Hsslive-Xi-Chem-9. Hydrogen

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UNIT 9 HYDROGEN
 Hydrogen is the most abundant element in the universe.
 It is the lightest of all known elements.
 The word Hydrogen is derived from two Greek words ‘Hydro’ means water and
‘gene’ means producing.
 The meaning of the word hydrogen is ‘water producer’.
 In 1766, Henry Cavendish discovered hydrogen.
 The name hydrogen was given to the gas by Lavoisier.
POSITION OF HYDROGEN IN THE PERIODIC TABLE

 Hydrogen is the first element in the periodic table.
 Its electronic configuration is 1S1.
 It shows similarities to both alkali metals and halogens.
 Therefore, its position in the periodic table is anomalous.
RESEMBLANCE WITH ALKALI METALS
 Both have 1 e- in the valence shell and forms unipositive ions.
 Forms oxides, halides and sulphides.
RESEMBLANCE WITH HALOGENS

 It is a non-metal
 Both require 1 e– to complete the valence shell configuration.
 So it gains 1 e– to form uninegative ion.
 Exists as diatomic molecule (H2).
 Hydrogen combines with metals to form hydrides.
 Hydrogen combines with non-metals to give covalent compounds.
 Hydrogen has very high ionisation enthalpy.
OCCURRENCE OF HYDROGEN
 Dihydrogen is the most abundant element in the universe.
 It is the main element in the solar atmosphere.
 The giant planets Jupiter and Saturn consist mostly of hydrogen.
 It occurs in plants and animal tissues.
 In the combined form it exists in the form of carbohydrates, proteins,
hydrocarbons, hydrides and many other compounds.
ISOTOPES OF HYDROGEN
 Hydrogen has three isotopes with mass numbers 1, 2 and 3.
 They are Protium ( 11 H ), Deuterium ( 21 H or 21 D ) and Tritium ( 31 H or 31T ).
 Tritium is radioactive.
Prepared by Haizel G. Roy, H.S.S.T Chemistry, Govt. H.S.S. Kalamassery, Ernakulam. Page | 1
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Isotopes Protons Neutrons Electrons

1
1H 1 0 1
2
1H 1 1 1
3
1H 1 2 1
PREPARATION OF DIHYDROGEN
LABORATORY PREPARATION
 Dihydrogen is prepared by the action of dil. HCl on granulated Zn.
Zn + 2HCl  ZnCl2 + H2
 Dihydrogen can also be prepared by the reaction of Zinc with aqueous alkali.
Zn + 2NaOH  Na2ZnO2
 + H2
COMMERCIAL PRODUCTION
ELECTROLYSIS OF WATER
 Water containing small amount of acid is electrolyzed using platinum electrodes.
 Hydrogen is liberated at the cathode and oxygen at the anode.
Electrolysis
2H2O  
 2H2 + O2
ELECTROLYSIS OF BRINE SOLUTION
 Dihydrogen is obtained as a byproduct in the manufacture of NaOH by the
electrolysis of brine solution.
 During electrolysis the following reactions takes place.
 At anode: 2Cl-  Cl2 + 2e-
 At Cathode: 2H O + 2e-  H + 2OH

-
2 2
 Overall Cell Reaction: 2Cl- + 2H2O  Cl2 + H2 + 2OH-
BOSCH PROCESS OR WATER GAS PROCESS

 In this process, super-heated steam is passed over red hot coke at 1270K.
 A 1:1 mixture of carbon monoxide and hydrogen, known as water gas is
obtained. C + H2O  CO + H2
 The water gas is then mixed with excess of steam.

 It passed over heated Iron Chromate catalyst at 673K to form CO 2 and H2.
 This is called Water gas Shift Reaction.
673K/Fe Chromate
CO + H2O   CO2 + H2
 The above mixture of gas is passed through water under pressure.

