also be well timed for critics to get into a multidisciplinary field in which
they can relate to subjects such as biography, history, philosophy, and language.

After making these aspects clear, what Frye next describes are the steps of criticism. In
the first place, the critic should try to identify the category of literature in which the books
are located before proceeding to examine aspects such as the author’s life, the historical
context, his language and his thought. Then, it is important to make a distinction between
genres such as prose or poetry in order to know what theory is more likely to be used
comprehensively to analyze the text. Therefore, the critic will be able to know whether the
text deals with elements that are part of his/her area of expertise or if, on the contrary, deals
with concepts that should be researched in detail by the critic before analyzing properly.
The final step is to identify different levels of meaning (if there are, of course) in the literary
text so as to define them and classify them.
 One of the main problems that criticism faces at the present time, according to the author,
is that it is not well enough organized so as to clearly understand what factors to take
into account when it comes to critical judgment. Such judgment may come whether from
the critical reader or from the spokesman of a critical attitude. Besides, another problem
involves determining the category of literature which should start by making a distinction
between two groups: (a) a complex verbal facts (a verbal form which is itself), and (b) a
complex of verbal symbols (a verbal form which is related to something else).

His Anatomy of Criticism, the critical tour de force, is a touchstone in archetypal

criticism, and perhaps the first attempt at erecting a grandiose theory of literary cartography.
At the time of the publication of the work, his was the sole voice inveighing against the
uncompromising attitude of New Criticism. He was a strident believer in treating a work of
literature as part of a larger system, and not as a purely isolated phenomenon. ‘Literature
imitates the total dream of man.’ For him, the whole body of literary works of any society
constitutes what might be called a self-contained, autonomous universe. The natural world
and the human world are brought together by the human imagination. Poetic thought is
categorical, mystical and so powerful in its impact on the human mind that in our
innermost being the natural world is assimilated to the human world. The term ‘archetype’
stands for a recurring pattern of experience which can be identified in works of literature,
and human sciences. These can be identified in the form of recurring actions, characters,
images, metaphors, analogues, figurative language, etc. These archetypes are the reflections
of primitive, universal thoughts which are essentially poetic. They are the primordial images
which reside deep in our psyche, and which seek an outlet in works of art. Have we not
known that in the earliest stages of any culture, language was ritualistic and prelogical?
When the archetypes are embodied in literary works, they awaken in us our profound
feelings which are socially sharable.

In his much-anthologised essay, ‘The Archetypes of Literature’, Frye expresses his

dissatisfaction with New Criticism. What is missing from it is a coordinating principle that
will place works of art as parts of a larger whole, a larger system. And so, he would rather
approach them from two opposite ends, the inductive (centripetal) and the deductive
(centrifugal). In great works, especially, one can discover growing, emerging patterns of
significance, spreading out from the centre, like the ripples in a pond when a stone is cast
upon it. He illustrates this from Yorick’s soliloquy in the gravedigger scene in Hamlet. The
text opens out from the literal meaning of words, to images of decay and corruption, to
psychological relationships among characters, to archetypal patterns, and so on. Critics
interpret the play based on what their assumptions happen to be. From the other end, the
deductive one, one can discover in works of literature analogies of the recurrent rhythms of
the natural cycle (of births, deaths, seasons, etc.). Literature enacts these. Frye classifies the
literary universe into four categories–he calls them mythoi – corresponding to the four
natural seasons: comedy corresponds to spring, romance to summer, tragedy to autumn
and satire to winter. For him, educated imagination is that which is nurtured by classical
mythology. Using this as his base, he develops his brand of cultural criticism. He
can thus reach out to wider worlds of ethical, and social criticism enshrining deep human
values. His view of life, and his view of literature are one and the same; one life, structured as
concrete universals, is refracted and made available to us in a heightened form through the
medium of literature. And so, only through literature can we be interested in larger questions
pertaining to life. Hence Frye says, ‘Art deals not with the real but with the conceivable, and
literary criticism, though it will eventually have to have some theory of conceivability, can
never be justified in trying to develop, much less assume, any theory of actuality’(‘The
Archetypes of Literature’ ,431).

Frye chooses two Platonic levels of knowledge from The Republic –‘nouns’ and
‘dianoia’ for his discussion of the basic kinds(and degrees) of criticism. At the primary,
literal level, criticism is concerned with the knowledge about things. This is seen in the
gathering of what constitutes the sense of fact in Eliot’s sense( the sense of the past, for
Lionel Trilling): in the acquiring of all related facts, ideas and thoughts, which constitute
the foundation for building up the context for literary study. But, this knowledge about
literature has to seek a transformation as knowledge of literature, which we generally
associate with wisdom. In this ideal situation, the reader and the work become one and the
same. In the words of Frye, “Criticism in order to point beyond itself needs to be actively
iconoclastic about itself.’ For him, literature is not only an object to be contemplated,
but also a power to be absorbed.

Frye is the spokesman that literary exegesis need not (and does not) lead to judgment. For
him, ‘the sense of value is an individual, unpredictable variable, incommunicable,
indemonstrable, and mainly intuitive reaction to knowledge.’ Evaluation has its right place
in book and theatre reviewing; in fact it may be even necessary for various reasons. Frye’s
view of literature is that it is a ‘reservoir of potential values.’ Our value sense is not part of
our critical discussion, and for this very reason value judgments have no place in literary
scholarship.

Frye uses the term ‘structure’ in several related senses. Indeed, it was he who had
anticipated structuralism in literary criticism. He was a structuralist without being aware of it.
Theme is referred to as the structural principle in a poem. Sometimes, he calls the images the
structural units; at other times, he holds myths as the conventional structures in literature.
These are, for him, the units which form the organizing principle of literary work.
Structuralist poetics treats literature as a system of conventions in which signs are
embedded. These signs take on a meaning, not on account of an inherent property in the form
of any ontological meaning in them, but by virtue of a signification within a larger system. By
‘structuring’ is meant relating one signifying element with another with a view to
discovering relationships among them. Frye’s view is that any literary work – secular
scripture for him –exists as a ‘displacement’ from the larger mythos. The critic’s job is to
realign it with the larger framework and situate it there, for literature, as we have argued
before, is reconstructed mythology.

Frye’s view of literature ‘as a total order of words’ and that works of literature are
created out of literature anticipates again the structuralist view of intertexutuality. Only in the
case of Frye, coherence is to be achieved by conformity, whereas for the structuralists it is
through a play of difference. Frye restricts the associations with other texts to mythological
images and to the metaphysical agents by which analogies and identities are established.

To conclude, the author shows his insights on the state of literature in relation to
criticism. As for the current trends of criticism, Frye states that literature is, and will be, “a
pile of creative efforts” as long as there is a lack of organization established by criticism.
It still needs to develop a theory of literature which will see this “pile of efforts” with a
verbal universe. The concept of culture, as stated by Arnold Matthew, was precisely an
integration and consolidation of literature and the verbal universe by using criticism as a
main means of connection. The process of this consolidation is, according to Frye, the
main function of criticism at the present time.

• A. Richards

II.A. Richards believes that sometimes the impulses of man respond to a situation in such
an organised way that the mind has a unique experience. Poetry is the representation of this
experience, this organised and happy play of impulses and a true reader ought to feel the
same in his own self. The poet, Richards, does not tell the literal truth about the real
world, but suggests attitudes which represent a proper balance of the nervous system and
which are absorbed by the properly qualified reader.

Principles of Literary Criticism-

In his Science and Poetry (1926), Richards says that much labour has been done to
explain the high place of poetry in human affairs, with, on the whole, few satisfactory or
convincing results. The reason is that both a passionate knowledge of poetry and a
capacity for dispassionate psychological analysis are required if poetry is to be properly
understood and interpreted.

To understand the real nature of poetry, we have to understand clearly "how the mind
works in an experience, and what sort of stream of events the experience is." There are
conflicting instincts and desires, or appetencies, as he calls them, in the human mind. Man
is often between conflicting pulls from different directions and consequently he suffers
from mental uneasiness. The main function of art is to enable human mind to organize
itself more quickly and completely than it could do otherwise. In short, art (poetry) is a means
whereby we can gain emotional balance, mental equilibrium, peace and rest.

Affective fallacy, according to the followers of New Criticism, the misconception that
arises from judging a poem by the emotional effect that it produces in the reader. The
concept of affective fallacy is a direct attack on impressionistic criticism, which argues that
the reader’s response to a poem is the ultimate indication of its value.

Those who support the affective criterion for judging poetry cite its long and
respectable history, beginning with Aristotle’s dictum that the purpose of tragedy is to
evoke “terror and pity.” Edgar Allan Poe stated that “a poem deserves its title only
inasmuch as it excites, by elevating the soul.” Emily Dickinson said, “If I feel physically
as if the top of my head were taken off, I know that is poetry.” Many modern critics
continue to assert that emotional communication and response cannot be separated from the
evaluation of a poem.

Illustrating his point by an image of a magnetic compass, I. A. Richards says that the
systematization of impulses is necessary for the poise and balance. Emotions make
experiences, and emotions are better realized and expressed through poetry. The poet does
all this with the help of words. Misunderstanding and under-estimation of poetry is mainly
due to over estimation of the thought in it. "It is never what a poem says which matters,
but what it is. The poet is not writing as a scientist. He uses these words because the interest
which the situation calls into play combine to bring them, just in this form, into his
consciousness as a means of ordering, controlling, and consolidating the whole experience."

Value of poetry- I. A. Richards

Richards defines the poem as "the artist's experience." He examines poetry as a stimulus-
response proposition. The poem can be a communication in the broad sense that it
communicates an experience. Some experience must naturally be good and some bad. It is
only the good ones that can be said to be valuable. What are they like. It has frequently been
emphasized by Richards that an experience results from theplay of impulses. The mind is
ever engaged in the unconscious process of reconciling their conflicting claims in such a
way that success is obtained for the greater number or mass of them, for the most important
and the weightiest set. In the very exercise of this choice the mind unconsciously decided
which impulses are valuable for it and should therefore be satisfied U the full, and which not
and should therefore be suppressed.

In order to answer the questions—"Of what use is poetry?" "Why and how is it
valuable?" Richards develops a general theory of value— general in the sense that it
applies to all human activities and not especially to poetry—and then shows how poetry is
valuable on the basis of this general standard. Poetry is valuable because it produces man's
moral improvement. Richards seems to support Sidney's observations about poetry and
also Shelley from whom Richards quotes in his Principles of Literary Criticism "
poetry acts in a divine manner. It awakens and the mind itself by rendering it the receptacle
of a thousand unapprehended combinations of thought. Whatever strengthens and purifies
the affections, enlarges the imagination, and adds spirit to sense, is useful". We may look
upon Principles of Literary Criticism as an attempt to chisel this doctrine into the marble of
positivism."

A. Richards has explained his views on the value of poetry in the chapter 'Art
and Morals' in Principles of Literary Criticism. He begins, the chapter by saying : "From this
excursion let us return to our proper task, the attempt to outline a morality which will
change its values as circumstances alter, a morality free from occultism, absolutes and
arbitrariness, a morality which will explain, as no morality has yet explained, the place and
value of the arts in human affairs. What is good or valuable, we have said, is the exercise of
impulses and the satisfaction of their appetencies." And poetry does this task. Poetry does
the reconciliation of impulses.

David Daiches comments : "Poetry," wrote Shelley, "is the record of the best and
happiest moments of the happiest and best minds." This is precisely Richards' position,
though Richards would define "best" and "happiest" in his own way. Whether the
psychological humanism on which Richards bases his view of what is good in poetry as in
any other human activity is really adequate to account for the special nature and value of,
poetry is argueable. To many of his readers there seems to be a gap between his perceptive,
detailed discussion of particular poems and his generalizations about the value of poetry,
which are in large measure based on psychological notions which no important contemporary
psychologist accepts."

However, Richards, like Arnold, is of the opinion that poetry is a central means of saving
civilization. He concludes the essay Science and Poetry with a general statement which
expresses his view very clearly
: "It is very probable that the Hindenburg Line to which the defence of our traditions retired
as a result of the onslaughts of the last century will be blown up the near future. If this
should happen a moral chaos such as man has never experienced may be expected. We
shall then be thrown back, as Matthew Arnold foresaw, upon poetry. It is capable of saving
us; it is perfectly possible means of overcoming chaos."

This is Richard's reply to the attack made on poetry by Thomas Love Peacock in 1820
in the half- serious essay, The Four Ages of Poetry. While the other branches of learning,
he had complained, were steadily marching towards a fuller knowledge or reality, poetry
by its love of myth and legend was 'wallowing in the rubbish of departed ignorance.'
Whence he concluded : 'A poet in our times is a semi- barbarian in a civilized
community. He lives in the ways that ate past. His ideas, thoughts, feelings,
associations, are all with barbarious manners, obsolete customs, and exploded superstitions.
The march of his intellect if like that of a crab, backward.' Richards's analysis of poetry, if
it is accepted as true, shows how even in this age of scientific enlightenment poetry has a
vital role to play in the life of the individual and society. In the mind ordered in the poetic
way lies the hope of civilization.

FOUR KINDS OF MEANING-I.A RICHARDS

II.A. Richards was the first critic to bring to English criticism a scientific precision and
objectivity. He was the first to distinguish between the two uses of language – the
referential and the emotive. His well articulated theory is found in his Principles of Literary
Criticism. The present extract is from his Practical Criticism which speaks about the four
kinds of meaning. Richards is remembered for his modern way of teaching and studying
literature. New criticism and the whole of modern tensional poetics derive their strength
and inspiration from the seminal writings of Richards.

Richards begins the extract by pointing to the difficulty of all reading. The problem of
making out the meaning is the starting point in criticism. The answers to ‘what is a
meaning?’, ‘What are we doing when we endeavour to make it out?’ are the master keys to
all the problems of criticism. The all important fact for the study of literature or any other
mode of communication is that there are several kinds of meaning. Whether we speak,
write, listen, read, the ‘Total meaning’ is a blend of several contributory meanings of
different types. Language – and pre eminently language as it is used in poetry has several
tasks to perform simultaneously. Four kinds of functions or meanings as enlisted by I.A.
Richards are the following: (1) Sense, (2) Feeling, (3) Tone and (4) Intention.

(1) Sense : ‘We speak to say something and when we listen we expect something to be
said. We use words to direct our hearers’ attention upon some state of affairs, to
present to them some items for consideration and to excite in them some thoughts about
these items’. In short, what we speak to convey to our listeners for their consideration can be
called ‘sense’. This is the most important thing in all scientific utterances where verification
is possible.
 (2) Feeling :The attitude towards what we convey is known as ‘feeling’. In other words,
we have bias or accentuation of interest towards what we say. We use language to express
these feelings. Similarly, we have these feelings even when we receive. This happens even
if the speaker is conscious of it or not. In exceptional cases, say in mathematics, no feeling
enters. The speaker’s attitude to the subject is known as ‘feeling’.

(3) Tone : The speaker has an attitude to his listener. ‘He chooses or arranges his words
differently as his audience varies, in automatic or deliberate recognition of his relation to
them. The tone of his utterance reflects his awareness of this relation, his sense of how he
stands towards those he is addressing. Thus ‘tone’ refers to the attitude to the listener.

(4) Intention: Finally apart from what he says (sense), his attitude to what he is
talking about (feeling), and his attitude to his listener (tone), there is the speaker’s
intention, his aim (conscious or unconscious) - the effect he is endeavouring to
promote. The speaker’s purpose modifies his speech. Frequently, the speaker’s intention
operates through and satisfies itself in a combination of other functions. ‘It may govern the
stress laid upon points in an argument. It controls the ‘plot’ in the larger sense of the word.
It has special importance in dramatic and semi dramatic literature. Thus the influence
of his intention upon the language he uses is additional to the other three influences.

If we survey the uses of language as a whole, predominance of one function over the
other may be found. A man writing a scientific treatise will put the ‘sense’ of what he
has to say first. For a writer popularising some of the results and hypotheses of science,
the principles governing his language are not so simple; his intention will inevitably
interfere with the other functions. In conversation, we get the clearest examples of the
shifts of function, i.e. one function being taken over by another.

Towards the end of the essay, I.A. Richards says that it is much harder to obtain
statements about poetry than expressions of feelings towards it and towards the author. Very
many apparent statements turn out to be the indirect expressions of Feeling, Tone and
Intention.

The Value of his Criticism

Richards turns criticism into a science. The making of literature, he holds, is a

scientifically analyzable activity. He does not subscribe to the belief that while other human
activities can be explained by science, literary activity is beyond its reach. There is a
clearly definable reason for every aspect of literature, he says; and as more and more
knowledge of the working of the human mind is acquired, many more ‘mysteries’ of the
literary art will be mysteries no more. It is to this stage in human progress that Richards
looks forward. The science that can unearth the secrets of literature is psychology.

Criticism hitherto has either merely ‘enjoyed’ literature, often adding something of its
own to it, or proceeded from the literary product to an analysis of the process that has
gone to its making. From the work of the writer alone, says Richards, the whole of the inner
process cannot be known. For much of it is unconscious and unverifiable even by
psychology in the present stage of its development. But until it is so traced to its source, the
criticism of the work must remain incomplete. Richard’s ‘experiment’ is but a step in this
direction. Instead of merely contenting himself with the literary process, as manifested in the
work, he goes to its very source in the writer’s mind. ‘All the other critical principles’, he
says, ‘are obstructive influence’. His discussion of criticism therefore always includes ‘ as
a preliminary what amounts to a concise treatise on psychology’. In other words, he
considers an adequate knowledge of psychology an essential preliminary to literary
criticism. This appears a heavy demand to make on the critic and heavier still to make on
the reader. Yet if this is only how literature can be fully understood, and not merely
enjoyed, not more than a select few can every qualify for the task. However, Richards has
inspired a host of followers, the most notable of whom is William Empson, and given an
entirely new turn to criticism in England and America. But his method is too technical to be
ever popular. The lay reader who turns over his pages ‘retires harassed and over burdened,
and looks elsewhere for recreation. He deserts his master, and seeks for companions.’

