Chapter 4 : India’s Foreign Policy

 INTRODUCTION

Since Independence, India has faced three distinct periods of international relations, from a bipolar
Cold War world until 1990; to a unipolar world dominated by the US from 1990 till the world
economic crisis of 2008; to the present transformational moment. In each of these, it followed a
strategy of non-alignment while adjusting tactically to the realities of power in order to achieve
India’s foreign policy goals.

 FOREIGN POLICY

A state’s foreign policy consists of self-interest strategies chosen by them to safeguard its national
interests and to achieve its own goals through relations with other countries. The approaches are
strategically employed to interact with other countries. The foreign policy of a nation reflects the
inter-play of domestic and internal factors.

Foreign policy is designed to protect the national interests of the state. In the past, foreign policies
were concerned primarily with policies solely related to national interest, for example, military
power or treaties. Currently, foreign policy encompasses trade, finance, human rights,
environmental, and cultural issues. These issues impact how countries interact with one another
and how they pursue their national interests worldwide.

 INDIA’S FOREIGN POLICY

The formulation of foreign policy is a complex process, mediated by the participation of various
stakeholders. India is a federal country and the subject of foreign affairs is included under the
jurisdiction of Union or Central government. Besides the government bodies and authorities like the
Prime minister and Ministry of External Affairs, the political parties, media, and pressure groups also
play an important role in the formulation of foreign policy.

India is a nation born in the back drop of the World War, it decided to formulate its foreign relations
with a goal to respect the sovereignty of all other nations and to accomplish security through the
maintenance of peace. This goal finds an echo in the Directive Principles of State Policy in the Indian
Constitution.

Indian foreign policy is influenced by both domestic and international environmental factors. The
Foreign policy of Independent India advocated the policy of Non-alignment to reduce the Cold War
tensions.

 Nehru’s Role

Our first PM Jawaharlal Nehru played a significant role in setting the national agenda. He was also
the Foreign Minister so he greatly influenced the formulation and implementation of India’s Foreign
Policy from 1946 to 1964.
 His Foreign Policy was based on three major objectives;
(1) To preserve the hard-earned sovereignty.
(2) To protect territorial integrity of India.
(3) To promote rapid economic development.

Nehru wished to achieve these objectives through the strategy of Non-alignment. But there were
leaders and Political parties like B.R. Ambedkar, Bhartiya Jan Sangh and Swatantra Party who were in
favour of pro-US foreign policy.

 Principles of India’s Foreign Policy

The principles of India’s foreign policy and its objectives are closely interlinked with each other.
Some of these principles are discussed below

 Panchsheel

Nehru gave utmost importance to world peace in his policy planning. He was the main architect of
foreign policy after independence. For him, India desired peaceful and friendly relations with all
countries, particularly the big powers and the neighbouring nations. While signing a peace
agreement with China; he advocated adherence to five guiding principles known as Panchsheel.

Panchsheel was signed on 28th April, 1954 and since then it has become a guiding principle of India’s
bilateral relations with other countries also.

Panchsheel includes the following five principles of foreign policy;

(i) Mutual respect for each other’s territorial integrity and sovereignty.
(ii) Non-aggression against each other.
(iii) Non-interference in each other’s internal affairs.
(iv) Equality and mutual benefit.
(v) Peaceful co-existence

 Afro-Asian Unity

The Indian National Movement was not an isolated process. It was a part of the worldwide struggle
against colonialism and imperialism. It influenced the freedom movements of many Asian and
African countries. Because of India’s size, location and power potential, Nehru wished a greater role
of India in world affairs particularly in Asian affairs. Under the leadership of Nehru, India’s relation
with newly independent nations of Asia and Africa was strengthened. Nehru had been a great
advocate of Asian unity. India called Asian Relations Conference in March 1947 even five months
before the independence.

India was a staunch supporter of the decolonisation and firmly opposed racism, particularly
apartheid in South Africa. The Afro-Asian Conference known as the Bandung Conference was held in
1955. This Bandung Conference later led to the establishment of the NAM. The Bandung Conference
marked the climax of India’s engagement with the newly Independent Asian and African nations.
 The first summit of the NAM was held in Belgrade in September 1961. Nehru was a co-founder of
the NAM.