 It dissolves the more soluble CO2 leaving behind hydrogen.
SYNTHESIS GAS OR SYNGAS
 A mixture of CO and H2 used for the synthesis of methanol and a number of
hydrocarbons is called synthesis gas or Syngas.
COAL GASIFICATION
 The process of producing Syngas from coal is called coal gasification.
PROPERTIES OF DIHYDROGEN
PHYSICAL PROPERTIES
 Dihydrogen is a colourless, odourless, tasteless and combustible gas.
 It is lighter than air and insoluble in water.
CHEMICAL PROPERTIES
1. REACTION WITH HALOGENS
 Dihydrogen reacts with halogens to give hydrogen halides.
H2 + X2 
 2HX
Sunlight
H2 + Cl2  2HCl
Dark
H2 + F2   2HF
670K
H2 + Br2   2HBr
Catalyst
H2 + I2   2HI
2. REACTION WITH DIOXYGEN

 Dihydrogen reacts with dioxygen to form water.
2H2 + O2  2H2O
3. REACTION WITH DINITROGEN

 Dihydrogen reacts with dinitrogen to form ammonia.
N2 + 3H2  2NH3
4. REACTION WITH METALS

 With many metals, dihydrogen combines at high temperature to yield
corresponding hydrides. H2 + 2M  2MH
H2 + 2Na  2NaH
5. REACTION WITH ORGANIC COMPOUNDS

HYDROGENATION
 Unsaturated hydrocarbons combine directly with hydrogen to produce saturated
hydrocarbons.
H2 /Ni/470K
CH2 = CH2   CH3 - CH3
Ni/470K
CH  CH + 2H2   CH3 - CH3
 When hydrogen gas is bubbled through vegetable oils in presence of finely divded
Ni, at about 470K, they are converted to solid fats known as ‘Vanaspati’.
 This reaction is called hydrogenation or hardening of oils.
HYDROFORMYLATION
 Alkenes react with hydrogen and carbon monoxide to form an aldehyde, which
further undergo reduction to give alcohols.
 This reaction is called hydroformylation.
H2 + CO + R - CH = CH2  R - CH2 - CH2 - CHO
H2 +R - CH2 - CH2 - CHO  R - CH2 - CH2 - CH2 - OH
USES OF HYDROGEN
 In the hydrogenation of oils to make vanaspati.
 In the production of synthetic petrol from coal.
 In the manufacture of ammonia by Haber process.
 In the manufacture of hydrogen chloride and hydrochloric acid.
 In the production of oxyhydrogen flame for cutting and welding purposes.
 In the manufacture of organic chemicals particularly methanol.
 In the manufacture of metal hydrides.
 Hydrogen is used as a rocket fuel.
HYDROGEN ECONOMY
 The basic principle of hydrogen economy is the storage and transportation of
energy in the form of liquid or gaseous dihydrogen.
 Advantage of hydrogen economy is that energy is transmitted in the form of
dihydrogen and not as electric power.
 Hydrogen is also used in fuel cells for generation of electric power.
 Hydrogen has the potential for use as a non-polluting fuel of the near future.
HYDROGEN AS A FUEL
ADVANTAGE
 It can release more energy than petrol (on mass for mass basis).
 Pollution less combustion (product is water).
 Used in fuel cells for generation of electric power.
DISADVANTAGE
 Generation of pollutants like oxides of dinitrogen (due to the presence of
dinitrogen as impurity with dihydrogen)
 Requires massive and insulated tanks for storage.
COMPOUNDS OF HYDROGEN
I. HYDRIDES
 Dihydrogen, under certain conditions combine with almost all elements, except
noble gases to form binary compounds, called hydrides.
 Hydrides can be represented as EHx or EmHn.
 Eg:- NaH, CaH2, MgH2, B2H6 etc.
CLASSIFICATION OF HYDRIDES
1. Ionic or Salt like or Saline hydrides
 Binary compounds of dihydrogen formed with most of the s-block elements which
are highly electropositive in character.
 The ionic hydrides are crystalline, non volatile and non conducting in solid state.
 Eg:- NaH, LiH etc.
2. Covalent or molecular hydrides