REFERENCE

1. Enright, D.J. and Chickera, Ernst de. (Ed.) English Critical Texts. Delhi: OUP, 1962.
UNIT –III – Literary Theory and Criticism –SHS5009
 I. INTRODUCTION:
Modernism and post modernism are ways of looking at things, a condition of the mind and a
way of life. Structuralism post structuralism are generally used with reference to literary and
language as in structural anthropology, structural linguistics, structural poetics, structuralist
narratology and post structuralist criticism. The term post modernism and post structuralism
are partners in the same paradigm and there is bound to be some overlap between some
people use them even interchangeably but it may be better to make some distinction in their
use as shown below:
Post Modernism Post Structuralism

World view : a theory / a condition/ a vision/ a state of Textualism, minute reading or

mind, a way of life, an attitude , a culture anti
reading

Structuralism:
Structuralism is a philosophical method of understanding the world too. Structuralists argue
that the entities that constitute the world we perceive (human beings, meanings, social
positions, texts, rituals…) are not the works of God or the mysteries of nature. It is an effect
of the principles that structure us. The world without structures is meaningless. It will then be
a random and chaotic continuum.
Structures order that continuum and organize it according to certain set of principles. And
thus we make sense of it. In this way structures make this world meaningful and real. Once
discovered, structures show us how meanings come about.
Structuralism designates the practise on analysing and evaluating a work of art on the explicit
model of structuralist linguistics. It is based upon the concept that things cannot be fully
understood in isolation. They have to seen in the context of larger structures they are part of.
Structualist criticism views literature as a second-order signifying system that uses the first-
order structural system of language as its medium. Structuralist critics often apply a variety of
linguistic concepts to the analysis of a literary work, such as the distinction between
phonemic and morphemic levels of organization, or between paradigmatic and syntagmatic
relationships. Some critics analyze the structure of a literary text on the model of the syntax
in a well-formed sentence. Literary structuralism explains how it is that a competent reader is
able to make sense of a particular literary text by specifying the underlying system of literary
conventions and rules of combination that has been unconsciously mastered by such a reader
Tenets of Structuralism
i. A literary text is considered as a ‘text’ i.e. a mode of writing constituted by a play of
component elements according to specifically literary conventions and codes. These factors
may generate an illusion of reality, but have no truth-value, nor any reference to a reality
existing outside the literary system itself.
ii. The individual author is not assigned any initiative, expressive intentions or design as the
‘origin; or producer of a work. Instead the conscious ‘self’ is declared to be a ‘space’ within
which the impersonal, the pre-existing system of literary language, conventions, codes and
rules of combination gets precipitated into a particular text.
iii. Structuralism replaces the author by the reader as the central agency in criticism; but the
traditional reader, as a conscious, purposeful and feeling individual, is replaced by the
impersonal activity of “reading’ and what is read is not a work imbued with meanings, but
‘ecriture’. The focus of structuralist criticism is on the impersonal process of reading.
 Post structuralism :
Post structuralism is more language based where as post modernism is a vision and a way
of life.
The literary theories that can be considered post structuralist can be defined in terms of their
focus on one hand, exclusively based on language/text and on the other hand with a bias
towards society. Other approaches within post modernism with varying degrees of post
structuralist orientation like reader response theory feminist criticism post colonialism and
new historicism are represented in the following way
REPRESENTATION OF THE PRESENTATION

Deconstruction Psychoanalysis Social discourse

French Jacques Derrida, Ronald Barthes Jacques Lacan Michel Foucau
American Harold Bloom, Hillis Miller and Julia Kristeva Mikhail
others Bakhtin

Deconstruction:

It is a literary theory developed by Jacques Derrida. It regards language as inadequate to

convey the meaning, for languages are all based upon sound symbols. Communication is
therefore made fuller with gestures, facial expression and so on. Since the same word may
mean different thinkers, distortion is possible. Derrida challenges the conventional theory that
language has the potential to refer to an extra-textual world or to express determinate
signification.

The most influential of all post modernist/post structuralist theories is deconstruction,

propounded by Jacques Derrida. He is the single most influential intellectual in current
philosophy and Anglo American literary theory. Derrida represents the French mocking
tradition combined with suburban Algerian, petit bourgeois Jewish family background. The
student revolution of May 1969 in Paris followed the publication of Derrida’s most
influential work ‘Of Grammatology in 1967’.

Derrida simply problematises all habits of thoughts in any ‘discipline’ by

deconstructing how impossible it is to draw a clear cut line between reality and
representation. Though the focus of study in deconstruction is ‘language/text’ ultimately
deconstruction is a rigorous attempt to (re) think the limits of that principle of reason which
has shaped emergence of Western philosophy, science and technology at large and its search
for an answer to the question. Is the reason for reason rational?

Derrida points out that Rousseau uses writing to debunk writing and denounces the
very means by which his own ideas are set down for others to read. Writing is exactly the
mechanism which allows Rousseau to practice the art of concealment to express the opposite
of what he feels. Derrida minutely examines Saussure’s ideas on language and points of that
Saussure is not so sure of what he says.

To deconstruct is to do and undo ceaselessly. To undo is not the same as to

deconstruct but rather it is akin to put it off the centre, to constantly destabilize what has been
done and to rigorously demystify what is received in the name of knowledge. To deconstruct
is to examine minutely in order to dismantle conventional hierarchies in the given system to
arrive at an exactly opposite positive. Some American deconstructionalist think that
deconstruction is a kind of joyous release from all rules and constraints of critical reading and
understanding. In fact it needs highest standards of argumentative rigor because it is a
disciplined identification and dismantling of the potentialities of textual power. The ‘text’ is
shown to read against itself through the exposure of what might be called the ‘textual
subconscious’ where meanings are directly contrary to the surface meaning; the text is shown
in multiple disunited with shifts and breaks contradictions silences, ‘aporias’ (blind spots)
and fault lines much like cracks in rock formation that reveal previous activity and
movement.

II. The Death of the Author

Roland Barthes says in his essay The Death of the Author, “The birth of the reader
must be at the cost of the death of the Author.” It is very easy to see that it is the reader who
breathes meaning into the text. We arrive at Ronald Barthes, one can declare that the author is
dead and the reader is the author/creator. Ronald Barthes concern was the critical institution
which makes discovering the author’s life and time the key to the only possible reading of a
text. There can be no real level of independent thinking achieved by the reader if their
thoughts are dictated by the Author’s opinions and biases. For this reason there needs to be a
distance between the Author and those who read the work.

Barthes makes two main points as to why the death of the Author is an inevitable and
beneficial occurrence. To begin with Barthes states that the author is merely a way through
which a story is told. They neither create the story nor form it, these have already been done.
The author is merely retelling this story that has already been told many times. His argument
against original thought is very persuasive, especially considering the many ways stories have
been logically broken down into a predictable sequence of events. For instance, Vladimir
Propp (Literary Theory) a Russian Formalist used Formalist theories to determine thirty one
plot functions in Russian folk tales. Each folk tale has at least some, if not all, of these
functions, typically in the order which he has organized them but occasionally one or two will
be inverted. Most modern fairy tales are merely an adaptation of a classic fairy tale and they
follow the general functions that Propp outlined.

Even beyond fairy tales, most fiction stories fall into a typical patter with a
beginning problem, a training period, a set back of the hero, the hero overcoming the
obstacle, the conflict, and finally resolution. There are no original thoughts, just old thoughts
combined in different patterns or adjusted to fit the current society. Music, fashion, and
movies are an example of the never ending recycling of ideas. There are only so many
musical combinations or clothing styles that people find pleasing. It is inevitable that old
styles will be used to “inspire” new ones. It is easy to see in all different areas of society how
there are few no new ideas, merely old ideas being reused.

Barthes second point is that if the reader were to view the work through the
Author’s eyes then they would gain no benefit from the reading. By associating the Author
with the text, the text is automatically limited. Instead of drawing their own meaning from the
text using their own experiences and therefore stimulating their own thoughts of their lives
and how it connects with the world around them the reader is then restricted to trying to guess
what the author meant. The reader focuses on understanding the Author’s opinions and
whether they agree with the Author and don’t focus on their own thoughts and opinions of the
piece.
 Barthes claims that it is the status of the reader that should be elevated, not the status
of the Author. If the reader gains any deep insight from a piece of writing it should not be
considered due to the Author’s genius but instead to the personal experiences of the reader
providing them with an insightful interpretation. Barthes believes that if it is the reader who
brings meaning to the text then there can be no limit to the interpretations available because
everyone in the world has their own unique experiences that have shaped them.

For the independent thinking of readers and the growth of their skills of
interpretation the death of the Author is necessary, in most cases. The death of the Author is
not always a necessary occurrence however, in some cases the presence of the Author is
needed for the reader to achieve a greater understanding of what is being read. For instance,
in the book Slaughterhouse 5: A Children’s Crusade, Kurt Vonnegut went through great
effort to make himself known at the beginning of the book. The entire first chapter is told in
first person from the author’s point of view as he rambles about how he wanted to write a
book about the bombing of Dresden. He was there when Dresden was bombed and was one
of the only survivors. The first chapter of the book he describes how he has wanted to write a
book about the bombing of Dresden for years but he’s never been able to find the right words.
“There’s nothing intelligent to say about a massacre.” Vonnegut said.

After spending the first chapter introducing the reader to himself Vonnegut then
proceeds to take himself out of the story (for the most part) and instead tell the story of Billy
Pilgrim. Pilgrim had also survived the bombing of Dresden but a head injury later in life
combined with post traumatic stress disorder caused Pilgrim to lose his grip on reality.
Pilgrim becomes unstuck in time and being unstuck causes him to flash back and forth from
the past to the future and back again. As a reader if I had not known Vonnegut’s background
as one of the few survivors of the bombing of Dresden then I would have not been able to
understand the book. I would have seen it as crazy and disjointed and not have been able to
draw any meaning out of it. However, looking through the eyes of the Author I got an
understanding and view of the events that was completely different from what I would have
understood on my own.

If the Author is writing on a topic of which the reader will have their own past
experiences to compare it to then the birth of the reader must come at the cost of the death of
the Author. However, if the reader has no experiences on which to base their judgments or to
grasp the meaning of the text with then it might be necessary for the Author to tell the reader
of their own experiences. I agree with Barthes when he says that the reader and the readers
interpretation and understanding of a text is what is important. However, sometimes the
understanding of the reader is best helped by the presence of the Author.

That being said, the Author should only make an appearance if it will help the
understanding of the reader. Here again, the focus is on the reader and their understanding,
not on the Author. It is inevitable though that some readers will have a certain mindset about
a book before they even buy it because of the author’s name on the cover. The reader may
have liked a different book the author had written or had disliked it, but depending on which
it was before they pick the book up they will already have an idea of what it is going to be
like. Some readers have been known to buy entire series after reading the first book because
they know they like the Author so much. They are basing four or five books off of their
experience from one and the name of the Author. Should it be that way? Authors want to
claim credit for the work they’ve done but Barthes says that where the work originated from
isn’t what’s important, it’s the destination that matters.
 If we were to take Barthes statement that authors are not creating new material
merely meshing bits and pieces from previous writings together, then for the author to claim
credit of the piece would essentially be plagerism, for they would be taking credit for
thoughts that were not theirs. Putting their names on books could qualify for intellectual
property theft as well, according to Barthes. Unless, of course, the author is not seeking to
take credit for the story itself but instead wants to take credit for the order in which the words
are put together to form the story. So maybe the author is not dead at all. After all, if the
author was completely dead then there would be no names on the covers of books. Not only
would they not be allowed to take credit for a story that has already been told but they would
not be allowed to affect the reader’s interpretation of their story.

Even though Barthes thinks that knowing the Authors background would be
detrimental to the readers interpretation of the text I wonder if the public would really wish to
know nothing about the writer whose book they are reading. Is it possible that reading the
book without the name or basic information of the author could be like watching a movie
without knowing what the rating or the plot summary of the movie is? To what extent is it
right to broaden the readers horizons? Some people choose to live highly sheltered lives, only
reading certain things or watching specific t.v. shows. Anything that doesn’t fall under their
approved categories is to be completely ignored. So if we were to take the Authors name off
of books, would going into a bookstore be akin to playing a game of Russian Roulette for
them? Not knowing the author means not knowing if there may be any hidden surprises in the
book. So aside from the Author’s objections to not getting credit for their work, would the
readers object? In this way the Author isn’t dead, for their reputation still affects the readers
choice and open mindedness to the book.

It seems that when Barthes says “the birth of the reader must come at the cost of the
death of the Author,” he is thinking idealistically, not realistically. It would help the
interpretations and understanding of the reader for there to be no connection between the
Author and the text, in that Barthes is correct. If the only focus was the individual
interpretations of the reader then the absolute disassociation of the Author with the text would
be a beneficial thing. However, I don’t believe that the Author will ever be completely dead.
Barthes said that the Author should get neither praise for a good book not blamed for a bad
one and yet this is exactly why the Author will never be fully dead. Readers want heroes and
villains, people to look up to and people to despise. A good writer earns praise from the
readers and social status, but a controversial writer can draw just as much negative attention
as an inspiring writer can draw positive attention. In this way people seek to categorize their
lives, and to categorize books the readers need labels. Their favorite labels are the Authors
who wrote the books. I think that the readers are partially responsible for the continued
presence of the Author, as well as the Author’s own interests in being involved. Is the Author
fully dead? No, but neither is he fully alive either. The Author is stuck somewhere between.

Once written, the text doesn’t need the author for the writing to work. We can
imagine anyone speaking as I so far as text will allow. I might be all sorts of other things but
as far as the words are concerned I is nothing more than a hungry person. Linguistically, the
author is more than the instance writing…. The language knows a subject not a person… it is
a language which speaks not the author. To write is through a prerequisite impersonally to
reach that point where only language acts, performs and not me.
 Barthes did not think books wrote themselves. He points out that writing doesn’t lock
a text, it liberates it – a written text has as it were flown the authors nest and can survive on
its own. To return to the author is like clipping its wings. In other terms we might say that the
meaning is about coherence with the text (not adherence) not correspondence with the
authors veto-esque final say. To give a text, an author is to impose a limit on that text to
furnish it with a final signified to close the writing.
Barthes is driven by a concern that we read the text itself, not something else that we
imagine would provide a clue to it or a guarantee of the correctness of our interpretation. We
should look at the text not through it. There is nothing beneath the space of writing is to be
ranged over, not pierced.
For Barthes, there is something tragic violent even about closing down the possibility
of new interpretation based on attention to the signifiers themselves: the story, the images, the
genre, allusions to other texts or surprising breaks with expectations. As Barthes develops in
mythologies the joy of reading is finding and giving voice to these dimensions structures
codes in the text itself.
There is one place where this multiplicity is focused and that place is the reader not as
was hitherto said the author. Some of us will see some possibilities some others and the text
keeps itself its secret about which is right. Indeed it becomes unclear just what right would
mean. Importantly, this doesn’t entail a subjectivism where the text’s fleeting personal
associations or me as an individual reader will do as an account of its meaning. It is still
possible to be wrong. (If we do not know the words, or don’t pay sufficient attention to them
or we miss a citation or mistake the genre)
The reader is the space on which all that makes up a writing which are inscribed
without any of them being lost; a text’s unity lies not in its origin but in its destination.

III. Jean Baudrillard

According to Baudrillard, what has happened in postmodern culture is that our society
has become so reliant on models and maps that we have lost all contact with the real world
that preceded the map. Reality itself has begun merely to imitate the model, which now
precedes and determines the real world: "The territory no longer precedes the map, nor does it
survive it. It is nevertheless the map that precedes the territory—precession of simulacra—
that engenders the territory" ("The Precession of Simulacra" 1). According to Baudrillard,
when it comes to postmodern simulation and simulacra, “It is no longer a question of
imitation, nor duplication, nor even parody. It is a question of substituting the signs of the
real for the real” ("The Precession of Simulacra" 2). Baudrillard is not merely suggesting that
postmodern culture is artificial, because the concept of artificiality still requires some sense
of reality against which to recognize the artifice. His point, rather, is that we have lost all
ability to make sense of the distinction between nature and artifice.
To clarify his point, he argues that there are three "orders of simulacra": 1) in the first
order of simulacra, which he associates with the pre-modern period, the image is a clear
counterfeit of the real; the image is recognized as just an illusion, a place marker for the real;
2) in the second order of simulacra, which Baudrillard associates with the industrial
revolution of the nineteenth century, the distinctions between the image and the
representation begin to break down because of mass production and the proliferation of
copies. Such production misrepresents and masks an underlying reality by imitating it so
well, thus threatening to replace it (e.g. in photography or ideology); however, there is still a
belief that, through critique or effective political action, one can still access the hidden fact of
the real; 3) in the third order of simulacra, which is associated with the postmodern age, we
are confronted with a precession of simulacra; that is, the representation precedes and
determines the real. There is no longer any distinction between reality and its representation;
there is only the simulacrum.
Baudrillard points to a number of phenomena to explain this loss of distinctions between
"reality" and the simulacrum:
1) Media culture. Contemporary media (television, film, magazines, billboards, the Internet)
are concerned not just with relaying information or stories but with interpreting our most
private selves for us, making us approach each other and the world through the lens of these
media images. We therefore no longer acquire goods because of real needs but because of
desires that are increasingly defined by commercials and commercialized images, which keep
us at one step removed from the reality of our bodies or of the world around us.
2) Exchange-Value. According to Karl Marx, the entrance into capitalist culture meant that
we ceased to think of purchased goods in terms of use-value, in terms of the real uses to
which an item will be put. Instead, everything began to be translated into how much it is
worth, into what it can be exchanged for (its exchange-value). Once money became a
“universal equivalent,” against which everything in our lives is measured, things lost their
material reality (real-world uses, the sweat and tears of the laborer). We began even to think
of our own lives in terms of money rather than in terms of the real things we hold in our
hands: how much is my time worth? How does my conspicuous consumption define me as a
person? According to Baudrillard, in the postmodern age, we have lost all sense of use-value:
"It is all capital" (For a Critique 82).
3) Multinational capitalism. As the things we use are increasingly the product of complex
industrial processes, we lose touch with the underlying reality of the goods we consume. Not
even national identity functions in a world of multinational corporations. According to
Baudrillard, it is capital that now defines our identities. We thus continue to lose touch with
the material fact of the laborer, who is increasingly invisible to a consumer oriented towards
retail outlets or the even more impersonal Internet. A common example of this is the fact that
most consumers do not know how the products they consume are related to real-life things.
How many people could identify the actual plant from which is derived the coffee bean?
Starbucks, by contrast, increasingly defines our urban realities. (On multinational capitalism,
see Marxism: Modules: Jameson: Late Capitalism.)
4) Urbanization. As we continue to develop available geographical locations, we lose touch
with any sense of the natural world. Even natural spaces are now understood as “protected,”
which is to say that they are defined in contradistinction to an urban “reality,” often with
signs to point out just how “real” they are. Increasingly, we expect the sign (behold nature!)
to precede access to nature.

5) Language and Ideology. Baudrillard illustrates how in such subtle ways language keeps
us from accessing “reality.” The earlier understanding of ideology was that it hid the truth,
that it represented a “false consciousness,” as Marxists phrase it, keeping us from seeing the
real workings of the state, of economic forces, or of the dominant groups in power. (This
understanding of ideology corresponds to Baudrillard's second order of simulacra.)
Postmodernism, on the other hand, understands ideology as the support for our very
perception of reality. There is no outside of ideology, according to this view, at least no
outside that can be articulated in language. Because we are so reliant on language to structure
our perceptions, any representation of reality is always already ideological, always already
constructed by simulacra.
Structure Sign and Play

IV. Jacques Derrida

Jacques Derrida first read his paper “Structure, Sign and Play in the Discourse of Human
Sciences (1966)” at the John Hopkins International Colloquium on “The Language of
Criticism and the Sciences of Man” in October 1966 articulating for the first time a post
structuralist theoretical paradigm. This conference was described by Richard Macksey and
Eugenio Donata to be “the first time in United States when structuralism had been thought of
as an interdisciplinary phenomenon”. However, even before the conclusion of the conference
there were clear signs that the ruling trans-disciplinary paradigm of structuralism had been
superseded, by the importance of Derrida’s “radical appraisals of our assumptions”

Derrida begins the essay by referring to ‘an event’ which has ‘perhaps’ occurred in the
history of the concept of structure, that is also a ‘redoubling’. The event which the essay
documents is that of a definitive epistemological break with structuralist thought, of the
ushering in of post-structuralism as a movement critically engaging with structuralism and
also with traditional humanism and empiricism. It turns the logic of structuralism against
itself insisting that the “structurality of structure” itself had been repressed in structuralism.