 Policy of Non-Alignment

Non-alignment is the most important feature of India’s foreign policy. Its core element is to maintain
independence in foreign affairs by not joining any military alliance formed by the USA and Soviet
Union, which emerged as an important aspect of Cold War politics after the Second World War. It
postulates taking an independent stand on international issues according to the merits of each case
but at the same time not committing to coming under the influence of any military bloc.

India played a lead role in popularising and consolidating the Non-Aligned Movement (NAM). After
the end of Cold War, NAM proved to be a powerful mechanism to forge South-South cooperation,
which is essential for their collective self-reliance in the present market driven global order.

 Peaceful Settlement of International Disputes

This principle has been included in the Constitution of India, under the Directive Principles of State
Policy as well as in the Charter of the UN. India has played leading role in the resolution of Korean
conflict and supported negotiated settlement of Palestine issue, Kashmir problem, border problems
with neighbouring countries and other such disputes.

 INDIA’S CHANGING RELATIONS WITH OTHER NATIONS

India’s relations with other nations are an important part of India’s foreign policy. It is discussed
below in detail.

 China
Before the emergence of Western imperialism, both India and China were powerful countries in
Asian region. In the ancient times, both Chinese dynastic rule and Emperor Rule in India extended
their influence beyond their borders in terms of political, economic and cultural aspects. Both
regions rarely overlapped each other due to limited political and cultural interaction between India
and China. Later in the twentieth century, when both countries confronted each other then both
had to face difficulty to evolve their foreign policy with each other.

India began its relationship with China in a very friendly way. India was one of the first countries to
recognise the Communist government after the Chinese revolution in 1949. Nehru strongly
supported and helped China in International forum. Despite the concern of Vallabhbhai Patel, Nehru
never had suspicion of attack from China. India-China borders for a very long time were guarded
under the para-military forces instead of army.

The joint declaration of Panchsheel (Five Principles of Peaceful Co-existence) between Nehru and
the Chinese Premier Zhou Enlai on 29th April, 1954 marked the strong relationship between the
countries.
 Issues of Conflict Between India-China

The relationship between India and China strained because of the following factors
a) In 1950, China annexed Tibet which removed a historical buffer between two countries. Initially,
India didn’t oppose it openly, but later it resented this issue when information regarding Tibetan
culture suppression came up.
b) Dalai Lama, the Tibetan spiritual leader sought and obtained political asylum in India in 1959.
China opposed this move by declaring that India is supporting anti-China activities.
c) China and India were involved in a border conflict in 1962 over competing territorial claims
principally in Arunachal Pradesh and in the Aksai Chin region of Ladakh. The conflict of 1962, in
which India suffered military reverses, had long-term implications for India-China relations.

 Relations after Chinese Invasion

a. India took military assistance from US and Britain to move over the crises. The Soviet Union
remained neutral during this invasion.
b. Diplomatic relations between the two countries were downgraded until 1976. Thereafter, relations
between the two countries began to improve slowly.
c. After the change in China’s political leadership from the mid to late 1970s, China’s policy became
more pragmatic and less ideological. So, it was prepared to put off the settlement of contentious
issues while improving relations with India.
d. A series of talks to resolve the border issue were also initiated in 1981. Since the end of the Cold
War, there have been significant changes in India-China relations. Their relations are now based
upon strategic as well as an economic dimension,
e. Both view themselves as rising powers in global politics, and play a major role in the Asian economy
and politics. Rajiv Gandhi’s visit to China in December 1988 provided the impetus for an
improvement in India-China relations.
f. Since then both governments have taken measures to contain conflict and maintain ‘peace and
tranquillity on the border. They have also signed agreements on cultural exchanges and cooperation
in science and technology, and opened four border posts for trade.
g. With India-China trade growing at 30 per cent per year since 1999, a more positive perspective on
relations with China has emerged. Bilateral trade between India and China has increased from $338
million in 1992 to more than $84 billion in 2017.
h. At the global level, India and China have adopted similar policies in international economic
institutions like the World Trade Organisation.