 Binary compounds of dihydrogen formed with most of the p-block elements.
 They are generally soft and have low melting and boiling points.
 They are poor conductors of electricity.
 They are soluble in organic solvents.
 Eg:- CH4, NH3, H2O, HF etc.
CLASSIFICATION OF COVALENT HYDRIDES

a) ELECTRON DEFICIENT HYDRIDES
 These hydrides have too few electrons for writing its conventional Lewis
structure. Eg:- B2H6
b) Electron precise hydrides

 These compounds have the required number of electron to write their
conventional Lewis structures. Eg:- All elements of group 14.
c) Electron rich hydrides
 These compounds have excess electrons which are present as lone pairs.
 Eg:- Elements of group 15 to 17. (NH3, H2O, HF etc.)
3. Metallic or Interstitial hydrides

 These are binary compounds of dihydrogen with d-block elements of group 3,4,5
and 6 (CrH) and f-block elements.
 The metals of group 6 except Cr, 7, 8 and 9 do not form hydrides. Due to this,
the region of the periodic table from groups 6 to 9 is called hydride gap.
 In metallic hydrides, the hydrogen occupies interstitial position in the metal
lattices.
 Most metallic hydrides are good conductors of electricity.
 Conductivity decreases with increase in temperature.
 Eg:- ScH2, TiH2, VH, NiH, CrH, LaH2 etc.
II. WATER
 Water is one of the most abundant and important compound known to man.
 It is an important constituent of all animal and plant matter.
 About 65% of the human body and 95% of many plants is water.
 About 3 4 th of the earth’s crust is covered by water.
 Water can exist in three states namely solid (ice), Liquid (water) and gas (water
vapour).
Physical Properties
 Water is a colourless, odourless and tasteless liquid.
 Due to hydrogen bonding, water has high freezing point, high boiling point, high
heat of vaporization and high heat of fusion.
III. ICE
 The crystalline form of water is ice.
 At atmospheric pressure, ice crystallizes in the hexagonal form.
 At very low temperature, it condenses to cubic form.
 Density of ice is less than that of water.
 Therefore, an ice cube floats on water.
 In winter season, ice is formed on the surface of a lake.
 It provides thermal insulation which helps in the survival of the aquatic life.
STRUCTURE OF ICE
 Ice has a highly ordered three
dimensional hydrogen bonded structure.
 X-ray analysis shows that each oxygen
atom is surrounded tetrahedrally by other
four oxygen atoms at a distance of 276
pm.
 Hydrogen bonding gives ice an open type
structure with wide holes.
CHEMICAL PROPERTIES
1. AMPHOTERIC NATURE
 Water has the ability to act as an acid as well as a base.
 i.e., it behaves as an amphoteric substance.
 Eg:- With ammonia water can act as an acid.
 With H2S, water can act as a base.

+ -
H2O + NH3  NH4 + OH
+ -
H2O + H2S  H3O + HS
 The self ionisation of water takes place as follows.

+ -
H2 O + H2 O  H3 O + OH
Acid Base Conjugate Conjugate

acid base
2. REDOX REACTIONS INVOLVING WATER
 With highly electropositive metals, water can act as an oxidising agent.
 Whereas with highly electronegative element water can act as a reducing agent.
2Na + 2H2O  2NaOH + H2
2Cl2 + 2H2O  4HCl + O2
3. HYDROLYSIS REACTION
 Water can hydrolyse many metallic and non-metallic compounds.
P4O10 + 6H2O  4H3PO4
SiCl4 + 2H2O  SiO2 + 4HCl
4. HYDRATE FORMATION
 From aqueous solutions, many salts can be crystallized as hydrated salt.
 Such an association of water is of different types.
 Coordinated water Eg:- [Cr(H2O)6]3+ 3Cl─
 Interstitial water Eg:- BaCl2.2H2O
 Hydrogen bonded water Eg:- CuSO4.5H2O [Cu(H2O)4]2+ SO42─.H2O
HARD AND SOFT WATER