Derrida starts this essay by putting into question the basic metaphysical assumptions of
Western philosophy since Plato which has always principally positioned itself with a fixed
immutable centre, a static presence. The notion of structure, even in structuralist theory has
always presupposed a centre of meaning of sorts. Derrida terms this desire for a centre as
“logocentrism” in his seminal work “Of Grammatology (1966)”. ‘Logos’, is a Greek word
for ‘word’ which carries the greatest possible concentration of presence. As Terry Eagleton
explains in “Literary Theory: An Introduction (1996)”, “Western Philosophy…. has also
been in a broader sense, ‘logocentric’, committed to a belief in some ultimate ‘word’,
presence, essence, truth or reality which will act as the foundation for all our thought,
language and experience. It has yearned for the sign which will give meaning to all others, –
‘the transcendental signifier’ – and for the anchoring, unquestioning meaning to which all
our signs can be seen to point (the transcendental signified’).”

Derrida argues that this centre thereby limits the “free play that it makes possible”, as it
stands outside it, is axiomatic – “the Centre is not really the centre”. Under a centered
structure, free play is based on a fundamental ground of the immobility and indisputability of
the centre, on what Derrida refers to “as the metaphysics of presence”. Derrida’s critique of
structuralism bases itself on this idea of a center. A structure assumes a centre which orders
the structure and gives meanings to its components, and the permissible interactions between
them, i.e. limits play. Derrida in his critique looks at structures diachronically, i.e.,
historically, and synchronically, i.e. as a freeze frame at a particular juncture. Synchronically,
the centre cannot be substituted: “It is the point at which substitution of contents, elements
and terms is no longer possible.” (Structuralism thus stands in tension with history as Derrida
argues towards the end of the essay.) But historically, one centre gets substituted for another
to form an epistemological shift: “the entire history of the concept of structure must be
thought of as a series of substitutions of center for center.” Thus, at a given point of time, the
centre of the structure cannot be substituted by other elements, but historically, the point that
defines play within a structure has changed. The history of human sciences has thereby been
a process of substitution, replacement and transformation of this centre through which all
meaning is to be sought – God, the Idea, the World Spirit, the Renaissance Man, the Self,
substance, matter, Family, Democracy, Independence, Authority and so on. Since each of
these concepts is to found our whole system of thought and language, it must itself be beyond
that system, untainted by its play of linguistic differences. It cannot be implicated in the very
languages and system it attempts to order and anchor: it must be somehow anterior to these
discourses. The problem of centers for Derrida was thereby that they attempt to exclude. In
doing so, they ignore, repress or marginalize others (which become the Other). This longing
for centers spawns binary opposites, with one term of the opposition central and the other
marginal. Terry Eagleton calls these binary opposition with which classical structuralism
tends to function as a way of seeing typical of ideologies, which thereby becomes
exclusionary. To quote him, “Ideologies like to draw rigid boundaries between what is
acceptable and what is not”.

Derrida insists that with the ‘rupture’ it has become “necessary to begin to think that there
was no center, that the center could not be thought in the form of a being-present, that the
center had no natural locus….a sort of non-locus in which an infinite number of sign-
substitutions came into play.” Derrida attributes this initiation of the process of decentering
“to the totality of our era”. As Peter Barry argues in “Beginning Theory: An Introduction to
Literary and Cultural (1995)” that in the twentieth century, through a complex process of
various historico-political events, scientific and technological shifts, “these centers were
destroyed or eroded”. For instance, the First World War destroyed the illusion of steady
material progress; the Holocaust destroyed the notion of Europe as the source and centre of
human civilization. Scientific discoveries – such as the way the notion of relativity destroyed
the ideas of time and space as fixed and central absolutes. Then there were intellectual and
artistic movements like modernism in the arts which in the first thirty years of the century
rejected such central absolutes as harmony in music, chronological sequence in narrative, and
the representation of the visual world in art. This ‘decentering’ of structure, of the
‘transcendental signified’ and of the sovereign subject, Derrida suggests – naming his sources
of inspiration – can be found in the Nietzchean critique of metaphysics, and especially of the
concepts of Being and Truth, in the Freudian critique of self-presence, as he says, “a critique
of consciousness, of the subject, of self-identity, and of the self-proximity or self-possession”,
and more radically in the Heideggerean destruction of metaphysics, “of the determination of
Being as Presence”.

Derrida argues that all these attempts at ‘decentering’ were however, “trapped in a sort of
circle”. Structuralism, which in his day was taken as a profound questioning of traditional
Western thought, is taken by Derrida to be in support of just those ways of thought. This is
true, according to deconstructive thought, for almost all critique of Western thought that
arises from within western thought: it would inevitably be bound up with that which it
questions – “We have no language-no syntax and no lexicon-which is alien to this history; we
cannot utter a single destructive proposition which has not already slipped into the form, the
logic, and the implicit postulations of precisely what it seeks to contest.” Semiotics and
Phenomenology are similarly compromised. Semiotics stresses the fundamental connection
of language to speech in a way that it undermines its insistence on the inherently arbitrary
nature of sign. Phenomenology rejects metaphysical truths in the favor of phenomena and
appearance, only to insist for truth to be discovered in human consciousness and lived
experience. To an extent Derrida seems to see this as inevitable, “There is no sense in doing
without the concepts of metaphysics in order to attack metaphysics”; however, the awareness
of this process is important for him – “Here it is a question of a critical relationship to the
language of the human sciences and a question of a critical responsibility of the discourse. It
is a question of putting expressly and systematically the problem of a discourse which
borrows from a heritage the resources necessary of that heritage itself.” It is important to
note that Derrida does not assert the possibility of thinking outside such terms; any attempt to
undo a particular concept is likely to become caught up in the terms which the concept
depends on. For instance: if we try to undo the centering concept of ‘consciousness’ by
asserting the disruptive counterforce of the ‘unconscious’, we are in danger of introducing a
new center. All we can do is refuse to allow either pole in a system to become the center and
guarantor of presence.

In validate this argument, Derrida takes up the example of Saussure’s description of sign. In
Saussure, the ‘metaphysics of presence’ is affirmed by his insistence on the fact that a sign
has two components – the signifier and the signified, the signified which the mental and
psychological. This would imply that the meaning of a sign is present to the speaker when he
uses in, in defiance of the fact that meaning is constituted by a system of differences. That is
also why Saussure insists on the primacy of speaking. As soon as language is written down, a
distance between the subject and his words is created, causing meaning to become
unanchored. Derrida however critiques this ‘phonocentrism’ and argues that the distance
between the subject and his words exist in any case, even while speaking – that the meaning
of sign is always unanchored. Sign has no innate or transcendental truth. Thus, the signified
never has any immediate self-present meaning. It is itself only a sign that derives its meaning
from other signs. Hence a signified can be a signifier and vice versa. Such a viewpoint entails
that sign thus be stripped off its signified component. Meaning is never present at face-value;
we cannot escape the process of interpretation. While Saussure still sees language as a closed
system where every word has its place and consequently its meaning, Derrida wants to argue
for language as an open system. In denying the metaphysics of presence the distances
between inside and outside are also problematized. There is no place outside of language
from where meaning can be generated.

Derrida next considers the theme of decentering with respect to French structuralist Levi
Strauss’s ethnology. Ethnology too demonstrates how although it sets out as a denouncement
of Eurocentrism, its practices and methodologies get premised on ethnocentricism in its study
and research of the ‘Other’ – “the ethnologist accepts into his discourse the premises of
ethnocentrism at the very moment when he is employed in denouncing them This necessity is
irreducible; it is not a historical contingency”. Derrida uses the classical debate on the
opposition between nature and culture with respect to Levi Strauss’s work. In his work,
Elementary Structures, Strauss starts with the working definition of nature as the universal
and spontaneous, not belonging to any other culture or any determinate norm. Culture, on the
other hand, depends on a system of norms regulating society and is therefore capable of
varying from one social structure to another. But Strauss encountered a ‘scandal’ challenging
this binary opposition – incest prohibition. It is natural in the sense that is it almost
universally present across most communities and hence is natural. However, it is also a
prohibition, which makes it a part of the system of norms and customs and thereby cultural.
Derrida argues that this disputation of Strauss’s theory is not really a scandal, as it the pre-
assumed binary opposition that makes it a scandal, the system which sanctions the difference
between nature and culture. To quote him, “It could perhaps be said that the whole of
philosophical conceptualization, systematically relating itself to the nature/culture
opposition, is designed to leave in the domain of the unthinkable the very thing that makes
this conceptualization possible: the origin of the prohibition of incest.”
This leads Derrida to his theory of the bricoleur inspired from Levi Strauss. He argues that it
is very difficult to arrive at a conceptual position “outside of philosophy”, to not be absorbed
to some extent into the very theory that one seeks to critique. He therefore insists on Strauss’s
idea of a bricolage, “the necessity of borrowing one’s concept from the text of a heritage
which is more or less coherent or ruined, it must be said that every discourse is bricoleur.” It
is thereby important to use these ‘tools at hand’ through intricate mechanisms and networks
of subversion. For instance, although Strauss discovered the scandal, he continued to use
sometimes the binary opposition of nature and culture as a methodological tool and to
preserve as an instrument that those truth value he criticizes, “The opposition between nature
and culture which I have previously insisted on seems today to offer a value which is above
all methodological.” Strauss discusses bricolage not only as an intellectual exercise, but also
as “mythopoetical activity”. He attempts to work out a structured study of myths, but realizes
this is not a possibility, and instead creates what he calls his own myth of the mythologies, a
‘third order code’. Derrida points out how his ‘reference myth’ of the Bororo myth, does not
hold in terms of its functionality as a reference, as this choice becomes arbitrary and also
instead of being dependent on typical character, it derives from irregularity and hence
concludes, “that violence which consists in centering a language which is describing an
acentric structure must be avoided”.

Derrida still building on Strauss’s work, introduces the concept of totalization – “Totalization
is…. at one time as useless, at another time as impossible”. In traditional conceptualization,
totalization cannot happen as there is always too much one can say and even more that exists
which needs to be talked/written about. However, Derrida argues that non-totalization needs
to conceptualized not the basis of finitude of discourse incapable of mastering an infinite
richness, but along the concept of free-play – “If totalization no longer has any meaning, it is
not because the infinity of a field cannot be covered by a finite glance or a finite discourse,
but because the nature of the field-that is, language and a finite language-excludes
totalization.” It is finite language which excludes totalization as language is made up of
infinite signifier and signified functioning inter-changeably and arbitrarily, thereby opening
up possibilities for infinite play and substitution. The field of language is limiting, however,
there cannot be a finite discourse limiting that field.

Derrida explains the possibility of this free play through the concept of “supplementality” –
“this movement of the free play, permitted by the lack, the absence of a center or origin, is
the movement of supplementarily. One cannot determine the center, the sign which
supplements it, which takes its place in its absence-because this sign adds itself, occurs in
addition, over and above, comes as a supplement”. Supplementality is thus involves infinite
substitutions of the centre which is an absence which leads to the movement of play. This
becomes possible because of the lack in the signified. There is always an overabundance of
the signifier to the signified. So a supplement would hence be an addition to what the
signified means for already. Derrida also introduces the concept of how this meaning is
always deferred (difference), how signifier and signified are inter-changeable in a complex
network of free-play.

This concept of free-play Derrida believes also stands in tension with history. Although
history was thought as a critique of the philosophy of presence, as a kind of shift; it has
paradoxically become complicitous “with a teleological and eschatological metaphysics.”
Free-play also stands in conflict with presence. Play is disruption of presence. Free play is
always interplay of presence and absence. However, Derrida argues that a radical approach
would not be the taking of presence or absence as ground for play. Instead the possibility of
play should be the premise for presence or absence.

Derrida concludes this seminal work which is often regarded as the post-structuralist
manifesto with the hope that we proceed towards an “interpretation of interpretation” where
one “is no longer turned towards the origin, affirms freeplay and tries to pass beyond man
and humanism”. He says that we need to borrow Nietzsche’s idea of affirmation to stop
seeing play as limiting and negative. Nietzsche pronouncement “God is dead” need not be
read as a destruction of a cohesive structure, but can be seen as a chance that opens up a
possibility of diverse plurality and multiplicity.

REFERENCE

1. Braziel, Jana Evans and Anita Mannur (Ed.) Theorizing Diaspora. London: Blackwell, 2003.
UNIT –IV – Literary Theory and Criticism –SHS5009
 I. Introduction
Modernism and postmodernism are two literary movements that took place in the late 19th and
20th century. Modernism is the deliberate break from the traditional form of poetry and prose
that took place in the late 19th and early 20th century. Postmodernism, a movement that began
in the mid 20th century, is often described as a reaction against modernism. The main
difference between modernism and postmodernism is that modernism is characterized by the
radical break from the traditional forms of prose and verse whereas postmodernism is
characterized by the self-conscious use of earlier styles and conventions.

Modernism

Modernism is a movement in literature that took place during late 19th and early 20th
centuries, mainly in North America and Europe. Modernism marks a strong and deliberate
break from the traditional styles of prose and poetry. The horrors of the First World War
and the changing ideas about reality developed by prominent figures such as Charles
Darwin, Sigmund Freud, Karl Marx, etc. illustrated the need for the prevailing assumptions
about the society to be reassessed.

Modernists experimented with new forms and styles. Irony, satire, stream-of-consciousness,
interior monologue, use of multiple points-of-view, and comparison were popular literary
techniques in the modernist literature. Championship of the individual and celebration of
inner strength, alienation, loss, and despair were common themes of the movement. The idea
of reality underwent a major change during this movement. The reality was seen as a
constructed fiction since modernists believed that the reality is created in the act of
perceiving it; basically, they believed that the world is what we say it is.

D.H. Lawrence, Virginia Wolf, James Joyce, W.B Yeast, Sylvia Plath, F. Scott
Fitzgerald, William Faulkner, and Ernest Hemingway are some notable modernist
authors. James Joyce’s Ulysses, Faulkner’s As I Lay Dying and Virginia Woolf’s Mrs.
Dalloway, T. S. Eliot’s The Waste Land are some notable literary works that epitomize
modernism.

Modernism is an aesthetic ideology

1. Form follows function.

Modernists rejected the stylistic anarchy and eclecticism of the victorian period on the
grounds that a new age of machines and technology had been borne. They argued that it was
essential to create a new style, a modern style based on Form follows function and the dictates
of new materials, machines and techniques.

2. Reject the past

Since modernists believed that a new age had dawned- the modern age, they insisted on a
complete break with the past.

3. Simplicity of style
Modernists rejected decoration and ornament on the grounds that they were a residue of
primitivism and superfluous. They preferred geometric to organic forms. They espoused the
values of simplicity, clarity, uniformity, purity, order and rationality.
4. Universalism is preferred to localism
Modernists rejected national, regional and vernacular (native or indigenous) styles and favored
the “International style" as the tenets of modernism were universally applicable.

5. Art for the "brave new world"

Work was produced which was inspired by socialist ideals, to improve the human condition by
imposing solutions which did not always reflect the wishes of the masses or popular taste.
(biggest disasters: public housing blocks) Modernists attempted to develop the spheres of
science, morality and art “according to their inner logic"

Postmodernism
Postmodernism was a reaction against modernism, brought about by the disillusionment
followed by the Second world war. Postmodernism is characterized by the deliberate use of
earlier styles and conventions, a mixing of different artistic styles and media, and a general
distrust of theories. It can be seen as a radical break from modernism when we look at some
unique features of postmodernism. Some of these features include,

Irony and parody: Postmodernism works are often characterized by irony and satire. They
demonstrate playful, mischievous vibe and a love of satirical humor.

Pastiche: Copying ideas and styles from various authors and combining them to make a new
style.
Metafiction: Making the readers aware that of the fictional nature of the text they are reading.
Intertextuality: Acknowledging other texts and referring to them in a text.
Faction: Mixing of actual events and fictional events without mentioning what is real and
what is fictional.

Paranoia: The distrust in the system and even the distrust of the self.
Some notable writers in postmodernism include Vladimir Nabokov, Umberto Eco, John
Hawkes, Richard Kalich, Giannina Braschi, Kurt Vonnegut, William Gaddis, John
Barth, Jean Rhys, Donald Barthelme, E.L. Doctorow, Don DeLillo, Ana Lydia Vega,
Jachym Topol and Paul Auster.

Features of post-modernism

1. Plurality of styles
The modernist Idea that each age only has one style is rejected in favour of the idea that a
plurality of styles exists. Eclecticism, hybrid styles become fashionable. No single style
appears to be dominant.

2. Retro style
History and tradition (including the history of modernism) become believable again-hence
“retro style" via the use of quotations and the technique of collage, involving recycling,
parodies and pastiches of old styles.

3. Re-validation of the ornament

Ornament and decoration become acceptable again

4. Complexity and contradiction

 "Complexity and contradiction" is the title of a little book by Robert Ventury. Complexity,
contradiction and ambiguity aare the values which replace the modernist values of simplicity,
purity and rationality.
Mixtures of high and low culture, fine and commercial art styles are encouraged as a way of
producing buildings capable of producing multi-layered readings appealing to audiences of
different levels of sophistication and knowledge.

5. Concern with “language"

Post-modernists are concerned with meaning-that is, they treat architecture and design as
'languages' which can be used to construct all kinds of different statements.

6. Inter-textuality
The basic characteristic of art: Inter-textuality is heightened in post-modernism. Inter-
textuality is a term which indicates that every literary text or work of art relates to or alludes
to, or comments upon (either implicitly or explicitly) various other texts or works. Sub issues
associated with post-modernism Such sub- issues are: feminism, post-colonialism,
homosexuality, Gay culture, AIDS, homelessnes, grunge, new technologies, the question of
the body and a myriad of other issues. definitions of words commonly used.

Difference between Modernism and Postmodernism

Definition

Modernism is a late 19th century and early 20th-century style, or movement that aims to
depart significantly from classical and traditional forms.
Postmodernism is a late 20th-century style and concept which represents a departure from
modernism and is characterized by the deliberate use of earlier styles and conventions, a
mixing of different styles and forms, and a general distrust of theories.

Time Frame
Modernism was prevalent from late 19th century and early 20th-century style.
Postmodernism was prevalent from the mid-twentieth century.

War

Modernism was influenced by first world war.

Postmodernism was influenced by the second world war.