 Consequences of Chinese Invasion

1) The China war tarnished (spoiled) India’s image at home and abroad. India had to request military
assistance from US and British. The USSR remained neutral during the war. It caused a sense of
national humiliation and also strengthened the spirit of nationalism at the same time.
2) Some of the top army commanders either resigned or were retired. Nehru’s close associate and
then Defence Minister, V Krishna Menon had to resign from the cabinet.
3) Nehru’s own reputation suffered, as he was criticised for lack of military preparedness and
inexperienced assessment of the Chinese intention.
4) For the first time, a no-confidence motion against Nehru’s Government was moved and debated in
the Lok Sabha. Besides, the Congress also lost some key by-elections to Lok Sabha.
5) The Sino-Indian conflict created differences between pro-China and pro-USSR factions of CPI
(Communist Party of India). This party later in 1964 split into CPI and Communist Party of India-
Marxists (CPI-M).
6) The China war also captured the attention of Indian leadership to the condition of North-East region.
The attempts have been made to resolve the challenge of national integration through
reorganisation process soon after China war.
7) Nagaland was granted statehood and Manipur and Tripura were given the right to elect their own
legislative assemblies.

Tibet
Tibet is one of the mayor issues of tension between India and China. Tibet is called as the Roof of
the world because it is a large plateau. China had claimed administrative control over Tibet. In
1950, China took control over Tibet which was opposed by the majority of population of Tibet.
India cancelled China’s claim over Tibet because of the Panchsheel agreement signed between
India and China in 1954. However, India gave refuge to Dalai Lama, the tibetan spritual leader
and thousands of Tibetan people.

Dharamshala in Himanchal Pradesh is perhaps the largest refuge settlements of Tibetan

refugees.

  Russia
India’s relations with Russia are an important aspect of India’s foreign policy. Indo-Russian relations
are embedded (rooted/fixed) in a history of trust and common interests and are matched by
popular perceptions. During the Cold War era, both entered into various agreements allowing India
to jointly produce military equipment. Both the nations share a vision of a multipolar world order.
Here, multipolar world order means

a. Existence of several powers in the international system,

b. Collective security (in which an attack on any country is regarded as a threat to all countries and
requires a collective response),
c. Greater regionalism,
d. Negotiated settlements of international conflicts,
e. An independent foreign policy for all countries, and
f. Decision making through bodies like the UN should be strengthened, democratised, and
empowered.

As per the Strategic Agreement of 2001, both the countries have signed more than 80 bilateral
agreements. India is benefitted from Russia on several issues like Kashmir, energy supplies, sharing
information on international terrorism, access to Central Asia, and balancing its relations with China.
Indian culture and Hindi films well popular in USSR. A number of Indian artists went to soviet union.
 On the other hand, India is also favourable for Russia as India is the second largest arms market for
Russia. The Indian military gets most of its hardware from Russia only.

 India-Russia Relations

Russia is important to India and has repeatedly assisted India during its oil crises. Russia is also
necessary for India’s nuclear energy plans and it assisted India’s space industry by providing, the
cryogenic rocket when India needed it. Both these countries have collaborated on various scientific
projects.

Although, Indo-Russia relationship faces increasing stress from the evolving international scenario
characterised by the rise of China and the impact it has on the broader regional and global order. As
there are subsequent events which has led to deepening of Russia-China strategic partnership due
to a commonality of interests in political, economic and strategic domains while a similar level of
engagement with other countries of Asia has not been realised.

Thus, it is evident that India and Russia’s relationship cannot flourish on defence and historical
linkages alone. With systemic changes underway in international relations, new dimensions of
cooperation need to be found to build a strong economic and strategic partnership.

 USA
During the Cold War years, India found itself on the opposite side of the divide from the US Le, it
was in favour of Soviet Union. After the collapse of the Soviet Union, India suddenly found itself
alone in the international arena. The end of Cold War Era was marked by India’s economic reforms
which initiated a process of gradual shift in the way the two countries perceived each other.