 Water which gives a ready and permanent lather with soap solution is called soft
water. Eg:- Rainwater, Distilled water etc.
 Water which does not produce a ready lather with soap solution is called hard
water. Eg:- Sea water, River water etc.
 The hardness of water is due to the presence of dissolved bicarbonates, chlorides

and sulphates of Ca and Mg.
TYPES OF HARDNESS
TEMPORARY HARDNESS
 This is due to the presence of dissolved bicarbonates of Ca or Mg.
 It can be removed by boiling. Hence it is known as temporary hardness.
PERMANENT HARDNESS
 This is due to the presence of chlorides and sulphates of Ca or Mg.
 So it cannot be softened by simple boiling.
 Hard water does not produce a ready lather with soap. Why?
 Soaps are sodium or potassium salts of higher fatty acids like stearic acid
(C17H35COOH), palmitic acid (C15H31COOH) etc.
 When hard water is used for washing, the Ca2+ and Mg2+ ions present in it react
with soap producing the corresponding metal salts as insoluble precipitates.
2+
2C17H35COONa + Ca  (C17H35COO)2 Ca
 Thus a large amount of soap is used up in precipitating the Ca and Mg salts.
 Only after their complete precipitation, lather is formed.
REMOVAL OF TEMPORARY HARDNESS
1. By Boiling
 During boiling, the soluble magnesium bicarbonate is converted into insoluble
magnesium hydroxide
 calcium bicarbonate is converted to insoluble calcium carbonate.
 These precipitates can be removed by filtration.
heating
Mg(HCO3 )2  Mg(OH)2 + 2CO2
heating
Ca(HCO3 )2   CaCO3 + H2O + CO2
2. CLARK’S METHOD
 In this method, calculated amount of lime is added to hard water.
 It precipitates out calcium carbonate and magnesium hydroxide which can be
filtered off. Ca(HCO3 )2 + Ca(OH)2  2CaCO3 + 2H2O
Mg(HCO3 )2 + 2Ca(OH)2  2CaCO3 + Mg(OH)2 + 2H2O
REMOVAL OF PERMANENT HARDNESS

1. TREATMENT WITH WASHING SODA
 Washing soda reacts with soluble Ca and Mg chlorides and sulphates in hard
water to form insoluble carbonates.
CaCl2 + Na2CO3  CaCO3 + 2NaCl
MgCl2 + Na2CO3  MgCO3 + 2NaCl
CaSO4 + Na2CO3  CaCO3 + Na2SO4
MgSO4 + Na2CO3  MgCO3 + Na2SO4
2. CALGON’S METHOD
 Calgon is sodium hexa meta phosphate (Na6P6O18).
 When calgon, is added to hard water, the following reactions takes place.
+ 2-
Na6P6O18  2Na +Na4P6O18
2+ 2- 2- +
M + Na4P6O18  [Na2MP6O18 ] + 2Na [M = Ca, Mg]
3. Ion Exchange Method

 This method is also called zeolite process or permutit process.
 Zeolite is sodium aluminium silicate (NaAlSiO4).
 Sodium aluminium silicate can be written as NaZ.
 When zeolite is added to hard water, exchange reactions take place.
2+ +
2NaZ + M  MZ2 + 2Na [M = Ca, Mg]
IV. HYDROGEN PEROXIDE (H2O2)

 Hydrogen peroxide is an important chemical used in pollution control treatment
of domestic and industrial effluents.
PREPARATION
1. FROM BARIUM PEROXIDE
 H2O2 is prepared in the laboratory by the action of ice cold dilute sulphuric acid
on hydrated barium peroxide.
BaO2.8H2O + H2SO4  BaSO4 + H2O2 + 8H2O
2. FROM SODIUM PEROXIDE

 Sodium peroxide reacts with ice cold dilute sulphuric acid to form Hydrogen
Peroxide.
 This method is called Merck’s Process.
Na2O2 + H2SO4  Na2SO4 + H2O2
 The resulting solution is cooled below 273K.