Rational and Logical Thinking

Modernism was based on using rational and logical means to gain knowledge since it rejected
realism.
Postmodernism was based on an unscientific, irrational thought process, and it rejected logical
thinking.

Earlier Styles
Postmodernism deliberately uses a mixture of conventional styles.

Fredric Jameson 1934-American critic and editor is widely recognized as being among the
most influential Marxist literary theorists in America. As such, he is credited with having
introduced much European thinking to American academia. A proponent of dialectical
criticism, Jameson continually impresses his peers with the breadth and variety of his fields of
reference. Jameson analyzes literature, seemingly not for its own sake, but to uncover its
social and political underpinnings. As an interpreter of both modern and postmodern culture,
he applies a rethinking of Marxism to his work. Jameson's unique brand of Marxist literary
theory, however, is firmly grounded in a belief in the importance of history.

II. The problem of periodization and the cultural dominant

Jameson believed that, according to his two causes that each movement or period is either a
reaction against or dependent upon the previous. ie postmodernism is a reaction against
modernism. Therefore high modernism is catalyst for postmodernism. The concept of
postmodernism immediately raises the issue of periodization, entailed by the prefix "post-"
assigned to the time of modernism. When did modernism begin and when did it end? Is it
possible to set clear temporal boundaries between modernism and postmodernism? Jameson
believes that it is possible to speak of cultural modes with in a defined timeline. Nevertheless,
he restricts his periodization of postmodernism to the unbinding notion of cultural dominant
which has a degree of flexibility which still allows for other forms of cultural production to
coexist alongside it.

In the notion of cultural dominant Jameson stays true to the Marxist tradition of tying culture
with the political and economical state of society. This stance holds that the socio-economical
structure of a society is reflected in a society's cultural forms.

Jamson relies on the work of Ernest Mandel that divided capitalism into three distinct periods
which coincide with three stages of technological development: industrialized manufacturing
of steam engines starting from the mid 19th century, the production of electricity and internal
combustion engines since the late 90's of the 19th century and the production of electronic and
nuclear devices since the 1940's. these three technological developments match three stages in
the evolution of capitalism: the market economy stage which was limited to the boarders of
the nation state, the monopoly or imperialism stage in which courtiers expanded their markets
to other regions and the current phase of late capitalism in which borders are no longer
relevant. Jameson proceeds to match these stages of capitalism with three stages of cultural
production, the first stage with realism, the second with modernism and the current third one
with our present day postmodernism.

Postmodernism according to Jameson is therefore a cultural form which has developed in the
wake of the socio-economical order of present day capitalism. Again, postmodernism in
Jameson's view is not an all- encompassing trend but rather a cultural dominant that affects all
cultural productions. This approach accounts for the existence of other cultural modes of
production (thus protecting Jameson from criticism) while still enabling to treatment of our
time as postmodern. Other types of art, literature and architecture which are not wholly
postmodern are still produced nowadays, but nevertheless postmodernism is the field force,
the state of culture, through which cultural urges of very different types have to go. No one
today is free from the influence, perhaps even rein, of postmodernism.

In postmodern “death of the subject” indicates how this death is related to contemporary
“corporate capitalism”. In the classic age of competitive capitalism in the heyday of the
nuclear family and the emergence of the bourgeoisie the hegemonic social class , there was
individualism, as individual subjects.

In the postindustrial position, not only is the bourgeoisie and individual subject a thing of the
past, it was always a myth to begin with. It was merely a philosophical and cultural
mystification to persuade people that they had individuality.

FREDRIC JAMESON builds on the work of previous theorists in his understanding of

ideology. He is particularly influenced by Jacques Lacan and those post-Marxist theorists who
have made use of Lacan's distinction between reality and "the Real" in order to understand
ideology (Louis Althusser, Chantalle Mouffe, and Ernesto Laclau). (See the Lacan module on
the structure of the psyche.) At one point, Jameson quotes Althusser's Lacanian definition of
ideology: "the representation of the subject's Imaginary relationship to his or her Real
conditions of existence" (Postmodernism 51). Those "Real conditions of existence" remain,
by definition, outside of language. History therefore functions for Jameson as an "absent
cause," insofar as, in its totality, it remains inexpressible; however, it nonetheless does exist as
that which drives real antagonisms in the present (for example, between social classes). We
may not be able to get out of ideological contradiction altogether; however, Jameson asserts
the importance of attempting, nonetheless, to acknowledge the real antagonisms that are, in
fact, driving our fantasy constructions.

Jameson also makes it clear that there is not one ideological dominant in any period. In this,
Jameson follows Raymond Williams' useful distinctions among "residual" ideological
formations (ideologies that have been mostly superceded but still circulate in various ways);
"emergent" ideological formations (new ideologies that are in the process of establishing their
influence); and "dominant" ideological formations (those ideologies supported by what Louis
Althusser terms "ideological state apparatuses"; e.g. schools, government, the police, and the
military). Jameson insists on the value of such a model because "If we do not achieve some
general sense of a cultural dominant, then we fall back into a view of present history as sheer
heterogeneity, random difference, a coexistence of a host of distinct forces whose effectivity is
undecidable" (Postmodernism 6).

By determining the dominant of our age in his book, Postmodernism, Jameson hopes to
provide his reader with a "cognitive map" of the present, which then can make possible
effective and beneficial political change. The problem with our current postmodern age,
according to Jameson, is that "the prodigious new expansion of multinational capital ends up
penetrating and colonizing those very precapitalist enclaves (Nature and the Unconscious)
which offered extraterritorial and Archimedean footholds for critical effectivity"
(Postmodernism 49). Any effort to contest dominant ideology threatens to be reabsorbed by
capital, so that "even overtly political interventions like those of The Clash are all somehow
secretly disarmed and reabsorbed by a system of which they themselves might well be
considered a part, since they can achieve no distance from it" (Postmodernism 49). Given
such a situation, Jameson argues that what is needed is a "cognitive map" of the present, one
that reinjects an understanding of the present's real historicity. Jameson compares the situation
of the individual in postmodern late capitalist society to the experience of being in a
postmodern urban landscape: "In a classic work, The Image of the City, Kevin Lynch taught
us that the alienated city is above all a space in which people are unable to map (in their
minds) either their own positions or the urban totality in which they find themselves: grids
such as those of Jersey City, in which none of the traditional markers (monuments, nodes,
natural boundaries, built perspectives) obtain, are the most obvious examples"
(Postmodernism 49). The notion of a "cognitive map" enables "a situational representation on
the part of the individual subject to that vaster and properly unrepresentable totality which is
the ensemble of society's structures as a whole" (Postmodernism 51).
Jameson expands this concept of cognitive mapping to ideological critique, suggesting that his
task is to make sense of our place in the global system: "The political form of postmodernism,
if there ever is any, will have as its vocation the invention and projection of a global cognitive
mapping, on a social as well as a spatial scale" (Postmodernism 54).

One "cognitive map" Jameson for example turns to is Algirdas Greimas' semiotic square,
which he calls "a virtual map of conceptual closure, or better still, of the closure of ideology
itself, that is, as a mechanism, which, while seeming to generate a rich variety of possible
concepts and positions, remains in fact locked into some initial aporia or double bind that it
cannot transform from the inside by its own means" ("Foreword" xv). Using Greimas'
semiotic square, Jameson seeks to find the dominant ideological contradictions of a given text
or cultural work. (For more on the semiotic square, see the Greimas module on the semiotic
square.)

As Jameson explains in Postmodernism (1991), the term "late capitalism" originated with the
Frankfurt School (Theodor Adorno, Max Horkheimer, etc.) and refers to the form of
capitalism that came to the fore in the modernist period and now dominates our own
postmodern culture. (On postmodernism, see my control..., and (2) the interpenetration of
government and big business ('state capitalism') such that Nazism and the New Deal are
related systems. (xviii)

As Jameson explains, the term "late capitalism" now has "very different overtones from these"
(xviii); indeed, Jameson dates the emergence of "late capitalism" in the 1950s, so that late
capitalism for Jameson is ultimately coincident with and even synonymous with
postmodernism: "the economic preparation of postmodernism or late capitalism began in the
1950s, after the wartime shortages of consumer goods and spare parts had been made up, and
new products and new technologies (not least those of the media) could be pioneered"
(Postmodernism xx). In turn, the psychic break that made possible the cultural (rather than
merely economic) emergence of late-capitalist sensibilities occurred, according to Jameson, in
the 1960s. Finally, the 1970s allowed the economic and the cultural side of postmodern late
capitalism to come together: the economic system and the cultural "structure of feeling"
"somehow crystallized in the great shock of the crises of 1971 (the oil crisis, the end of the
international gold standard, for all intents and purposes the end of the great wave of 'wars of
national liberation' and the beginning of the end of traditional communism)" (Postmodernism
xx-xxi). In general, Jameson understands "late capitalism" as the pervasive condition of our
own age, a condition that speaks both to economic and cultural structures: "What 'late'
generally conveys is... the sense that something has changed, that things are different, that we
have gone through a transformation of the life world which is somehow decisive but
incomparable with the older convulsions of modernization and industrialization, less
perceptible and dramatic, somehow, but more permanent precisely because more
thoroughgoing and all-pervasive" (Postmodernism xxi). The newly emergent social order he is
referring to is late capitalism or the postindustrial consumer society, the society of the media.

According to Jameson, the new elements that postmodernism adds to the Frankfurt School's
version of late capitalism include:

1) "New forms of business organization (multinationals, transnationals) beyond the

monopoly stage" (Postmodernism xviii-xix). Lenin's concept of the "monopoly stage" of
capitalism now expands out beyond any national border.

2) An internationalization of business beyond the older imperial model; in the new order of
capital, multinational corporations are not tied to any one country but represent a form of
power and influence greater than any one nation. That internationalization also applies to the
division of labor, making possible the continued exploitation of workers from poor countries
in support of multinational capital. Jameson refers to "the flight of production to advanced
Third World areas, along with all the more familiar social consequences, including the crisis
of traditional labor, the emergence of yuppies, and gentrification on a now-global scale"
(Postmodernism xix).

3) "A vertiginous new dynamic in international banking and the stock exchanges (including
the enormous Second and Third World debt)" (Postmodernism xix). Through such a banking
structure, the First World's multinational corporations maintain their control over the world
market.

4) "New forms of media interrelationship" (Postmodernism xix). The media constitutes one
of the more influential new products of late capitalism (print, internet, television, film) and a
new means for the capitalist take-over of our lives. Through the mediatization of culture, we
become increasingly reliant on the media's version of our reality, a version of reality that is
filled predominantly with capitalist values.

5) "Computers and automation" (Postmodernism xix). Advances in computer automation

have allowed for an unprecedented level of mass production, leading to ever greater profit-
margins for multinational corporations.

6) Planned obsolescence. As Jameson puts it, "the frantic economic urgency of producing
fresh waves of ever more novel-seeming goods (from clothing to airplanes), at ever greater
rates of turnover, now assigns an increasingly essential structural function and position to
aesthetic innovation and experimentation" (Postmodernism

7) American military domination. As Jameson writes in Postmodernism, "this whole global,

yet American, postmodern culture is the internal and superstructural expression of a whole
new wave of American military and economic domination throughout the world: in this
sense, as throughout class history, the underside of culture is blood, torture, death, and terror"
(5).Some synonyms for "late capitalism" include "'multinational capitalism, 'spectacle or
image society,' 'media capitalism,' 'the world system,' even 'postmodernism' itself"
(Postmodernism xviii). Jameson however rejects the synonym "postindustrial society" because
that term suggests that what we are seeing is a radical break from the forms of capital that
existed in the nineteenth century (and thus, by implication, a break from Karl Marx's
understanding of capital). Jameson is more interested in perceiving a continuity from earlier
forms of industrial society (even as he acknowledges the differences) and in affirming the
continuing relevance of Marx's theories.

III. Feminism and Critical Theory (1985)

Gayatri Chakravorty-Spivak is one of the most influential figures in contemporary critical

theory. She is perhaps the best known for her overtly political use of contemporary
cultural and critical theories to challenge the legacy of colonialism on the way we read
and think about literature and culture. She has challenged disciplinary conventions of
literary criticism and academic philosophy by focusing on the cultural texts of those
people who are often marginalized by dominant Western culture: the new immigrant, the
working class, women and postcolonial subject. By championing the voices and texts of
such minority groups, she has also challenged some of the dominant ideas of the
contemporary era.

Can the Subaltern Speak? is considered a founding text of postcolonialism. Spivak is also
known for her translation of Jacques Derrida‘s Of Grammatology. This translation brought her
to prominence. After this she carried out a series of historical studies and literary critiques of
imperialism and feminism. She has often referred to herself as a ―Marxist, Feminist and
Deconstructionist. Her ordering ethic- political concern has been the tendency of institutional
and cultural discourses/ practices to exclude and marginalize the subaltern, especially
subaltern women.This selection is a rewritten and expanded version of a talk entitled
"Feminism and Critical Theory" (1978) and of the essay "Three Feminist Readings:
McCullers, Drabble, Habermas" (1979). Here Spivak aims primarily at reaching a United
States feminist audience, which was in 1985 still relatively unfamiliar and often
uncomfortable with abstract theoretical writing. Hence she strives for clarity of expression
without oversimplification, once again introducing deconstructive reading strategies, this time
directed toward the texts of Marx, Freud, and Margaret Drabble.

In the first section, based on the 1978 talk, Spivak demonstrates that Marx's theory of the
alienation of the worker from the product of his labor is based on inadequate evidence,
because it does not take into account the instance of the womb as workshop, and the very
different forms of alienation of product from labor represented by childbirth and by women's
domestic work as unpaid, and thus unvalued, labor.
Freud's account of penis envy as the chief determinant of femininity similarly avoids
confronting the womb as a place of production, or the possibility of womb envy as penis
envy's interactive complement. Thus Spivak proposes that feminists use the texts of Marx and
Freud by reading them "beyond" themselves, producing a new "common currency" with
which to understand society.

Spivak addresses in the second section of the essay, the limitations of the first section. Since
producing the earlier readings of Marx and Freud, she has recognized the crucial importance
of race and the history of colonialism to an international feminist project. These concerns
shape her reading of Drabble's novel The Waterfall (1971), and inform her exposure of the
complicities of First World feminism with the heightened exploitation of Third World
women's labor brought about by multinational corporations in the microelectronics industry.
Reading the world and our own positions in it demands the skills and attention to textuality
required of literary critics in deconstruction's wake.

Feminism and Critical Theory

What has been the itinerary of my thinking during the past few years about the relationships
among feminism, Marxism, psychoanalysis, and deconstruction? The issues have been of
interest to many people, and the configurations of these fields continue to change. I will not
engage here with the various lines of developments have been inscribed in my own work. The
first section of the essays is a version of a talk I gave several years ago. The second section
represents a reflection on that earlier work. The third section is an intermediate moment. The
fourth section inhabits something like the present.
I cannot speak of feminism in general. I speak of what I do as a woman within literary
criticism. My own definition of a woman is very simple: it rests on the word "man" as used in
the texts that provide the foundation for the corner of the literary criticism establishment that I
inhabit. You might say at this point, defining the word "woman" as resting on the word "man"
is a reactionary position. Should I not carve out an independent definition for myself as a
woman? Here I must repeat some deconstructive lessons learned over the past decade that I
often repeat. One, no rigorous definition of anything is ultimately possible, so that if one
wants to, one could go on deconstructing the opposition between man and woman, and finally
show that it is a binary opposition that displaces itself.1 Therefore, "as a deconstructivist," I
cannot recommend that kind of dichotomy at all, yet, I feel that definitions are necessary in
order to keep us going, to allow us to take a stand. The only way that I can see myself making
definitions is in a provisional and polemical one: I construct my definition as a woman not in
terms of a woman's putative essence but in terms of words currently in use. "Man" is such a
word in common usage. Not a word, but the word. I therefore fix my glance upon this word
even as I question the enterprise of redefining the premises of any theory.

In the broadest possible sense, most critical theory in my part of the academic establishment
(Lacan, Derrida, Foucault, the last Barthes) sees the text as that area of the discourse of the
human sciences—in the United States called the humanities—in which the problem of the
discourse of the human sciences is made available. Whereas in other kinds of discourses there
is a move toward the final truth of a situation, literature, even within this argument, displays
that the truth of a human situation is the itinerary of not being able to find it. In the general
discourse of the humanities, there is a sort of search for solutions, whereas in literary
discourse there is a playing out of the problem as the solution.

The problem of human discourse is generally seen as articulating itself in the play of, in terms
of, three shifting "concepts": language, world, and consciousness. We know no world that is
not organized as a language— languages that we cannot possess, for we are operated by those
languages as well. The category of language, then, embraces the categories of world and
consciousness even as it is determined by them. Strictly speaking, since we are questioning
the human being's control over the production of language, the figure that will serve us better
is writing, for there the absence of the producer and receiver is taken for granted. A safe
figure, seemingly outside of the language-(speech)-writing opposition, is the text—a weave of
knowing and not-knowing which is what knowing is. (This organizing principle— language,
writing, or text—might itself be a way of holding at bay a randomness incongruent with
consciousness.)

The theoreticians of textuality read Marx as a theorist of the world (history and society), as a
text of the forces of labor and production-circulation-distribution; and Freud as a theorist of
the self, as a text of consciousness and the unconscious. Human textuality can be seen not
only as world and self, as the representation of a world in terms of a self at play with other
selves and generating this representation, but also in the world and self, all implicated in an
"intertextuality." It should be clear from this that such a concept of textuality does not mean a
reduction of the world to linguistic texts, books, or a tradition composed of books, criticism in
the narrow sense, and teaching.

I am not, then, speaking about Marxist or psychoanalytic criticism as a reductive enterprise

which diagnoses the scenario in every book in terms of where it would fit into a Marxist or a
psychoanalytical canon. To my way of thinking, the discourse of the literary text is part of a
general configuration of textuality, a placing forth of the solution as the unavailability of a
unified solution to a unified or homogeneous, generating or receiving, consciousness. This
unavailability is often not confronted. It is dodged and the problem apparently solved, in terms
perhaps of unifying concepts like "man," the universal contours of a sex-, race-, class-
transcendent consciousness as the generating, generated, and receiving consciousness of the
text.

I could have broached Marx and Freud more easily. I wanted to say all of the above because,
in general, reductive methods are implicit in both of them, Marx and Freud do also seem to
argue in terms of a mode of evidence and demonstration. They seem to bring forth evidence
from the world of man or man's self, and thus prove certain kinds of truths about the world
and self. I would risk saying that their descriptions of world and self are based on inadequate
evidence. In terms of this conviction, I would like to fix upon the idea of alienation in Marx,
and the idea of normality and health in Freud.