The two most significant factors that have emerged between India-US in recent years are related to
technological dimension and the role of the Indian-American Diaspora. This gradual process of the
warming up of bilateral relations came to an abrupt halt after India’s nuclear tests in May 1998.

 India-US Relations

Improvement in relations was evident by the visit of President Clinton to India in March 2000, the
first presidential visit in over 20 years. Since then relations between the two countries have swiftly
evolved into what has been termed as a policy of comprehensive engagement.

In the post-Cold War era, India’s relationship with the US on several issues has strengthened. This
can be reflected in the following

a) The US Is the third-biggest source for Foreign Direct Investment into India in 2021.
b) India-US relations have become increasingly multi-faceted, covering cooperation in areas such
as trade, defence and security, education, science and technology. Civil nuclear energy, space
technology and applications, environment, and health.
c) Trade and economic partnership between the US and India have been a key component of the
bilateral relationship. For instance, US Financial and Economic Partnership to strengthen
bilateral engagement on macroeconomic, financial, and investment-related issues were
launched in April 2010.
 d) The bilateral Strategic Energy Partnership was launched in April 2018 under which India has
started importing crude and LNG from the US. Now, the US is India’s sixth-largest source of
crude oil imports and hydrocarbons.
e) Inclusion of India and South Asia in the US Maritime Security Initiative are some of the
significant initiatives which help to strengthen the Indo-US relations.
f) The US absorbs about 65 percent of India’s total export in the software sector.
g) 35 percent of the technical staff of Boeing is estimated to be of Indian origin.
h) Around 300,000 Indians work in Silicon Valley.
i) 15 percent of all high-tech start ups are by Indian- Americans.

 Israel
India’s Foreign policy with Israel remained unexplored notwithstanding the two nations gaining
independence from the British colonial rule in 1947 and 1948 respectively. Both countries share
historical and cultural ties from the past. But the formal diplomatic relations developed between the
two after the opening of Israeli Embassy in India in 1992. Since then the bilateral relationship
between the two countries has prospered at the economic, military, agricultural and political levels.

After the establishment of formal diplomatic relations, the relations between the two countries
started gaining firmness in 1996 and 1998 onwards. India has become one of Israel’s largest trading
partners, many of the world’s leading high-tech companies in Israel and India are forging joint
ventures that are successfully competing in the tough international marketplace. Trade and
cooperation between the countries now centres primarily on security-related deals and aid in areas
such as agriculture and water desalination.

The relations between the two democratic nations are further intensified with the visits of the two
heads of government i.e. PM Narendra Modi to Israel in 2017 and PM Benjamin Netanyahu to India
in 2018. The two nations have started cooperation in various fields like cultural exchange, security,
defence, counterterrorism, space research, water, energy and agricultural development.

Multiple collaborative agreements were signed between Indian and Israel during Modi’s visit. Like
for instance, The Israel Space Agency and the Indian Space Research Organization signed an
agreement to foster partnership in the development of electric propulsion systems for small
satellites, and creating systems to accurately measure the extreme conditions of outer space.

 INDIA’S RELATIONS WITH ITS NEIGHBOURS

India’s relations with its neighbours not only depend upon developments in individual countries but
also the broader trends which shape the region as a whole. India’s relationship with neighbouring
countries are discussed below in detail.

 India-Pakistan Relations

After the partition, dispute between both these countries started over the issue of Kashmir. A proxy
war broke out between India and Pakistan forces in Kashmir in 1947. Although, this didn’t led to a
full-scale war. On the other hand, cooperation between India and Pakistan was not stopped due to
Kashmir dispute. Both the governments worked together to restore the abducted women to their
original families during the partition.

A long-term dispute about the sharing of river waters was resolved through mediation by the World
Bank.. India-Pakistan Indus Water Treaty was signed by Nehru and General Ayub Khan in 1960. In
1965, a serious armed conflict between these two countries came into existence when Pakistan
started the armed attack in Jammu and Kashmir. Rulers of Pakistan were hoping to get support of
local people but it didn’t happen. To ease the pressure on Kashmir front, Lal Bahadur Shastri (then
PM) ordered Indian troops to launch a counter-offensive strategy on the Punjab Border and
successfully Indian army reached near to Lahore.