 Na2SO4 crystallizes out as Na2SO4.10H2O.
 These crystals are removed.

 A 3% solution of H2O2 is obtained.
PHYSICAL PROPERTIES
 H2O2 is a colourless, odourless, oily liquid, very pale blue in bigger bulks.
 It is miscible with water, alcohol and ether in all proportions.
 It is highly associated through hydrogen bonding than in water.
 Due to hydrogen bonding, its density and boiling point are higher than those of
water.
STRUCTURE OF H2O2
 Hydrogen peroxide has a non-polar and non-linear dihydroxy structure.
 The two oxygen atoms are lying on the spine of a book opened at an angle of
111.5º.
 The hydrogen atoms are placed one on each cover.
 Each of the H―O―O― bond angle is 94.8º.
 The length of the O―O bond is about 147.5 pm.
 While that of the O―H bond is 95 pm.
 The structure of H2O2 in the gas phase and solid phase is given below.
STRENGTH OF H2O2
 The strength of H2O2 is expressed in terms of the volume of O2 evolved at STP by
one volume of H2O2 on heating.
 Eg:- 10 volume of H2O2 means that 1 ml of the sample gives 10 ml of O2 a STP.
STORAGE OF H2O2
 H2O2 must be stored in coloured wax lined plastic or glass bottles in dark.
 Rough glass surface, presence of light etc may cause its decomposition.
 A small amount of urea can be added as a stabilizer.
 A small amount of negative catalyst like glycerol or phosphoric acid is usually

added to H2O2 to retard its decomposition.
CHEMICAL PROPERTIES
1. DECOMPOSITION
 Pure H2O2 is unstable and decomposes on standing or on heating.
 The decomposition is accelerated by catalysts like finely divided platinum, MnO2,

silver, gold etc. rough surfaces and light.
2H2O2  2H2O + O2
2. ACIDIC PROPERTY
 H2O2 is a mild acid, turning blue litmus to red.
 It neutralizes bases like NaOH, Ba(OH)2, Sr(OH)2 etc to form corresponding salts
called peroxides. 2NaOH + H2O2  NaO2 + 2H2O
Ba(OH)2 + H2O2 
 BaO2 + 2H2O
Sr(OH)2 + H2O2 
 SrO2 + 2H2O
3. BLEACHING PROPERTY
 H2O2 is a mild bleaching agent.
 It bleaches silk, wool, ivory etc by oxidation.
4. OXIDATION
 H2O2 oxidises ferrous salt to ferric salt in acid medium.
2+ +
2Fe + 2H + H2O2  2Fe3+ + 2H2O
5. REDUCTION
 H2O2 reduces MnO4- to Mn2+ in acid medium.
- +
2MnO4 + 6H + 5H2O2  2Mn2+ + 8H2O + 5O2
USES OF H2O2
 It is used for bleaching silk, wool, ivory etc.
 It is used in medicine as an antiseptic and germicide.
 It is used for restoring the colour of lead paintings.
 90% H2O2 is used as a fuel in rockets, submarines etc.
HEAVY WATER
 Heavy water is deuterium oxide (D2O).
 It is a form of water that contains a large amount of hydrogen isotope deuterium
rather than the common hydrogen-1 isotope.
PREPARATION
 It can be prepared by the exhaustive electrolysis of water.
USES
 It is used as a moderator in nuclear reactors.
 It is used in the study of reaction mechanism.
 It is used for the preparation of other deuterium compounds.
ATOMIC HYDROGEN TORCH
 It involves the formation of atomic hydrogen atoms.
 The atomic hydrogen atoms are produced by the dissociation of dihydrogen with
the help of an electric arc.
 The atomic hydrogen so produced immediately recombine to form molecular
hydrogen.
 This liberates a tremendous amount of heat.
 This heat is used for cutting and welding purpose in the form of atomic hydrogen
or oxy-hydrogen torches.
RESTORATION OF THE COLOUR OF LEAD PAINTINGS
 Hydrogen peroxide is used in restoring the original colors on paintings.
 Hydrogen peroxide acts as an oxidizing agent, giving water as the reduction
product.
 The oxidizing ability of hydrogen peroxide is used for the restoration of old lead
paintings.
 The H2S present in the air combines with the lead darkens in time.
 This is due to the formation of black lead sulphide.
 Hydrogen peroxide converts PbS to PbSO4, which is white.
[PREVIOUS HSE QUESTIONS]