One way of moving into Marx is in terms of use-value, exchange-value, and surplus-value.
Marx's notion of use-value is that which pertains to a thing as it is directly consumed by an
agent. Its exchange-value (after the emergence of the money form) does not relate to its direct
fulfillment of a specific need, but is rather assessed in terms of what it can be exchanged for in
either labor-power or money. In this process of abstracting through exchange, by making the
worker work longer than necessary for subsistence wages or by means of labor-saving
machinery, the buyer of the laborer's work gets more (in exchange) than the worker needs for
his subsistence while he makes the thing.2 This "more-worth" (literally, in German,
Mehrwert) is surplus-value.

One could indefinitely allegorize the relationship of woman within this particular triad—use,
exchange, and surplus—by suggesting that woman in the traditional social situation produces
more than she is getting in terms of her subsistence, and therefore is a continual source of the
production of surpluses, for the man who owns her, or by the man for the capitalist who owns
his labor-power. Apart from the fact that the mode of production of housework is not, strictly
speaking, capitalist, such an analysis is paradoxical.
The contemporary woman, when she seeks financial compensation for housework, seeks the
abstraction of use-value into exchange-value. But the situation of the domestic workplace is
not one of "pure exchange." The Marxian exigency would make us ask at least two questions:
What is the use-value of a woman's unremunerated work for husband or family? Is the willing
insertion into the wage structure a curse or a blessing? How should we fight the idea,
universally accepted by men, that wages are the only mark of value-producing work? (Not, I
think, through the slogan "Housework is beautiful.") What would be the implications of
denying women entry into the capitalist economy? Radical feminism can here learn a
cautionary lesson from Lenin's capitulation to capitalism.

These are important questions, but they do not necessarily broaden Marxist theory from a
feminist point of view. For our purpose, the idea of externalization
(EntauBerung/VerduBerung) or alienation (Entfremdung) is of greater interest. Within the
capitalist system, the labor process externalizes itself and the worker as commodities. Upon
this idea of the resultant fracturing of the human being's relationship to himself and his work
as commodities rests the ethical charge of Marx's argument.3

I would argue that, in terms of the physical, emotional, legal, custodial, and sentimental
situation of the woman's product, the child, this picture of the human relationship to
production, labor, and property is incomplete. The possession of a tangible place of
production, the womb, situates women as agents in any theory of production. Marx's dialectics
of externalization-alienation followed by fetish formation are inadequate because he has not
taken into account one fundamental human relationship to a product and labor.4

This does not mean that, if the Marxian account of externalizationalienation were rewritten
from a feminist perspective, the special interest of childbirth, childbearing, and childrearing
would be inserted. It seems that the entire problematic of sexuality, rather than remaining
caught within arguments about overt sociosexual politics, would be fully broached.

In both so-called matrilineal and patrilineal societies the legal possession of the child is an
inalienable fact of the property right of the man who "produces" the child.6 In terms of this
legal possession, the common custodial definition, that women are much more nurturing of
children, might be seen as a dissimulated reactionary gesture. The man retains legal property
rights over the product of the woman's body. On each separate occasion, the custodial
decision—which parent will have custody?—is a sentimental questioning of man's right. The
current struggle over abortion rights has foregrounded this unacknowledged agenda.

In order not simply to make an exception to man's legal right, or to add a footnote from a
feminist works on an analogy with use-value, exchange value, and surplus-value relationships.
Marx's own writings on women and children seek to alleviate their condition in terms of a
desexualized labor force.7 If there were the kind of rewriting that I am proposing, it would be
harder to sketch out the rules of economy and social ethics; in fact, one would see that in Marx
there is a moment of major transgression where rules for humanity and criticism of societies
are based on inadequate evidence. Marx's texts, including Capital, presuppose an ethical
theory: alienation of labor must be undone because it undermines the agency of the subject in
his work and his property. I would like to suggest that if the nature and history of alienation,
labor, and the production of property are reexamined in terms of women's work and childbirth,
it can lead us to a reading of Marx beyond Marx.

One way of moving into Freud is in terms of his notion of the nature of pain as the deferment
of pleasure, especially the later Freud who wrote Beyond the Pleasure Principle* Freud's
spectacular mechanics of imagined, anticipated, and avoided pain write the subject's history
and theory, and constantly broach the never-quite-defined concept of normality: anxiety,
inhibition, paranoia, schizophrenia, melancholy, mourning. I would like to suggest that in the
womb, a tangible place of production, there is the possibility that pain exists within the
concepts of normality and productivity. (This is not to sentimentalize the pain of childbirth.)
The problematizing of the phenomenal identity of pleasure and unpleasure should not be
operated only through the logic of repression. The opposition pleasure-pain is questioned in
the physiological "normality" of woman.

If one were to look at the never-quite-defined concepts of normality and health that run
through and are submerged in Freud's texts, one would have to redefine the nature of pain.
Pain does not operate in the same way in men and women. Once again, this deconstructive
move will make it much harder to devise the rules.

Freud's best-known determinant of femininity is penis envy. The most crucial text of this
argument is the essay on femininity in New Introductory Lectures.9 There, Freud begins to
argue that the little girl is a little boy before she discovers sex. As Luce Irigaray and others
have shown, Freud does not take the womb into account.10 Our mood, since we carry the
womb as well as being carried by it, should be corrective.11 We might chart the itinerary of
womb envy in the production of a theory of consciousness: the idea of the womb as a place of
production is avoided both in Marx and in Freud. (There are exceptions to such a
generalization, especially among American neo-Freudians such as Erich Fromm. I am
speaking here about invariable presuppositions, even among such exceptions.) In Freud the
genital stage is preeminently phallic, not clitoral or vaginal. This particular gap in Freud is
significant. The hysteron remains the place which constitutes only the text of hysteria.
Everywhere there is a non-confrontation of the idea of the womb as a workshop, except to
produce a surrogate penis. Our task in rewriting the text of Freud is not so much to declare it
possible to reject the idea of penis envy, but to make available the idea of a womb envy as
something that interacts with the idea of penis envy to determine human sexuality and the
production of society.12

These are some questions that may be asked of the Freudian and Marxist "grounds" or
theoretical "bases" that operate our ideas of world and self. We might want to ignore them
altogether and say that the business of literary criticism has to do with neither your gender
(such a suggestion seems hopelessly dated) nor the theories of revolution or psychoanalysis.
Criticism must remain resolutely neuter and practical. One should not mistake the grounds
out of which the ideas of world and self are reproduced with the business of the appreciation
of the literary text. If one looks closely, one will see that, whether one diagnoses the names or
not, certain kinds of thoughts are presupposed by the notions of world and consciousness of
the most "practical" critic. Part of the feminist enterprise might well be to provide "evidence"
so that these great male texts do not become great adversaries, or models from whom we take
our ideas and then revise or reassess them. These texts must be rewritten so that there is new
material for the grasping of the production and determination of literature within the general
production and determination of consciousness and society. After all, the people who produce
literature, male and female, are also moved by general ideas of world and consciousness to
which they cannot give a name.

If we work in this way, the common currency of the understanding of society will change. I
think that kind of change, the coining of new money, is necessary. I certainly believe that
such work is supplemented I have outlined would infiltrate the male academy and redo the
terms of our understanding of the context and substance of literature as part of the human
enterprise. I I .

What seems missing in these earlier remarks is the dimension of race. Today I would see my
work as the developing of a reading method that is sensitive to gender, race, and class. The
earlier remarks would apply indirectly to the development of class-sensitive and directly to the
development of gendersensitive readings.

In the matter of race-sensitive analyses, the chief problem of American feminist criticism is its
identification of racism as such with the constitution of racism in America. Thus, today I see
the object of investigation to be not only the history of "Third World women" or their
testimony, but also the production, through the great European theories, often by way of
literature, of the colonial object. As long as American feminists understand "history" as a
positivistic empiricism that scorns "theory" and therefore remains ignorant of its own, the
"Third World" as its object of study will remain constituted by those hegemonic First World
intellectual practices.13
My attitude toward Freud today involves a broader critique of his entire project. It is a critique
not only of Freud's masculism but of nuclear-familial psychoanalytical theories of the
constitution of the sexed subject. Such a critique extends to alternative scenarios to Freud that
keep to the nuclear parent-child model; as it does to the offer of Greek mythical alternatives to
Oedipus as the regulative type-case of the model itself; as it does to the romantic notion that
an extended family, especially a community of women, would necessarily cure the ills of the
nuclear family. My concern with the production of colonial discourse thus touches my critique
of Freud as well as most Western feminist challenges to Freud. The extended or corporate
family is a socioeconomic (indeed, on occasion political) organization which makes sexual
constitution irreducibly complicit with historical and political economy.14 To learn to read
that way is to understand that the literature of the world, itself accessible only to a few, is not
tied by the concrete universals of a network of archetypes—a theory that was entailed by the
consolidation of a political excuse—but by a textuality of material, ideological, psychosexual
production. This articulation sharpens a general presupposition of my earlier remarks.

Pursuing these considerations, I proposed recently an analysis of "the discourse of the

clitoris."15 The reactions to that proposal have been interesting in the context I discuss above.
A certain response from American lesbian feminists can be represented by the following
quotation: "In this openended definition of phallus/semination as organically omnipotent the
only recourse is to name the clitoris as orgasmically phallic and to call the uterus the
reproductive extension of the phallus....You must stop thinking of yourself privileged as a
heterosexual woman."16 Because of its physiologistic orientation, the first part of this
objection sees my naming of the clitoris as a repetition of Freud's situating of it as a "little
penis." To the second part of the objection I customarily respond: "You're right, and one
cannot know how far one succeeds. Yet, the effort to put First World lesbianism in its place is
not necessarily reducible to pride in female heterosexuality." Other uses of my suggestion,
both supportive and adverse, have also reduced the discourse of the clitoris to a physiological
fantasy. In the interest of the broadening scope of my critique, I should like to reemphasize
that the clitoris, even as I acknowledge and honor its irreducible physiological effect, is, in
this reading, also a shorthand for women's excess in all areas of production and practice, an
excess which must be brought under control to keep business going as usual.17

My attitude toward Marxism now recognizes the historical antagonism between Marxism and
feminism, on both sides. Hardcore Marxism at best dismisses and at worst patronizes the
importance of women's struggle. On the other hand, not only the history of European
feminism in its opposition to Bolshevik and Social Democrat women, but the conflict between
the suffrage movement and the union movement in this country must be taken into account.
This historical problem will not be solved by saying that we need more than an analysis of
capitalism to understand male dominance, or that the sexual division of labor as the primary
determinant is already given in the texts of Marx. I prefer the work that sees that the "essential
truth" of Marxism or feminism cannot be separated from its history. My present work relates
this to the ideological development of the theory of the imagination in the eighteenth,
nineteenth, and twentieth centuries. I am interested in class analysis of families as it is being
practiced by, among others, Elizabeth Fox-Genovese, Heidi Hartmann, Nancy Hartsock, and
Annette Kuhn. I am myself bent upon reading the earlier concern with the specific theme of
reproductive (non)alienation seems to me today to be heavily enough touched by a nuclear-
familial hystero-centrism to be open to the critique of psychoanalytic feminism that I suggest
above.

On the other hand, if sexual reproduction is seen as the production of a product by an

irreducibly determinate means (conjunction of semination and ovulation), in an irreducibly
determinate mode (heterogeneous combination of domestic and politico-civil economy),
entailing a minimal variation of social relations, then two original Marxist categories would be
put into question: use-value as the measure of communist production and absolute surplus-
value as the motor of primitive (capitalist) accumulation. For the first: the child, although not
a commodity, is also not produced for immediate and adequate consumption or direct
exchange. For the second: the premise that the difference between a subsistence wage and
laborpower's potential of production is the origin of original accumulation can only be
advanced if reproduction is seen as identical with subsistence; in fact, the reproduction and
maintenance of children would make heterogeneous the original calculation in terms of
something like the slow displacement of value from fixed capital to commodity.18 These
insights take the critique of wage-labor in unexpected directions.

When I earlier touched upon the relationship between wage theory and "women's work," I had
not yet read the autonomist arguments about wage and work as best developed in the work of
Antonio Negri.19 Exigencies of work and limitations of scholarship and experience
permitting, I would like next to study the relationship between domestic and political
economies in order to establish the subversive power of "women's work" in models for the
construction of a "revolutionary subject." Negri sees this possibility in the inevitable
consumerism that socialized capitalism must nurture. Commodity consumption, even as it
realizes surplus-value as profit, does not itself produce the value and therefore persistently
exacerbates a crisis.20 It is through reversing and displacing this tendency within
consumerism, Negri suggests, that the "revolutionary subject" can be released. Mainstream
English Marxists sometimes think that such an upheaval can be brought about by political
interventionist teaching of literature. Some French intellectuals think this tendency is inherent
in the "pagan tradition," which pluralizes the now-defunct narratives of social justice still
endorsed by traditional Marxists in a postindustrial world. In contrast, I now argue as follows:

It is women's work that has continuously survived within not only the varieties of capitalism
but other historical and geographical modes of production. The economic, political,
ideological, and legal heterogeneity of the relationship between the definitive mode of
production and race- and class differentiated women's and wives' work is abundantly recorded.
Rather than the refusal to work of the freed Jamaican slaves in 1834, which is cited by Marx
as the only example of zero-work, quickly recuperated by imperialist maneuvers, it is the long
history of women's work which is a sustained example of zero-work: work not only outside of
wage-work, but, in one way or another, "outside" of the definitive modes of production. The
displacement required here is a transvaluation, an uncatastrophic implosion of the search for
validation via the circuit of productivity. Rather than a miniaturized and thus controlled
metaphor for civil society and the state, the power of the oikos, domestic economy, can be
used as the model of the foreign body unwittingly nurtured by the polis.lx

With psychoanalytic feminism, then, an invocation of history and politics leads us back to the
place of psychoanalysis in colonialism. With Marxist feminism, an invocation of the economic
text foregrounds the operations of the new imperialism. The discourse of race has come to
claim its importance in this way in my work.

I am still moved by the reversal-displacement morphology of deconstruction, crediting the

asymmetry of the "interest" of the historical moment. Investigating the hidden ethico-political
agenda of differentiations constitutive of knowledge and judgment interests me even more. It
is also the deconstructive view that keeps me resisting an essentialist freezing of the concepts
of gender, race, and class. I look rather at the repeated agenda of the situational production of
those concepts and our complicity in such a production. This aspect of deconstruction will not
allow the establishment of a hegemonic "global theory" of feminism. Over the last few years,
however, I have also begun to see that, rather than deconstruction simply opening a way for
feminists, the figure and discourse of women opened the way for Derrida as well. His incipient
discourse of women surfaced in Spurs (first published as "La Question du Style" in 1975),
which also articulates the thematics of "interest" crucial to political deconstruction.22 This
study marks his move from the critical deconstruction of phallocentrism to "affirmative"
deconstruction (Derrida's phrase). It is at this point that Derrida's work seems to become less
interesting for Marxism.23 The early Derrida can certainly be shown to be useful for feminist
practice, but why is it that, when he writes under the sign of woman, as it were, his work
becomes solipsistic and marginal? What is it in the history of that sign that allows this to
happen? I will hold this question until the end of this essay.

IV.

In 1979 and 1980, concerns of race and class were beginning to invade my mind. What
follows is in some sense a checklist of quotations from Margaret Drabble's The Waterfall that
shows the uneasy presence of those concerns.24 Reading literature "well" is in itself a
questionable good and can indeed be sometimes productive of harm and "aesthetic" apathy
within its ideological framing. My suggestion is to use literature, with a feminist perspective,
as a "nonexpository" theory of practice.

Drabble has a version of "the best education" in the Western world: a First Class in English
from Oxbridge. The tradition of academic radicalism in England is strong. Drabble was at
Cambridge when the prestigious journal New Left Review was being organized. I am not
averse to a bit of simple biographical detail: I began to reread The Waterfall with these things
in mind as well as the worrying thoughts about sex, race, and class.

Like many woman writers, Drabble creates an extreme situation, presumably, to answer the
question, "Why does love happen?" In place of the mainstream objectification and idolization
of the loved person, she situates her protagonist, Jane, in the most inaccessible privacy—at the
moment of birthing, alone by choice. Lucy, her cousin, and James, Lucy's husband, take turns
watching over her in the empty house as she regains her strength. The Waterfall is the story of
Jane's love affair with James. In place of legalized or merely possessive ardor toward the
product of his own body, Drabble gives to James the problem of relating to the birthing
woman through the birth of "another man's child." Jane looks and smells dreadful. There is
blood and sweat on the crumpled sheets. And yet "love" happens. Drabble slows language
down excruciatingly as Jane records how, wonders why. It is possible that Drabble is taking
up the challenge of feminine "passivity" and making it the tool of analytic strength. Many
answers emerge. I will quote two, to show how provisional and self-suspending Jane can be:

I loved him inevitably, of necessity. Anyone could have foreseen it, given those facts: a lonely
woman, in an empty world. Surely I would have loved anyone who might have shown me
kindness.... But of course it's not true, it could not have been anyone else. I know that it was
not inevitable: it was a miracle....What I deserved was what I had made: solitude, or a
repetition of pain. What I received was grace. Grace and miracles. I don't much care for my
terminology. Though at least it lacks that most disastrous concept, the concept of free will.
Perhaps I could make a religion that denied free will, that placed God in his true place,
arbitrary, carelessly kind, idly malicious, intermittently attentive, and himself subject, as Zeus
was, to necessity. Necessity is my God. Necessity lay with me when James did [pp. 49- 50).

And, in another place, the "opposite" answer—random contingencies:

I loved James because he was what I had never had: because he belonged to my cousin:
because he was kind to his own child: because he looked unkind: because I saw his naked
wrists against a striped tea towel once, seven years ago. Because he addressed me an intimate
question upon a beach on Christmas Day.
Because he helped himself to a drink when I did not dare to accept the offer of one. Because
he was not serious, because his parents lived in South Kensington and were mysteriously
depraved. Ah, perfect love. For these reasons, was it, that I lay there, drowned was it,
drowned or stranded, waiting for him, waiting to die and drown there, in the oceans of our
flowing bodies, in the white sea of that strange familiar bed [p

If the argument for necessity is arrived at by slippery happenstance from thought to thought,
each item on this list of contingencies has a plausibility that is far from random.

She considers the problem of making women rivals in terms of the man who possesses them.
There is a peculiar agreement between Lucy and herself before the affair begins:

I wonder why people marry? Lucy continued, in a tone of such academic flatness that the topic
seemed robbed of any danger. I don't know, said Jane, with equal calm So arbitrary, really,
said Lucy, spreading butter on the toast. It would be nice, said Jane, to think there were
reasons.... Do you think so? said Lucy. Sometimes I prefer to think we are victims. If there
were a reason, said Jane, one would be all the more a victim. She paused, thought, ate a
mouthful of the toast. I am wounded, therefore I bleed. I am human, therefore I suffer. Those
aren't reasons you're describing, said Lucy.... And from upstairs the baby's cry reached
them—thin, wailing, desperate. Hearing it, the two women looked at each other, and for some
reason smiled [pp. 26-27].