The conflict came to an end with the Interference of UN. Later in January 1966, Indian Prime
Minister Lal Bahadur Shastri and Pakistan’s General Ayub Khan signed the Tashkent Agreement
under the mediation of USSR.

Bangladesh War, 1971

In 1970, Pakistan’s first general election produced a split verdict Zulfikar Ali Bhutto’s party won
in the West Pakistan, whereas Awami League led by Sheikh Mujib-ur Rahman won in East
Pakistan. Pakistani rulers were not ready to accept this democratic verdict nor were to accept
demand of federation by Awami League.

Instead in 1971, they arrested Sheikh Mujib and started terrorising the people of East Pakistan.
People responded with strong movement to liberate Bangladesh from Pakistan. India provided
shelter to about 80 lakh Bangladeshi refugees and gave moral and material support to
freedom movement in Bangladesh. Pakistan blamed India for conspiracy to break it up.

US and China supported Pakistan. The US-China reapproachment that began in the late 1960’s
resulted in a realignment of forces in Asia. Henry Kissinger, the advisor to the US President
Richard Nixon, made a secret visit to China via Pakistan in July 1971. To counter the US-
Pakistan-China axis, India signed a 20-year Treaty of Peace and Friendship with Soviet Union in
August 1971.This treaty assured Soviet support to India in case of any attack.

After months of diplomatic tension and military preparation, a full-scale war between India
and Pakistan started in December 1971. Pakistani Air Force attacked Punjab and Rajasthan and
its army march to the Jammu and Kashmir front.

India responded with counter-attack involving the Air Force, Navy and the army on both the
Eastern and Western front. Indian Army made rapid progress in East Pakistan and within ten
days. It had surrounded Dhaka from three sides and the Pakistani Army of about 90,000 had to
surrender. With this, Bangladesh became independent and India declared a unilateral
ceasefire. The signing of the Shimla agreement on 3rd July, 1972 between Indira Gandhi and
Zulfikar Ali Bhutto formalised the return of normalcy and peace.

A decisive victory in the war led to national jubilation. Most people in India saw this as a
moment of glory and a clear sign of India’s growing military prowess (bravery).
 Present Issues of Conflict

o Cross-border Terrorism : Terrorism emanating from territories under Pakistan’s control remains a
core concern in bilateral relations. India has consistently stressed the need for Pakistan to take
credible, irreversible and verifiable action to end cross border terrorism against India and fulfil its
assurances.
o Kashmir Issue : This is one of the most sensitive issues between India and Pakistan. There was no
forward movement in bilateral ties in 2020 due to the mistrust between the two countries,
especially on the Kashmir issue.

 India-Bangladesh Relations
Bangladesh is critical for India’s security, the development of the North-East and the success of its
‘Look East Policy. The two countries have had a troubled relationship since the assassination of
Sheikh Mujibur Rehman in 1975. But later, bilateral trade between India and Bangladesh has grown
steadily. Bangladesh is India’s biggest trade partner in South Asia and India is the second biggest
trade partner of Bangladesh.

The multi-dimensional cooperation between the two countries ranges from traditional sectors of
tourism, health and education to frontier technologies of nuclear science, space and information
technology.

The relationship between both the countries is based on sovereignty, equality, trust, understanding
and partnership that goes far beyond a strategic partnership. In the last couple of years, the
relationship has been further strengthened including through cooperation in new and high-
technology areas.

 India-Nepal Relations
Both India and Nepal enjoys excellent bilateral ties with each other. The frequent high level visits by
the leaders of the two countries at different points of time and the interactions constitute the
hallmark of the ties between the two countries. India has been a key economic development
partner of Nepal. Strong support and solidarity from the Government of India in advancing its home-
grown peace process as well as in the process of writing the Constitution through the elected
Constituent Assembly is provided.