1. ‘Syn gas’ is a mixture of ………………………
CO and H2
2. Write the names of any two electron-rich hydrides.
NH3, H2O, HF etc.
3. Complete the following reaction
heating
Ca(HCO3 )2   .......... + H2O + ............
heating
Ca(HCO3 )2   CaCO3 + H2O + CO2
4. H2O2 is a bleaching agent. Why?

H2O2 is a mild bleaching agent. It bleaches silk, wool, ivory etc by oxidation.
Hydrogen peroxide decomposes to produce nascent oxygen that oxidises colouring

matter to colourless.
heat
5) Complete the following reaction. Zn (s)  NaOH(aq) 
.............
Zn + 2NaOH  Na2ZnO2 + H2
6) In a seminar, if you are asked to present a paper on hydrogen economy, write

any two points you are going to include in your paper.
Hydrogen can be used as a nonpolluting fuel
Energy is transmitted in the form of dihydrogen and not as electric power
It is also used in fuel cells for generation of electric power.
7. Hydrogen peroxide is stored in plastic vessels in dark. Why?
H2O2 must be stored in coloured wax lined plastic or glass bottles in dark
because rough glass surface, presence of light etc may cause its decomposition.
8. Permanent hardness of water can be removed only by chemical methods.

a) Write the name of any one salt responsible for the permanent hardness of
water.
Calcium chloride, Calcium sulphate, Magnesium chloride and Magnesium
sulphate.
b) Sodium hexametaphosphate is commercially called ………………..
Calgon
c) Suggest a disadvantage of hard water.
If hard water is used in boilers, it will result in the formation of deposits inside
the boiler and steam pipes.
9. a) Vegetable oil is converted into vanaspathi fat by ……………………….. process.
Hydrogenation
b) D2O is generally called …………
Deuterium oxide
c) Hydrogen peroxide is an important chemical used in pollution control treatment
of domestic and industrial effluents.
i) Write the formula of hydrogen peroxide.
H2O2
10. Justify the position of hydrogen in the periodic table.
Hydrogen is the first element in the periodic table. Its electronic configuration
is 1S1. Hydrogen shows similarities to both alkali metals and halogens.
Therefore, its position in the periodic table is anomalous.
11. The efficiency of a boiler is found to decrease when boiler scales are formed.
a) Which are the possible compounds present in water for scale formation?
CaCO3 and CaSO4
b) Write the chemistry of scale formation.
If hard water is used in boilers, it will result in the formation of deposits inside
the boiler and steam pipes. Later this deposit consisting of CaCO 3 and CaSO4
forms a thick and hard crust called boiler scale. The boiler scale is a bad
conductor of heat and hence more fuel is consumed for heating water.
c) Suggest a suitable chemical method to prevent the scale formation.
Use soft water in boilers instead of hard water
12. Match the following by selecting the items from columns B and C which are
most suitable to those in column A.
Protium, Tritium Hard Water Fertilizer
Ca2+, Mg2+ Heavy Water Hydrogen
H 2O 2 Isotopes Moderator in nuclear reactor
D 2O Perhydrol No lather with soap
Phenol Antiseptic
Answer
Protium, Tritium Isotopes Hydrogen
Ca2+, Mg2+ Hard water No lather with soap
H2O2 Perhydrol Antiseptic
D2O Heavy water Moderator in nuclear reactor
13. a) Name the isotopes of hydrogen.
Protium ( 11 H ), Deuterium ( 21H or 21D ) and Tritium ( 31H or 31T ).
b) What is heavy water?