This, of course, is no overt agreement, but simply a hint that the "reason" for female bonding
has something to do with a baby's cry. For example, Jane records her own deliberate part in
deceiving Lucy this way: "I forgot Lucy. I did not think of her—or only occasionally, lying
awake at night as the baby cried, I would think of her, with pangs of irrelevant inquiry, pangs
endured not by me and in me, but at a distance, pangs as sorrowful and irrelevant as another
person's pain" (p. 48; italics mine).

Jane records inconclusively her gut reaction to the supposed natural connection between
parent and child: "Blood is blood, and it is not good enough to say that children are for the
motherly, as Brecht said, for there are many ways of unmothering a woman, or unfathering a
man.... And yet, how can I deny that it gave me pleasure to see James hold her in his arms for
me? The man I loved and the child to whom I had given birth" (p. 48).

The loose ending of the book also makes Jane's story an extreme case. Is this love going to
last, prove itself to be "true," and bring Jane security and Jane and James happiness? Or is it
resolutely "liberated," overprotesting its own impermanence, and thus falling in with the
times? Neither. The melodramatic and satisfactory ending, the accident which might have
killed James, does not in fact do so. It merely reveals all to Lucy, does not end the book, and
reduces all to a humdrum kind of double life.
These are not bad answers; necessity if all else fails, or perhaps random contingency; an
attempt not to trivialize women; blood bonds between mothers and daughters; love free of
social security. The problem for a reader like me is that the entire question is carried on in
what I can only see as a privileged atmosphere. I am not saying, of course, that Jane is Drabble
(although that, too, is true in a complicated way). I am saying that Drabble considers the story
of so privileged a woman the most worth telling. Not the well-bred lady of pulp fiction, but an
impossible princess who mentions in one passing sentence toward the beginning of the book
that her poems are read on the BBC.

It is not that Drabble does not want to rest her probing and sensitive fingers on the problem of
class, if not race. The account of Jane's family's class prejudice is incisively told. Her father is
headmaster of a public school.

There was one child I shall always remember, a small thin child...whose father, he proudly
told us, was standing as Labour Candidate for a hopeless seat in an imminent General
Election. My father teased him unmercifully, asking questions that the poor child could not
begin to answer, making elaborate and hideous semantic jokes about the fruits of labor,
throwing in familiar references to prominent Tories that were quite wasted on such...tender
ears; and the poor child sat there, staring at his roast beef...turning redder and redder, and
trying, pathetically, sycophantically, to smile. I hated my father at that instant [pp. 56-57].

Yet Drabble's Jane is made to share the lightest touch of her parents' prejudice. The part I have
elided is a mocking reference to the child's large red ears. For her the most important issue
remains sexual deprivation, sexual choice. The Waterfall, the name of a card trick, is also the
name of Jane's orgasms, James's gift to her.

But perhaps Drabble is ironic when she creates so classbound and yet so analytic a Jane? It is a
possibility, of course, but Jane's identification with the author of the narrative makes this
doubtful. If there is irony to be generated here, it must come, as they say, from "outside the
book."

Rather than imposing my irony, I attempt to find the figure of Jane as narrator helpful.
Drabble manipulates her to examine the conditions of production and determination of
microstructural heterosexual attitudes within her chosen enclosure. This enclosure is important
because it is from here that rules come. Jane is made to realize that there are no fixed new
rules in the book, not as yet. First World feminists are up against that fact, every day. This
should not become an excuse but should remain a delicate responsibility: "If I need a morality,
I will create one: a new ladder, a new virtue. If I need to understand what I am doing, if I
cannot act without my own approbation—and I must act, I have changed, I am no longer
capable of inaction—then I will invent a morality that condones me. Though by doing so, I
risk condemning all that I have been" (pp. 52-53).

If the cautions of deconstruction are heeded—the contingency that the desire to "understand"
and "change" are as much symptomatic as they are revolutionary—merely to fill in the void
with rules will spoil the case again, for women as for human beings. We must strive moment
by moment to practice a taxonomy of different forms of understanding, different forms of
change, dependent perhaps upon resemblance and seeming substitutability—figuration—
rather than on the self-identical category of truth:

Because it's obvious that I haven't told the truth, about myself and James. How could I? Why,
more significantly, should I?... Of the truth, I haven't told enough. I flinched at the conclusion
and can even see in my hesitance a virtue: it is dishonest, it is inartistic, but it is a virtue, such
discretion, in the moral world of love.... The names of qualities are interchangeable: vice,
virtue: redemption, corruption: courage, weakness: and hence the confusion of abstraction, the
proliferation of aphorism and paradox. In the human world, perhaps there are merely
likenesses.... The qualities, they depended on the supposed true end of life Salvation,
damnation.... I do not know which of these two James represented. Hysterical terms, maybe;
religious terms, yet again. But then life is a serious matter, and it is not merely hysteria that
acknowledges this fact: for men as well as women have been known to acknowledge it. I must
make an effort to comprehend it. I will take it all to pieces. I will resolve it to parts, and then I
will put it together again, I will reconstitute it in a form that I can accept, a fictitious form [pp.
46, 51, 52].

The categories by which one understands, the qualities of plus and minus, are revealing
themselves as arbitrary, situational. Drabble's Jane's way out—to resolve and reconstitute life
into an acceptable fictional form that need not, perhaps, worry too much about the categorical
problems—seems, by itself, a classical privileging of the aesthetic, for Drabble hints at the
limits of self-interpretation through a gesture that is accessible to the humanist academic.
Within a fictional form, she confides that the exigencies of a narrative's unity had not allowed
her to report the whole truth. She then changes from the third person to the first.

What can a literary critic do with this? Notice that the move is absurdity twice compounded,
since the discourse reflecting the constraints of fiction-making goes on then to fabricate
another fictive text. Notice further that the narrator who tells us about the impossibility of
truth in fiction—the classic privilege of metaphor—is a metaphor as well.25

I should choose a simpler course. I should acknowledge this global dismissal of any narrative
speculation about the nature of truth and then dismiss it in turn, since it might unwittingly
suggest that there is somewhere a way of speaking about truth in "truthful" language, that a
speaker can somewhere get rid of the structural unconscious and speak without roleplaying.
Having taken note of the frame, I will thus explain the point Jane is making here and relate it
to what, I suppose, the critical view above would call "the anthropomorphic world"; when one
takes a rational or aesthetic distance from oneself one gives oneself up to the conveniently
classifying macrostructures, a move dramatized by Drabble's third-person person who
recognizes the limits of understanding and change, indeed the precarious necessity of the
micro-macro opposition, yet is bound not to give up.

The risks of first-person narrative prove too much for Drabble's fictive Jane. She wants to plot
her narrative in terms of the paradoxical category— "pure corrupted love"—that allows her to
make a fiction rather than try, in fiction, to report on the unreliability of categories: "I want to
get back to that schizoid third-person dialogue. I've one or two more sordid conditions to
describe, and then I can get back there to that isolated world of pure corrupted love" (p. 130).
To return us to the detached and macrostructural third- person narrative after exposing its
limits could be an aesthetic allegory of deconstructive practice.

Thus Drabble fills the void of the female consciousness with meticulous and helpful
articulation, though she seems thwarted in any serious presentation of the problems of race
and class, and of the marginality of sex. She engages in that microstructural dystopia, the
sexual situation in extremis, that begins to seem more and more a part of women's fiction.
Even within those limitations, our motto cannot be Jane's "I prefer to suffer, I think," the
privatist cry of heroic liberal women; it might rather be the lesson of the scene of writing of
The Waterfall; to return to the third person with its grounds mined under.

V.

It is no doubt useful to decipher women's fiction in this way for feminist students and
colleagues in American academia. I am less patient with literary texts today, even those
produced by women. We must of course remind ourselves, our positivist feminist colleagues
in charge of creating the discipline of women's studies, and our anxious students, that
essentialism is a trap. It seems more important to learn to understand that the world's women
do not all relate to the privileging of essence, especially through "fiction," or "literature," in
quite the same way.

In Seoul, South Korea, in March 1982, 237 women workers in a factory owned by Control
Data, a Minnesota-based multinational corporation, struck over a demand for a wage raise. Six
union leaders were dismissed and imprisoned. In July, the women took hostage two visiting
U.S. vicepresidents, demanding reinstatement of the union leaders. Control Data's main office
was willing to release the women; the Korean government was reluctant. On July 16, the
Korean male workers at the factory beat up the female workers and ended the dispute. Many
of the women were injured; two suffered miscarriages.

To grasp this narrative's overdeterminations (the many telescoped lines—sometimes

noncoherent, often contradictory, perhaps discontinuous—that allow us to determine the
reference point of a single "event" or cluster of "events") would require a complicated
analysis.26 Here, too, I will give no more than a checklist of the determinants. In the earlier
stages of industrial capitalism, the colonies provided the raw materials so that the colonizing
countries could develop their manufacturing industrial base. Indigenous production was thus
crippled or destroyed. To minimize circulation time, industrial capitalism needed to establish
due process, and such civilizing instruments as railways, postal services, and a uniformly
graded system of education. This, together with the labor movements in the First World and
the mechanisms of the welfare state, slowly made it imperative that manufacturing itself be
carried out on the soil of the Third World, where labor can make many fewer demands, and
the governments are mortgaged. In the case of the telecommunications industry, which makes
old machinery obsolete at a more rapid pace than it takes to absorb its value in the commodity,
this is particularly practical.

The incident that I recounted above, not at all uncommon in the multinational arena,
complicates our assumptions about women's entry into the age of computers and the
modernization of "women in development," especially in terms of our daily theorizing and
practice. It should make us confront the discontinuities and contradictions in our assumptions
about women's freedom to work outside the house, and the sustaining virtues of the working-
class family. The fact that these workers were women was not merely because, like those
Belgian lacemakers, oriental women have small and supple fingers. It is also because they are
the true army of surplus labor. No one, including their men, will agitate for an adequate wage.
In a two-job family, the man saves face if the woman makes less, even for a comparable job.

Does this make Third World men more sexist than David Rockefeller? The nativist argument
that says "do not question Third World mores" is of course unexamined imperialism. There is
something like an answer to this vexed question, which makes problematic the ground upon
which we base our own intellectual and political activities. No one can deny the dynamism
and civilizing power of socialized capital. The irreducible search for greater production of
surplus-value (dissimulated as, simply, "productivity") through technological advancement;
the corresponding necessity to train a consumer who will need what is produced and thus help
realize surplus-value as profit; the tax breaks associated with supporting humanist ideology
through "corporate philanthropy"—all conspire to "civilize." These motives do not exist on a
large scale in a comprador economy like that of South Korea, which is neither the necessary
recipient nor the agent of socialized capital. The surplus-value is realized elsewhere. The
nuclear family does not have a transcendent ennobling power. The fact that ideology and the
ideology of marriage have developed in the West since the English revolution of the
seventeenth century has something like a relationship to the rise of meritocratic
individualism.

These possibilities overdetermine any generalization about universal parenting based on

American, Western European, or laundered anthropological speculation.

Socialized capital kills by remote control. In this case, too, the American managers watched
while the South Korean men decimated their women. The managers denied charges. One
remark made by a member of Control Data management, as reported in Multinational
Monitor, seemed symptomatic in its self- protective cruelty: "Although 'it's true' Chae lost her
baby, 'this is not the first miscarriage she's had. She's had two before this.'"27 However active
in the production of civilization as a byproduct, socialized capital has not moved far from the
presuppositions of a slavery mode of production. "In Roman theory, the agricultural slave was
designated an instrumentum vocale, the speaking tool, one grade away from the livestock that
constituted an instrumentum semi-vocale, and two from the implement which was an
instrumentum mutum."2S

One of Control Data's radio commercials speaks of how its computers open the door to
knowledge, at home or in the workplace, for men and women alike. The acronym of the
computer system in this ad is PLATO. One might speculate that this noble name helps to
dissimulate a quantitative and formula- permutational vision of knowledge as an instrument of
efficiency and exploitation by surrounding it with an aura of the unique and subject-expressive
wisdom at the very root of "democracy." The undoubted historical-symbolic value of the
acronym PLATO shares in the effacement of class history that is the project of "civilization"
as such: "the slave mode of production which underlay Athenian civilization necessarily found
its most pristine ideological expression in the privileged social stratum of the city, whose
intellectual heights its surplus labour in the silent depths below the polis made possible."29

Why is it, I asked above, that when Derrida writes under the sign of woman his work becomes
solipsistic and marginal?

His discovery of the figure of woman is in terms of a critique of propriation—proper-ing, as

in the proper name (patronymic) or property.30 Suffice it to say here that, in thus
differentiating himself from the phallocentric tradition under the aegis of a(n idealized)
woman who is the "sign" of the indeterminate, of that which has impropriety as its property,
Derrida cannot think that the sign "woman" is indeterminate by virtue of its access to the
tyranny of the text of the proper. It is this tyranny of the "proper"— in the sense of that which
produces both property and proper names of the patronymic—that I have called the
suppression of the clitoris, and that the news item about Control Data illustrates.31
Derrida has written a magically orchestrated book—La carte postale— on philosophy as
telecommunication (Control Data's business) using an absent, unnamed, and sexually
indeterminate woman (Control Data's victim) as a vehicle for the reinterpretation of the
relationship between Socrates and Plato (Control Data's acronym) taking it through Freud and
beyond. The determination of that book is a parable of my argument. Here deconstruction
becomes complicit with an essentialist bourgeois feminism. The following paragraph
appeared recently in Ms.: "Control Data is among those enlightened corporations that offer
social-service leaves.... Kit Ketchum, former treasurer of Minnesota NOW, applied for and got
a full year with pay to work at NOW's national office in Washington, D.C. She writes: 'I this
to your employer?"32 Bourgeois feminism, because of a blindness to the multinational theater,
dissimulated by "clean" national practice and fostered by the dominant ideology, can
participate in the tyranny of the proper and see in Control Data an extender of the Platonic
mandate to women in general.

The dissimulation of political economy is in and by ideology. What is at work and can be used
in that operation is at least the ideology of nationstates, nationalism, national liberation,
ethnicity, and religion. Feminism lives in the master text as well as in the pores. It is not the
determinant of the last instance. I think less easily of "changing the world" than I did in the
past. I teach a small number of the holders of the can(n)on, male or female, feminist or
masculist, how to read their own texts, as best I can.

REFERENCE
2.Enright, D.J. and Chickera, Ernst de. (Ed.) English Critical Texts. Delhi: OUP, 1962.
3.Glotfelty, Cheryll and Harold Fromm (Ed.) The Ecocriticism Reader: Landmarks in Literary
Ecology. Athens: The University of Georgia Press, 1996.
 SCHOOL OF SCIENCE AND HUMANITIES
DEPARTMENT OF ENGLISH

UNIT –V – Literary Theory and Criticism –SHS5009

THE EMPIRE WRITES BACK- Edward Said

INTRODUCTION

More than three-quarters of the people living in the world today have had their lives shaped by
the experience of colonialism. It is easy to see how important this has been in the political and
economic spheres, but its general influence on the perceptual frameworks of contemporary
peoples is often less evident. Literature offers one of the most important ways in which these new
perceptions are expressed and it is in their writing, and through other arts such as painting,
sculpture, music, and dance that the day-to-day realities experienced by colonized peoples have
been most powerfully encoded and so profoundly influential.

Several post-colonial writers have contributed significantly to the process in which Third World
countries have forced First World countries to acknowledge the harm done during a long and
bitterly contentious period of colonization. The most well-known of these is Edward Said. He
was born in Palestine, educated in Jerusalem and Cairo, later moving to America where he earned
a PhD from Harvard. Said was recognized as a distinguished professor at various universities
ranging from Harvard to Yale to Stanford. He early on urged scholars and critics of the
humanities to examine the means by which colonizing powers (like England and France used their
hegemonic superiority in technology and the military to dominate colonized states (like much of
the Middle East and Africa). Said was not interested in a Derridean/linguistic approach to
literature nor did he embrace the post-structuralist theories of Lyotard or Baudrillard. His
interests lay in isolating how the West interacted vis-à-vis with the Orient. Finally, it was his
intense personal identification with the Palestine struggle for autonomy that occupied the bulk of
his writing career.

WHAT ARE POST-COLONIAL LITERATURES?

This book is concerned with writing by those peoples formerly colonized by Britain, though
much of what it deals with is of interest and relevance to countries colonized by other European
powers, such as France, Portugal, and Spain. The semantic basis of the term ‘postcolonial’ might
seem to suggest a concern only with the national culture after the departure of the imperial
power. It has occasionally been employed in some earlier work in the area to distinguish between
the periods before and after independence (‘colonial period’ and ‘post-colonial period’), for
example, in constructing national literary histories, or in suggesting comparative studies between
stages in those histories. Generally speaking, though, the term ‘colonial’ has been used for the
period before independence and a term indicating a national writing, such as ‘modern Canadian
writing’ or ‘recent West Indian literature’ has been employed to distinguish the period after
independence.
We use the term ‘post-colonial’, however, to cover all the culture affected by the imperial
process from the moment of colonization to the present day. This is because there is a continuity
of preoccupations throughout the historical process initiated by European imperial aggression.
We also suggest that it is most appropriate as the term for the new cross-cultural criticism which
has emerged in recent years and for the discourse through which this is constituted. In this sense
this book is concerned with the world as it exists during and after the period of European imperial
domination and the effects of this on contemporary literatures.
So the literatures of African countries, Australia, Bangladesh, Canada, Caribbean countries,
India, Malaysia, Malta, New Zealand, Pakistan, Singapore, South Pacific Island countries, and
Sri Lanka are all postcolonial literatures. The literature of the USA should also be placed in this
category. Perhaps because of its current position of power, and the neo-colonizing role it has
played, its post-colonial nature has not been generally recognized. But its relationship with the
metropolitan centre as it evolved over the last two centuries has been paradigmatic for
postcolonial literatures everywhere. What each of these literatures has in common beyond their
special and distinctive regional characteristics is that they emerged in their present form out of
the experience of colonization and asserted themselves by foregrounding the tension with the
imperial power, and by emphasizing their differences from the assumptions of the imperial
centre. It is this which makes them distinctively post-colonial.
POST-COLONIAL LITERATURES AND ENGLISH STUDIES
The study of English has always been a densely political and cultural phenomenon, a practice in
which language and literature have both been called into the service of a profound and embracing
nationalism. The development of English as a privileged academic subject in nineteenth-century
Britain – finally confirmed by its inclusion in the syllabuses of Oxford and Cambridge, and re-
affirmed in the 1921 Newbolt Report – came about as part of an attempt to replace the Classics at
the heart of the intellectual enterprise of nineteenth-century humanistic studies. From the
beginning, proponents of English as a discipline linked its methodology to that of the Classics,
with its emphasis on scholarship, philology, and historical study – the fixing of texts in historical
time and the perpetual search for the determinants of a single, unified, and agreed meaning.
The historical moment which saw the emergence of ‘English’ as an academic discipline also
produced the nineteenth-century colonial form of imperialism (Batsleer et al. 1985: 14, 19–25).
Gauri Viswanathan has presented strong arguments for relating the ‘institutionalisation and
subsequent valorisation of English literary study [to] a shape and an ideological content
developed in the colonial context’, and specifically as it developed in India, where:

British colonial administrators, provoked by missionaries on the one hand and fears of native
insubordination on the other, discovered an ally in English literature to support them in
maintaining control of the natives under the guise of a liberal education.(Viswanathan 1987: 17)
It can be argued that the study of English and the growth of Empire proceeded from a single
ideological climate and that the development of the one is intrinsically bound up with the
development of the other, both at the level of simple utility (as propaganda for instance) and at
the unconscious level, where it leads to the naturalizing of constructed values (e.g. civilization,
humanity, etc.) which, conversely, established ‘savagery’, ‘native’, ‘primitive’, as their antitheses
and as the object of a reforming zeal.1

A ‘privileging norm’ was enthroned at the heart of the formation of English Studies as a template
for the denial of the value of the ‘peripheral’, the ‘marginal’, the ‘uncanonized’. Literature was
made as central to the cultural enterprise of Empire as the monarchy was to its political
formation. So when elements of the periphery and margin threatened the exclusive claims of the
centre they were rapidly incorporated. This was a process, in Edward Said’s terms, of conscious
affiliation proceeding under the guise of filiation (Said 1984), that is, a mimicry of the centre
proceeding from a desire not only to be accepted but to be adopted and absorbed. It caused those
from the periphery to immerse themselves in the imported culture, denying their origins in an
attempt to become ‘more English than the English’. We see examples of this in such writers as
Henry James and T.S. Eliot.