In terms of trade, India is Nepal’s largest trading partner. India has provided transit facility to Nepal
for the third country trade. Both public and private sectors of India have invested in Nepal. Both
Nepal and India have common approach to regional and multilateral institutions and hence, work in
tandem in the United Nations, Non-Aligned Movement and other international forum on most of
the important international issues.

 India- Sri Lanka Relations

In recent years, the relationship has been marked by growing trade and investment, cooperation in
the fields of development, education, culture and defence, as well as a broad understanding on
major issues of international interest. Bilateral exchanges at various levels over the past year and
 significant progress in implementation of developmental assistance projects has helped to enhance
friendship among both the nations.

Trade between the two countries grew particularly rapidly after the entry into force of the India-Sri
Lanka Free Trade Agreement in March 2000. Tourism also forms an important link between India
and Sri Lanka and India is the largest source market for Sri Lankan tourism.

India and Sri Lanka also enjoy a growing defence relationship built on extensive training and Service-
to-Service linkages. The commonality of concerns of both countries, including with respect to the
safety and security of their sea lanes of communication, informs their bilateral exchanges in this
field.

 India-Myanmar Relations
The geographical proximity of the two countries has helped develop and sustain cordial relations
and facilitated people-to people contact. India and Myanmar share a long land border of over 1600
km and a maritime boundary in the Bay of Bengal.

A number of agreements enhancing bilateral Cooperation have been signed between the two
countries. Institutional mechanisms for facilitating regular dialogue on a range of issues of bilateral
interest have also been established. High level visits have been a regular feature of India-Myanmar
relations for several years.

Myanmar is also the beneficiary of a duty-free tariff preference scheme for Least Developed
Countries (LDCs). India is also providing assistance in setting up institutions for higher learning and
research, namely Myanmar Institute of Information Technology. Advanced Centre for Agricultural
Research and Education, Myanmar-India Centre for Enhancement of IT Skills, India-Myanmar
Industrial Training Centres.

On the other hand, Internal Security is a major concern for India; Indo-Myanmar border is porous
and lightly policed which is exploited by terrorist outfits and insurgent groups from North-Eastern
part of India e.g. Supply of trained cadres, arms trafficking.

 INDIA’S NUCLEAR PROGRAMME

The first Nuclear explosion was carried out by India in May. 1974. Nehru had great faith in science
and technology for building modern India rapidly. An important part of his industrialisation plans
was Nuclear Programme in the late 1940s under the guidance of Homi J Bhabha.

Nehru was against nuclear weapons. So, he advocated for comprehensive nuclear disarmament in
the world. When Communist China conducted nuclear test in October 1964, the five nuclear
powered and permanent members of UN Security Council- USA, USSR, UK, France and China (Taiwan
representing China) imposed the nuclear Non-Proliferation Treaty (NPT) on the rest of the world.

India termed NPT as discriminatory and had refused to sign it. India wanted to generate atomic
energy for peaceful purposes. When India conducted the first nuclear test, it was called as peaceful
explosion. India asserted that it was committed to the policy of peaceful use of nuclear power.
The period of conducting the nuclear test was a challenging period in domestic politics. There was
economic turmoil and high inflation in India due to high rising of oil prices caused by Arab-Israel War
of 1973. Numerous agitation, demonstration and nationwide strike by railway union and trade union
were going on.

There are minor differences among political parties about how to conduct external relations, Indian
politics is generally marked by a broad agreement among the parties on national integration,
protection of international boundaries and on questions of national interest.

During the decade of 1962-1971, when India faced three wars or even later, when different parties
came to power from time to time, foreign policy has played only a limited role in party politics.

India’s nuclear policy has always been peace-oriented, whose clear impression is reflected in the
form of the policy of ‘No First Use’. But as per the contemporary regional security challenges, the
government led by PM Narendra Modi held that policy of no first use can be reviewed and changed
in accordance to the regional and national security.

In addition to this, India is committed to ensure its membership in the Nuclear Suppliers Group
(NSG) and opposes the unjust treaties like CTBT and NPT.