Heavy water is deuterium oxide.
c) What is a moderator?
A moderator is a medium that reduces the speed of fast neutrons, thereby
turning them into thermal neutrons capable of sustaining a nuclear chain
reaction involving uranium-235.

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POSITION OF HYDROGEN IN THE PERIODIC TABLE

RESEMBLANCE WITH HALOGENS

Isotopes Protons Neutrons Electrons

 At anode: 2Cl-  Cl2 + 2e-

 At Cathode: 2H O + 2e-  H + 2OH

 Overall Cell Reaction: 2Cl- + 2H2O  Cl2 + H2 + 2OH-

BOSCH PROCESS OR WATER GAS PROCESS

 The water gas is then mixed with excess of steam.

 The above mixture of gas is passed through water under pressure.

2. REACTION WITH DIOXYGEN

3. REACTION WITH DINITROGEN

4. REACTION WITH METALS

5. REACTION WITH ORGANIC COMPOUNDS

H2 + CO + R - CH = CH2  R - CH2 - CH2 - CHO

H2 +R - CH2 - CH2 - CHO  R - CH2 - CH2 - CH2 - OH

 Hydrogen is also used in fuel cells for generation of electric power.

 Hydrides can be represented as EHx or EmHn.

 Eg:- NaH, CaH2, MgH2, B2H6 etc.

2. Covalent or molecular hydrides

CLASSIFICATION OF COVALENT HYDRIDES

b) Electron precise hydrides

3. Metallic or Interstitial hydrides

 Water has the ability to act as an acid as well as a base.

 i.e., it behaves as an amphoteric substance.

 Eg:- With ammonia water can act as an acid.

 With H2S, water can act as a base.

 The self ionisation of water takes place as follows.

Acid Base Conjugate Conjugate

2Na + 2H2O  2NaOH + H2

2Cl2 + 2H2O  4HCl + O2

P4O10 + 6H2O  4H3PO4

SiCl4 + 2H2O  SiO2 + 4HCl

HARD AND SOFT WATER

 The hardness of water is due to the presence of dissolved bicarbonates, chlorides

filtered off. Ca(HCO3 )2 + Ca(OH)2  2CaCO3 + 2H2O

Mg(HCO3 )2 + 2Ca(OH)2  2CaCO3 + Mg(OH)2 + 2H2O

REMOVAL OF PERMANENT HARDNESS

water to form insoluble carbonates.

CaCl2 + Na2CO3  CaCO3 + 2NaCl

MgCl2 + Na2CO3  MgCO3 + 2NaCl

CaSO4 + Na2CO3  CaCO3 + Na2SO4

MgSO4 + Na2CO3  MgCO3 + Na2SO4

3. Ion Exchange Method

IV. HYDROGEN PEROXIDE (H2O2)

2. FROM SODIUM PEROXIDE

Na2O2 + H2SO4  Na2SO4 + H2O2

 The resulting solution is cooled below 273K.

 These crystals are removed.

 Hydrogen peroxide has a non-polar and non-linear dihydroxy structure.

 The hydrogen atoms are placed one on each cover.

 Each of the H―O―O― bond angle is 94.8º.

 The length of the O―O bond is about 147.5 pm.

 While that of the O―H bond is 95 pm.

 A small amount of urea can be added as a stabilizer.

 A small amount of negative catalyst like glycerol or phosphoric acid is usually

 The decomposition is accelerated by catalysts like finely divided platinum, MnO2,

 H2O2 is a mild acid, turning blue litmus to red.

called peroxides. 2NaOH + H2O2  NaO2 + 2H2O