As post-colonial societies sought to establish their difference from Britain, the response of those
who recognized this complicity between language, education, and cultural incorporation was to
break the link between language and literary study by dividing ‘English’ departments in
universities into separate schools of Linguistics and of Literature, both of which tended to view
their project within a national or international context. Ngugi’s essay ‘On the abolition of the
English department’ (Ngugi 1972) is an illuminating account of the particular arguments
involved in Africa. John Docker’s essay, ‘The neocolonial assumption in the university teaching
of English’ (Tiffin 1978: 26– 31), addresses similar problems in the settler colony context,
describing a situation in which, in contrast to Kenya, little genuine decolonization is yet in sight.
As Docker’s critique makes clear, in most post-colonial nations (including the West Indies and
India) the nexus of power involving literature, language, and a dominant British culture has
strongly resisted attempts to dismantle it. Even after such attempts began to succeed, the
canonical nature and unquestioned status of the works of the English literary tradition and the
values they incorporated remained potent in the cultural formation and the ideological institutions
of education and literature. Nevertheless, the development of the post-colonial literatures has
necessitated a questioning of many of the assumptions on which the study of ‘English’ was
based.

DEVELOPMENT OF POST-COLONIAL LITERATURES

Post-colonial literatures developed through several stages which can be seen to correspond to
stages both of national or regional consciousness and of the project of asserting difference from
the imperial centre.
During the imperial period writing in the language of the imperial centre is inevitably, of course,
produced by a literate elite whose primary identification is with the colonizing power. Thus the
first texts produced in the colonies in the new language are frequently produced by
‘representatives’ of the imperial power; for example, gentrified settlers (Wentworth’s
‘Australia’), travellers and sightseers (Froude’s Oceana, and his The English in the West Indies,
or the travel diaries of Mary Kingsley), or the Anglo-Indian and West African administrators,
soldiers, and ‘boxwallahs’, and, even more frequently, their memsahibs (volumes of memoirs).
Such texts can never form the basis for an indigenous culture nor can they be integrated in any
way with the culture which already exists in the countries invaded. Despite their detailed
reportage of landscape, custom, and language, they inevitably privilege the centre, emphasizing
the ‘home’ over the ‘native’, the ‘metropolitan’ over the ‘provincial’ or ‘colonial’, and so forth.
At a deeper level their claim to objectivity simply serves to hide the imperial discourse within
which they are created. That this is true of even the consciously literary works which emerge
from this moment can be illustrated by the poems and stories of Rudyard Kipling. For example,
in the well-known poem ‘Christmas in India’ the evocative description of a Christmas day in the
heat of India is contextualized by invoking its absent English counterpart. Apparently it is only
through this absent and enabling signifier that the Indian daily reality can acquire legitimacy as a
subject of literary discourse.
The second stage of production within the evolving discourse of the post-colonial is the literature
produced ‘under imperial licence’ by ‘natives’ or ‘outcasts’, for instance the large body of poetry
and prose produced in the nineteenth century by the English educated Indian upper class, or
African ‘missionary literature’ (e.g. Thomas Mofolo’s Chaka). The producers signify by the very
fact of writing in the language of the dominant culture that they have temporarily or permanently
entered a specific and privileged class endowed with the language, education, and leisure
necessary to produce such works. TheAustralian novel Ralph Rashleigh, now known to have
been written by the convict James Tucker, is a case in point. Tucker, an educated man, wrote
Rashleigh as a ‘special’ (a privileged convict) whilst working at the penal settlement at Port
Macquarie as storekeeper to the superintendent.
Written on government paper with government ink and pens, the novel was clearly produced with
the aid and support of the superintendent. Tucker had momentarily gained access to the privilege
of literature. Significantly, the moment of privilege did not last and he died in poverty at the age
of fifty-eight at Liverpool asylum in Sydney. It is characteristic of these early post- colonial texts
that the potential for subversion in their themes cannot be fully realized. Although they deal with
such powerful material as the brutality of the convict system (Tucker’s Rashleigh), the historical
potency of the supplanted and denigrated native cultures (Mofolo’s Chaka), or the existence of a
rich cultural heritage older and more extensive than that of Europe (any of many nineteenth-
century Indo-Anglian poets, such as Ram Sharma) they are prevented from fully exploring their
anti-imperial potential.
Both the available discourse and the material conditions of production for literature in these early
post-colonial societies restrain this possibility. The institution of ‘Literature’ in the colony is
under the direct control of the imperial ruling class who alone license the acceptable form and
permit the publication and distribution of the resulting work. So, texts of this kind come into
being within the constraints of a discourse and the institutional practice of a patronage system
which limits and undercuts their assertion of a different perspective. The development of
independent literatures depended upon the abrogation of this constraining power and the
appropriation of language and writing for new and distinctive usages. Such an appropriation is
clearly the most significant feature in the emergence of modern post-colonial literatures (see chs
2 and 3).

HEGEMONY

Why should post-colonial societies continue to engage with the imperial experience? Since all the
post-colonial societies we discuss have achieved political independence, why is the issue of
coloniality still relevant at all? This question of why the empire needs to write back to a centre
once the imperial structure has been dismantled in political terms is an important one. Britain,
like the other dominant colonial powers of the nineteenth century, has been relegated to a
relatively minor place in international affairs. In the spheres of politics and economics, and
increasingly in the vital new area of the mass media, Britain and the other European imperial
powers have been superseded by the emergent power of the USA. Nevertheless, through the
literary canon, the body of British texts which all too frequently still acts as a touchstone of taste
and value, and through RS-English (Received Standard English), which asserts the English of
south-east England as a universal norm, the weight of antiquity continues to dominate cultural
production in much of the post-colonial world.
This cultural hegemony has been maintained through canonical assumptions about literary
activity, and through attitudes to postcolonial literatures which identify them as isolated national
off-shoots of English literature, and which therefore relegate them to marginal and subordinate
positions. More recently, as the range and strength of these literatures has become undeniable, a
process of incorporation has begun in which, employing Eurocentric standards of judgement, the
centre has sought to claim those works and writers of which it approves as British. In all these
respects the parallel between the situation of post-colonial writing and that of feminist writing is
striking.
LANGUAGE

One of the main features of imperial oppression is control over language. The imperial education
system installs a ‘standard’ version of the metropolitan language as the norm, and marginalizes
all ‘variants’ as impurities. As a character in Mrs Campbell Praed’s nineteenth century
Australian novel Policy and Passion puts it, ‘To be colonial is to talk Australian slang; to be . . .
everything that is abominable’ (Campbell Praed 1881:154). Language becomes the medium
through which a hierarchical structure of power is perpetuated, and the medium through which
conceptions of ‘truth’, ‘order’, and ‘reality’ become established. Such power is rejected in the
emergence of an effective post-colonial voice. For this reason, the discussion of post-colonial
writing which follows is largely a discussion of the process by which the language, with its
power, and the writing, with its signification of authority, has been wrested from the dominant
European culture.
In order to focus on the complex ways in which the English language has been used in these
societies, and to indicate their own sense of difference, we distinguish in this account between the
‘standard’ British English inherited from the empire and the english which the language has
become in post-colonial countries. Though British imperialism resulted in the spread of a
language, English, across the globe, the english of Jamaicans is not the english of Canadians,
Maoris, or Kenyans. We need to distinguish between what is proposed as a standard code,
English (the language of the erstwhile imperial centre), and the linguistic code, english, which
has been transformed and subverted into several distinctive varieties throughout the world. For
this reason the distinction between English and english will be used throughout our text as an
indication of the various ways in which the language has been employed by different linguistic
communities in the post-colonial world.
The use of these terms asserts the fact that a continuum exists between the various linguistic
practices which constitute english usage in the modern world. Although linguistically the links
between English and the various post-colonial englishes in use today can be seen as unbroken,
the political reality is that English sets itself apart from all other ‘lesser’ variants and so demands
to be interrogated about its claim to this special status.
In practice the history of this distinction between English and English has been between the
claims of a powerful ‘centre’ and a multitude of intersecting usages designated as ‘peripheries’.
The language of these ‘peripheries’ was shaped by an oppressive discourse of power. Yet they
have been the site of some of the most exciting and innovative literatures of the modern period
and this has, at least in part, been the result of the energies uncovered by the political tension
between the idea of a normative code and a variety of regional usages.
PLACE AND DISPLACEMENT

A major feature of post-colonial literatures is the concern with place and displacement. It is here
that the special post-colonial crisis of identity comes into being; the concern with the
development or recovery of an effective identifying relationship between self and place. Indeed,
critics such as D. E. S. Maxwell have made this the defining model of post-coloniality (see ch.
1). A valid and active sense of self may have been eroded by dislocation, resulting from
migration, the experience of enslavement, transportation, or ‘voluntary’ removal for indentured
labour. Or it may have been destroyed by cultural denigration, the conscious and unconscious
oppression of the indigenous personality and culture by a supposedly superior racial or cultural
model. The dialectic of place and displacement is always a feature of post-colonial societies
whether these have been created by a process of settlement, intervention, or a mixture of the two.
Beyond their historical and cultural differences, place, displacement, and a pervasive concern
with the myths of identity and authenticity are a feature common to all post-colonial literatures in
english.
The alienation of vision and the crisis in self-image which this displacement produces is as
frequently found in the accounts of Canadian ‘free settlers’ as of Australian convicts, Fijian–
Indian or Trinidadian– Indian indentured labourers, West Indian slaves, or forcibly colonized
Nigerians or Bengalis. Although this is pragmatically demonstrable from a wide range of texts, it
is difficult to account for by theories which see this social and linguistic alienation as resulting
only from overtly oppressive forms of colonization such as slavery or conquest. An adequate
account of this practice must go beyond the usual categories of social alienation such as
master/slave; free/bonded; ruler/ruled, however important and widespread these may be in post-
colonial cultures. After all, why should the free settler, formally unconstrained, and theoretically
free to continue in the possession and practice of ‘Englishness’, also show clear signs of
alienation even within the first generation of settlement, and manifest a tendency to seek an
alternative, differentiated identity?
The most widely shared discursive practice within which this alienation can be identified is the
construction of ‘place’. The gap which opens between the experience of place and the language
available to describe it forms a classic and all pervasive feature of post-colonial texts. This gap
occurs for those whose language seems inadequate to describe a new place, for those whose
language is systematically destroyed by enslavement, and for those whose language has been
rendered unprivileged by the imposition of the language of a colonizing power. Some admixture
of one or other of these models can describe the situation of all post-colonial societies. In each
case a condition of alienation is inevitable until the colonizing language has been replaced or
appropriated as english.
That imperialism results in a profound linguistic alienation is obviously the case in cultures in
which a pre-colonial culture is suppressed by military conquest or enslavement. So, for example,
an Indian writer like Raja Rao or a Nigerian writer such as Chinua Achebe have needed to
transform the language, to use it in a different way in its new context and so, as Achebe says,
quoting James Baldwin, make it ‘bear the burden’ of their experience (Achebe 1975: 62).
Although Rao and Achebe write from their own place and so have not suffered a literal
geographical displacement, they have to overcome an imposed gap resulting from the linguistic
displacement of the pre-colonial language by English. This process occurs within a more
comprehensive discourse of place and displacement in the wider post-colonial context. Such
alienation is shared by those whose possession of English is indisputably ‘native’ (in the sense of
being possessed from birth) yet who begin to feel alienated within its practice once its
vocabulary, categories, and codes are felt to be inadequate or inappropriate to describe the fauna,
the physical and geographical conditions, or the cultural practices they have developed in a new
land. The Canadian poet Joseph Howe, for instance, plucks his picture of a moose from some
repository of English nursery rhyme romanticism:
. . . the gay moose in jocund gambol springs,

Cropping the foliage Nature round him flings. (Howe 1874: 100)

Such absurdities demonstrate the pressing need these native speakers share with those colonized
peoples who were directly oppressed to escape from the inadequacies and imperial constraints of
English as a social practice. They need, that is, to escape from the implicit body of assumptions
to which English was attached, its aesthetic and social values, the formal and historically limited
constraints of genre, and the oppressive political and cultural assertion of metropolitan
dominance, of centre over margin (Ngugi 1986). This is not to say that the English language is
inherently incapable of accounting for post-colonial experience, but that it needs to develop an
‘appropriate’ usage in order to do so (by becoming a distinct and unique form of english). The
energizing feature of this displacement is its capacity to interrogate and subvert the imperial
cultural formations.
The pressure to develop such a usage manifests itself early in the development of ‘english’
literatures. It is therefore arguable that, even before the development of a conscious de-
colonizing stance, the experience of a new place, identifiably different in its physical
characteristics, constrains, for instance, the new settlers to demand a language which will allow
them to express their sense of ‘Otherness’. Landscape, flora and fauna, seasons, climatic
conditions are formally distinguished from the place of origin as home/colony, Europe/New
World, Europe/Antipodes, metropolitan/provincial, and so on, although, of course, at this stage
no effective models exist for expressing this sense of Otherness in a positive and creative way.
POST-COLONIALITY AND THEORY

The idea of ‘post-colonial literary theory’ emerges from the inability of European theory to deal
adequately with the complexities and varied cultural provenance of post-colonial writing.
European theories themselves emerge from particular cultural traditions which are hidden by
false notions of ‘the universal’. Theories of style and genre, assumptions about the universal
features of language, epistemologies and value systems are all radically questioned by the
practices of postcolonial writing. Post-colonial theory has proceeded from the need to address
this different practice. Indigenous theories have developed to accommodate the differences within
the various cultural traditions as well as the desire to describe in a comparative way the features
shared across those traditions.
The political and cultural monocentrism of the colonial enterprise was a natural result of the
philosophical traditions of the European world and the systems of representation which this
privileged. Nineteenth-century imperial expansion, the culmination of the outward and
dominating thrust of Europeans into the world beyond Europe, which began during the early
Renaissance, was underpinned in complex ways by these assumptions. In the first instance this
produced practices of cultural subservience, characterized by one postcolonial critic as ‘cultural
cringe’ (Phillips 1958). Subsequently, the emergence of identifiable indigenous theories in
reaction to this formed an important element in the development of specific national and regional
consciousnesses (see ch. 4).
Paradoxically, however, imperial expansion has had a radically destabilizing effect on its own
preoccupations and power. In pushing the colonial world to the margins of experience the
‘centre’ pushed consciousness beyond the point at which monocentrism in all spheres of thought
could be accepted without question. In other words the alienating process which initially served
to relegate the post-colonial world to the ‘margin’ turned upon itself and acted to push that world
through a kind of mental barrier into a position from which all experience could be viewed as
uncentred, pluralistic, and multifarious.
Marginality thus became an unprecedented source of creative energy. The impetus towards
decentring and pluralism has always been present in the history of European thought and has
reached its latest development in post-structuralism. But the situation of marginalized societies
and cultures enabled them to come to this position much earlier and more directly (Brydon
1984b). These notions are implicit in post-colonial texts from the imperial period to the present
day.
Cultural Identity and Diaspora- Stuart Hall
t›i stu-itc — utc ;aositioi,s ml rininrinrii». What recent titeories or cituncianoil
suggest 1s t1t:tt, tlit›ug1t we speak, so to say “tit our oxvii name,” of ourselves
and lioiti c)ru or:'in expciaeiicc, i1c1'crthe1ess i:'lto speiiks, aitd the subject who
is ipoken of, ai c nca'er ii4cixtical, never exactly iia the sanle .ICC. Identity is
not as trans[xareiit iir tliaproble•n›atic as we tltiiilt. Per llaps instead of” think-
iinp of ielcntitj iis :1ia iilrciiilj accoittplislie•ef lhct, svlaicla the iactv ctiltt@:il [nr:ic-
tiees then repi escitt$ m< sliotiltl thinlt, iitsteatt, tif ideiiti US i1 “prodrie-tion
it'l1iclt is itcvcr c‹)itipalctc, :tls›'itys ilt process, run.1 :tlways constitttteil within,
itot otltsii4e, rcprc5ClttanOll. This a'ic«' problcinatizes the jrery author-ity :ind
axltlleiaticiy tc ›t'lticla the tcrln “cttltriral identity” lays claiiti.
¥Ve seek, Jtei-c, to open it diitlogtic•, ait iiat'estigatioit, on the subject of”cul-
tural idcntit f illld representation. Gf” corlrse, tltc “I” who writes here must
also Inc thc›iiglit ml” :ts, itself, “enunciated.” We till writc itilif spealt ti oin :1
particular placc iliitl iiintc, fi orn a history' aitd a culture which is spccific. What
we s:ij' is al›vi1ys “iia cciltcxt,” fit»itionzd. I tvas horn iitto aitd s{icnt my child- anil
iltlolesccilce in a 1osvcr-middle-class fitnaily tit Jamaica. I l1;tvc lived
all ijj}r acltilt iie in E.nglan‹l, in the s1t:1dow of“ tltc blae-k eliaspora — “iit tlte
loellj' of the beast.” I xi'rite against the baclcgi•otind ‹›f a lifetiixae’s wcirlx in e-
tilttira1 studies. If tltc cliaptei secins preoccupied witlt the diaspora experi-
ence iiild its itarratis'cs of displac-eiue•nt, it is xvortl, i-emci›il»ei-inp that all dis-
couisc is “placed,” :utd tlte heart ltns its reasons.
There ;il-c tit le;ist ttvo dil”li:rent tvi1y.s ot’thinltiitg alaotit “ctiltrH-al idcitti;j'.”
Tjie first. position dcfiltes “ctlltriral identity” iit terms ‹›fi one, slt:tred culture,
.i sort ‹›f”cc)1lectivo “one true- se•lf,” hiding inside tlte• i1t:1ity otltcr, ntorc stlpe-r-
ficiitl or ’artifie-iall}' iiltposed “sels'es,” as'hiclt people with a sh:trcd history aitd
¿llcestr}' hold iit coiltinon. \Vitlnin tltc terltts of tltis definition, our cultural
iclentities reflect tlic contiltoit historical experiences and shared ctiltur:il codes
which provide tis, :is “one people,” uitll stable, tiitcl4ilfl ill , 8flCl COllaIltl-
ous Jiatnics ofrefcrciact and naeaiting, beiteatlt the slNiklng e5ivisicxas aittl vicis-
situdes of our :icttia1 history'. Tltis “oneness,” tinderlJ'ing all tlte o£ter, iatore
in[*c-riicial différences, is the- truth, the essence, of“ “Carilnbeailness,” of"
tlte black e.vpnerieitce. It is tltis ideittiq' wlticlt a Carilabcan or black dias[sora
rrlxist cliscovcr, exeav.itc, bring to ligllr, uid expfess through cinematic
I cpreseitt:itiolt.
3"ticlt a conception of‘ erilttital identity played a ctitical role in all post-
colonial str-ugglcs tvllich ha1'e so [ni-ofi›t1itdly resltapcd our worlcl. It lay at
the center of the \ risioit of tlte poets of” “Negi-itlide,” like Aimé Césaire aitd
1.co(aoltJ Scnghor, :1iid of the P:ui-Africas political ;»roj«ct, c:ulici iit the e-
ezittir}'. It coittiittics to be a very' posverfttl aitd cre:itivc l"orcc iit emergent fiirlns
of“ reprcscnt«titin atiaoitg; lii5ierto ntargiit¥ized peoples. In [sostcolo-
ttial scicieties the iediscovel-j' ol’this idenn r is oñ”en the object of”wltat Frantz
Fiuton once callcil ii
j‹›iirncy” home.. Elcrck Billiton’s coriragtous vinial and written text, Blvd
Mrnrt Man - the story o1’ the journey of n at fta photographer *on the lrail
of the pmmised lantl" - starts in England, aid gpcs, .through Shasheinenc,
che place in Ethiopia to which many Jamaican people have found their way
on their search the the Promised Land, mid slavery; hit it ends in Pinnacle,
{iiniaica, where the fruit Rastafarian settlements were establishetl, and
*t›eyoiii1” — amtlng die dispossessed ct twentieth-century Kin ton and the
streets ct HanA«vorth, where P.istitoii’s voyagc ut ‹liscovcry first began.
These symbolic journeys air necessary for us oil - and necessarily circular.
This is the Afrim we must retrirri tn - htit “by another route": what Africa
has ficriim in the New Wurld, what we have made of “Africa": °Africa” - M
iV0 1’Ct011 It IU t’OU gH YOU tuT*, lllCnJOry, 0 nd def r‹t.
What of the second, troubling, test in the identity equation - the
European presence* For many of us, this is a matter nor of’ too little brit of
tuo much. Where Afficn was a case of the unspoken, liuropc was a case of
chat whic'h is epc{lcssi) spciikiiig - mid endlessly speaking m. 'lie Eiirupcan
presence intern vipts tire innocence of the whole discoutu of “diffidence" in
the Caribbean by introducing the questinn of power, “Europe” belongs
Il’i'r\•OCilblj' I.O I “ 1 ñ2” OF wet’, tO t110 limb Of kOi’H rind cnnsent, to IN 0
rule ot the dr»iim»i in Caribbcan cu1mrc. In terms of colonialism, uider-
develnpiiient, poverty, and the i»cisni of color, die European presence is that
which, in visual representation, has poñtioiied die black subject within its
dnnii»ai t icglnics of representation: die colonic tiiscniirsc, die literatures of
advelytuiv and exploration, the romance of the exouc, ihc cihnt›graphic and
u avclint, eye, the tropical languages of tnuripn, towel brc›chvrc and
Hollpvood, anti the. violent, pornogmpliic languages of gonjo and urban
violence.
Because Thcsrz £uropiraoz is *tout exclusion, imposition, and cxpt'o-
friction, we are often tempted to locate that power as whtilly external to us
- an cxtrinsic fnrcc, whosc influence can be thrown off like the serpent sheds
its.skin. What Frantz Fannn rcmintb us, in BE Skin Wbitc Mass is how
this pcwcr has bcconie a constitutive element in otir own idcntities.
The ninterncnts, tlic artittidcs, tlic piances nf the Other’ fixed rue there in tlic
sense in which a chemical solution is fixcd by a dye. I was indignant; I
deoliinded ali explanation. Motlling happened, I btlrst' apart. New the flag-

Ellis “look,” front —.so to speak — tire place of the Cklier, fixes ui, not only
tin its violence, hostility, and sggi esslon, but in tlic mnbivalcnce of its desire.
This brings its lice to face wiUi tlic dominating European presence cot
simply as the site br “scene.^ of integniion where those other presences that
it led actively disaggregated were reconiprised. - retraced, put togctlicr in
i new my; but as the Tie of a profound sp1irri»g and troubling - wiiat fit›iiii
Bhiblia lus called “this ambivHent identiScztion of the cciii world . . . the
’Otherncu' rat the iic)f inscribed its the perverse palimpsest of colonial
dmiiy."”
The dI a}Qgu0 Of }HWer atJd fflsf8tmlCe, of t’eftl81l alld t’ecG nftion witht
ink agauut her £ur‹ipñniir is almost as coiiiplex ve the “dialogue” with
Erica. In terms of popular cviltiiral lffc, it is nowhere to be fbund in its P virc,
Pristine stnic: lt is always-already Arised, syricrctizcd, »4ih othcc cukutal ed
ncnt.s. lt is always-already cre‹ilized - not lost ticyond the Middle Passage,
Pitt cVei* prt•8clit: front ljie fiafniOHiCs ftt Otl r MUSfm to be QtfiRnd-b0fi of
Rica, traversing and interacting our lives at very poinr. Ho»' can we erm
this didogtie so ihnc, finalty, we clrt place it, witb‹;›tit rcrror or violence, i ather
lien being forcvcr placed by it* Can we ever i-ecogni/z its irreversible influ-
:rice, hile mincing its lnipcrializiiig eye.' The enigma is impossible, so ]iir,
c resolve. It rtqtiires tlic boost conipkx of cu1tiit’al swtcgicx. Think, for
:x«tnp1e, tit die duJo$iir oI’ crcry CNbbc ii £lninukcc or writer, one my
ir ant›tlmr, with tlic don0iiant cinemas and literatttre of ihc West - tlic
:c•rnplex i-elationsliip of’ yoving hlack British filmmakers with die “nvant-
iit1’dCt” tit ktll’opeiui null ln0ft0ifil filmmakfllg. MiO Ct›t11d c{c! rl be t(11S
:cnw mid tortured dialogue as a “one z'ay trip”!
Tllc Third, "New World presence, is nut so much power, its b•iotrnd,
Place, territory. It 1s tlic jtulctiire-point where the many cultural tnbtimnea
next, the *enipq'* larn.i (the European colonizers emptied fr} where
.trstigcrs from Every other put tit die globe collided. None of tlic pcuplc.
vlio now occupy the islands - bfark, bcown, mimic, .African, Europea n,
\niei-ican, Spanish, 1-rench, East Inttian, Chinese, Portuguese, Jew, Dutch -
originally “belonged” there. lr ir zfi.qxtee wiicre tlic creolizations and assim-
lotions aijd «ynci etisriis were negotiated. The New World is the third term

Erica auto fire West, It also has to be understood M the place of many, coi-
Jiiiiom di ocenients. of tlic original pre Golinnbian inhabitants, the
Awake, trip, and Ameñiidians, permanently displaced from their (tone-
antls and decimated; of other peoples displaced in different ws.ys ii out Africa,
la, and Eufopci tlii: di.sp1accnieiits of slavery, colonization, antj conquest.
t slam.1s tor the etidlegg yrgyd in which Caribbean people have hccn ticttincd
ta *Hllgf’itfe ” i 1t is I.h0 sign flier Of tl4i tiOH ltscff — Of tril I rig Of•1Bi
nd rscurn u Etc, as destiny, of the Antillerl as tlic prototype of tlic inodcrn
ir postinc›clern blew World nomad, continually rrtovlilg lx•iwc*ia realter nd
teri]jhery. TU l8 prcoiictl patlon With iTlQVcMent aI1‹j iillgfatfoil Cilribbean fiicma
shorc;with1u:uyodie”ThirdOncr ”httitiso›;cofourdcGn-
.\g cheilics, .az\d it is dutined to c ass M\c I at mrivc of every film script a
 PJsnre Awsriroine continucs to have Its silelices, in suppressions. Peter
Htiliiie, in his essay on *Islands of ncllantinent,"" reminds na that the word
“Jamaica” is tlic Hispanic form of the indigenous Arawak namc - “land .of
"omt and water" - which Ut›tiinnfivis’s renaming ("Santiagii“) never
ieplacc‹l. The Ar*n't presence remains today a ghostly one, visible iii the
islands mainly in museums and aiclieological sites, part of the barely know-
able or usable “pest.” Hulme notes that it is not represented in tlic emblem
of the Jamaican National Hcriiage Trust, for example, wlñch chose instead
the ligiire cif Diego Piizienta, “an African who fought for his Spanish inzstci‘s
aJiist the English invfion of die island in 165S* - a deferred, inetonyinic,
sly, and sliding representation of Jamaican identity if evcr there was one! He
recounts the story of how Prime Minister Edward Seam tried to alter the
Jaiiiaican coat-of-arms, which coniisti ot’two Arawak figures holding a shield
with five pineapples, surmounted by an alligator. “Can tlic crushed and
extinct Araivaks represent the dauntless character of Jamaicans? Does the
'or-slung, near cxiinct crocodile, a cold-flooded reptile, syrnboEze tlic
warm, staring spirit of Jamaicans*” torture Minister Seaga asked rhetorically."
TlJfliv can be few poliuc 1 statements which to cioquendy testify to tlic com-
plexities entailed in the process of’ trying ro represent a diverse people with
i diverse misery through a nng1e, hegemonic “identify.". Fortunately, fair.
Seag«’s invitation to the fainaic n people, who arc overwhelmingly of African
ttescent, to smrt their *remembering" by first "forgetting" something else,
got die eoineuppance it so richly deserved.
"rhc “New Wand” pi'csei1cc - America, "1" i» c‹gmir« - is therefore itself
die beginning nf diaspora, of diver'iity, of hybiidity anti difference, what
makes Aero-Caribbean people Nrcfiy people of a diaspora. I use this rems
.here metaphorically, not literally: diaspora docs not. rcfcr tis to those scat-
itemd tribes whose itJentity can only be securest in relation tn some sacred
.;unieIand to which tbcy rnas tt all .cosis return, even if ii incas pushing
other people into the sea. This is the old, the iinpcrializing; tire hcgenin-
nizing, form of “ethnicity" We have seen the fate of the people of Palestine
at tlic hands of dms hac¥ward looking conception or diaspora - and the com-
plicity of the West with it. The diaspora experience as I intend it here..Is
de£ncd, not by essence or putty', bit by the recogstioij of a necessary het-
erogeieity arid diversity; ti/ a cnnception of "idcntit” which lives with and
through, not dcspitc, difkrencc; by” iJ. Diaspora identities are the
which are cnnsrandy protliicing and reproducing themselves anew, through
tmnsfotmation and difference. One can only think here nf what is uniquely
- “essentially” — Caribbean: preciuty the mixes of color, pigmentation, phys-
ognoinic type; the “blends” of tastes that is Caribbean cuisinc; the acsthet-
cs of the “cross-ovc1s,” of "cut-and-mix," to borrow Dick Ffebdige’s miling
Phrase, s hich is the heart and soid of black music. ¥oiitig black ‹annual prac-
fitioners and critics iii Bricaiii are increasingly coming ip acknowledge and
exploit in their work this “diaspora aesthetic” aid its formations in the post-
eolonjal experience:

Acruss z wl\uIc tW#c r›l cn1turnl forms thvre is a ‘ ncn:tic° dymn\ie w/i‹cI›
critically appropriates clemeno from the minster--Mcs of t}ic dominant cultirrc
and “crcolizcs” them, disiwñciilating given signs crirt rcarticiifating tticir ym-
bi›lic incatiing. Tlic subversive force nf this hybridizing tcndcncy is met appar-
ent It the level of lahgtiagc ›cscIf where cr‹xJcs, pamir and bfacit Eiig)is)i
decanter, ‹Jestabitizc and carniiziize the linpiittic domination of “English * —
chc nation-I;\i gtiagc of master-disc‹›ursu - rhruu gfi strategic ingcctforzs, zesc-
ccntuatio»s and other perl rniati'›'c moycs ir\ so'm8ntic, syntactic artd Ie xic*I

It 1s because dais New World is constituted ft›r as as placc, a narratiw ofdls-

p)acmneiit, that it gives rise st› profuiiiuily to a certain inuginaiy plcnitiide,
retreating die enAcss desire to return th “lost origins,* to be one ;igm with
At mother, to go l›zck to he begitjnii g, Who can ever forget, when oixce
seen rising tip out of that blue grccn C,aribbcan, diose islands of enchants
£nflrtr* NJ Fla.s nQr kiloW, ‹at tlic fnofl2 clot, thC 8tlr 6 Of Ah Ohr Wl1eliHtft@
nOstalg,I a Ltit lOSt Origind, fOt tim08 past”i Estd jet, tlit8 retglfH IO th c hewn
ning” is like the imaginary in Lwati - it can neither be fulfilled nor rcqiiited,
ind hencc is tlic beginning of the symbolic, of’ rcpresentation, tlic infinitely
.’encWab1o sOljrcc Of d6itfre mcDior/, myfi, seal‘c'I1, dNOvP — fi 6l7Of I, tile
rnscrvc'it of otir cinematic narratives.
We have but trying, in a scrics of ietaphoM, to pre In pray a dlffertnt
›cijse of i›uf relationship to the past, and thus a. difiércnt w. y of thinking
I get cultural identity, which might constitute new points of rccogiitioii In
the discc'urwi of the emerging Wnbbtan cinema and black British cinemas.
fee have been trying to theorize identity as constituted not oiit*de but within
epresentntion; and hence of cinmtin, nut us a second-order mirror held rip
:o tcfiect what already vista, but as that form tJ’ representation wlliCh is able
!o cnnsfinrtc tis u new kinds of subjects, md thereby enable us to discover
blames its Wl3TCf\ tD Speak. O1enjtjnjtit•s, hen&i I dezsolJ ar@tee in
r« ••d C'oz/zusuniñsr, are ro be distingzizsJ;ed, jJoL by their fi\lsity/gen
.linencas, bin by the style in wliicl4 they are ijpagiiied.'* this is the vmañoii
if modern black cinemas: by allowing us to m and. recorsi n rhc tiftérent
tarts an‹j histories of oiirJves, to construct those points of identification,
:liosc pasitionalitics wt call in mtrospect our “ctiiturnf identiscs. ”
Pte must not tlicmforu be conmnt witfi delving into die. past of a pe‹gk- in
urder ru find cuheant elements which wi]l coHntc\vct colonic\ism’s ttcnipcs
o› falsify anal harm . . . A nsttonal culture is not a EU-lure, nor an abnraci
Populism that believes it can discover a people’s true nature. A national culture is the whole
body of efforts made by a people in the sphere of thought to describe, justify and praise the action
through which that people has created itself and keeps itself in existence.
Literary Studies in an age of Environmental Crisis
– Cheryll Glotfelty
all an Author liVed anal rote about, lit tally retracing the footsteps of
John Muir in the
mountain raptures
to apprehend better the

ticism is the theo—

h:ñczl
drawin range
CORStruC-
dixourse. Analogous work
the sym& lic construction of species.
’How has,lip
Such a critique questions
ieg dualisms that separate mean-
body, divide men

theme
of nature.
ical poetics,
and its
for the way
the philosophy

” ” -.* ”’’”””’**”*” ” **’*’^'"y’¿y*'gjjy,Y’lcisn”

it

how solve

profession.

the next book that

: uld like’ to see a position
ment. Id lii and the environ-

h*lp» gt»
"
all an Author liVed anal rote about, lit tally retracing the footsteps of
John Muir in the
mountain raptures
to apprehend better the

ticism is the theo—

h:ñczl
drawin range
CORStruC-
dixourse. Analogous work
the sym& lic construction of species.
’How has,lip
Such a critique questions
ieg dualisms that separate mean-
body, divide men

theme
of nature.
ical poetics,
and its
for the way
the philosophy

” ” -.* ”’’”””’**”*” ” **’*’^'"y’¿y*'gjjy,Y’lcisn”

it

how solve

profession.

the next book that

: uld like’ to see a position
ment. Id lii and the environ-

h*lp» gt»
"
 A strong voice in the profession will enable ecocritics to be influential
in mandating important changes in the canon, the curriculum, and univer-
sity policy. We will see books like Aldo Leopold’s A Sand Ca«nfy Wmnm‹
and Edward Abbey’s Desert Solitaire become standed texts for courses
in American literature. Students taking literature and composition courses
will be encouraged to think seriously about the relationship of humans to
nature, about the ethical and aesthetic dilemmas posed by the environmen-
tal crisis, and about how language and literature transmit values with pro-
found ecological implications. Colleges and universities of the twenty-first
century will require that all students complete at least one interdisciplinary
course in environmental studies. Institutions of higher learning will one
day do business on recycled-content paper—some institutions already do.
In the future we can expect to see ecocritical scholarship becoming
ever more interdisciplinary, multicultural, and international. The interdis-
ciplinary work is well underway,and could be further facilitated by inviting
experts from a wide range of disciplines to be guest speakers at: literary
conferences and by hosting more interdisciplinary conferences on environ-
mental topics. Ecocriticism has !bcen predomin =* r a white movement. It
will btcome a multi-ethnic, movement when stronger connections are made
between. the environment and issues of social justice, .and when a diver-
sity of voices are encouraged to :contribute to the discussion. This volume
focuses on ecocritical work in the United States. The next collection may
well be:an international one, for environmental problems are now global in
scale and their solution5 will require worldwide collaboration.1'
In zq8s. Loren Acton, a Montana ranch boy turned solar astronomer,
flew on the Challenger Eight space:shuttle as payload specialist. His obser-
vations may.strve to remind us,of the!global context of ecocritical work:

universe of lights, I saw majesty bit no welcome. ’Below was a welcoming

planet. There, contained ’m die thin, moving, incredibly fragile’ shell of the
biosphere is everything that d dear to you, all the human drama and comedy.

REFERENCE
1. Glotfelty, Cheryll and Harold Fromm (Ed.) The Ecocriticism Reader: Landmarks in Literary
Ecology. Athens: The University of Georgia Press, 1996.
2. Raghavan V. and Nagendra (Ed.) An Introduction to Indian Poetics. Madras: Mac Millan, 1970.