11TH Physics Pankaj Sir

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UNIT- 1
Science:- The knowledge which humans have gained thorogh observations and
experiments, when organized systematically is called science.
Physics:- The branch of science which deals with mass and energy and interaction
between them. It also deals with the nature and natural phenomenon e.g.
1. How the electricity is generated by generator.
2. why every body falls towards earth.
Classical Physics:- The macroscopic domain includes the study of phenomena involving
molecules, atoms, nuclei, electron and other elementary particles.
Modern Physics :- The microscopic domain includes the study of phenomena involving
molecules, atoms, nuclei, electron and other elementary particles.
Mesoscopic Physics:- The study of domain intermediate between the macroscopic and
microscopic domain that include study of few tasks or hundreds of atom or molecules
classical physics includes subjects like Mechanics, thermodynamics, Electrodynamic
and Optics
Mechanics:- Deals with the study of general system of particles, rigid body, deformable
body, propagation of water waves, sound wave etc.
Thermodynamics:- deals with the study of gaseous system. The change in temperature,
internal energy, entrophy are includes in thermodynamics.
Electrodynamics:- deals with the study of electric and magnetic field phenomena
associated with charged particles and magnetic material
Optics:- involves the study of various phenomena connected with light and optical and
optical instrument like microscope, telescope, etc.
PASCAL INSTITUTE AZAD NAGAR HISAR 9255353514

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Fundamental forces in Nature:-
(1) Gravitational force:- The gravitational force is the force of mutual attraction between
any two object by virtue of their masses.
The magnitude of the force exerted by a particle of mass m1, an another
particle of mass m2 at a distance r from it is given by Newton’s law of gravitations.
Gm1m2
F=
r2
Where G is gravitational constant and has value

G = 6.67 ×10−11 Nm2/kg2
Properties of Gravitational Forces:-
1. Gravitational forces are universal attractive forces.
2. These are weakest force in nature.
3. These operate over very long distance.
4. These obey inverse square law.
5. These are central and conservative
(2) Weak Nuclear forces:-
(1) These forces were discovered during the study of the phenomena of B-decay, in
radio activity.
(2) It was believed that a B-decay occure when a nuclear in the nucleus is converted
into a proton and an electron
(3) Energy of electrons emitted from a radio active element nuclear varies continuously
from zero to a certain value.
(4) An another Particle called antineutrino is emitted with the B-decay Particles.
(5) The energy emitted during B-decay is shared by B-particles and antineutrino.
Hence it is concluded that an electron and an antineutrino interact with each

other through weak forces. Thus the weak Force are the forces of interaction between
elementary particle of short life time.

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Properties:-
(1) These weak forces are 1025 times stronger than the gravitational forces.
(2) The weak forces exists between leptons and leptons, leptons and mesons etc.
Electro magnetic forces:- The electromagnetic forces are the forces between charged
particles.
When the charges are rest, the forces are called electrostatic forces and given by
1 q1 q 2
F=
4πε 0 r2
1
q1,q2 are the point charges separated by distance r. where = 9 ×109 Nm 2 / c 2
4πε 0
and ε 0 = 8.85 × 10 −12 C 2 N −1 m −2 and is absolute electrical permittivity of free space.
When the charge in motion produce magnetic effect Electric and magnetic in general is
inseparable. Hence the name is electromagnetic force.
Properties :-
(1) These force may be attractive or repulsive. Like charges repel each other and
unlike charges attract each other.
(2) These forces are governed by coulamb’s law which are similar to Newton’s law of
gravitation.
(3) They obey inverse square law.
(4) These forces are 1036 times stronger than gravitational forces.
(5) They operate over distances which are not very large.
(6) They are central forces.
(7) They are also conservative forces.
(4) Strong Nuclear forces :- The forces that binds the neutrons and proteins
together in nucleus is called the strong nuclear forces.
Properties :-
(1) These are strongest forces in nature. They are 1038 times stronger than
gravitational field.
(2) Nuclear forces have the shortest range i.e. upto distance of the order of 10-14 meter.
(3) Nuclear forces do not depends on charger on the nuclear.

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(4) These forces do not obey inverse square law.

(5) These are basically attractive forces.
(6) Nuclear forces are non-central forces.
(7) They are non-conservative forces.
Some Conservation laws :-
(1) Law of conservation of energy :- The sum total of energy of all kinds in this universe
remain consistent. Energy can be transformed from one place to another, but the total
amount of energy never changed.
(2) Law of conservation of linear momentum :- In the absence of an external force, the
linear momentum of a system remains unchanged.
(3) Law of conservation of angular momentum :- In the total external torque acting on a
system is zero, angular momentum of the system remains constant.
(4) Law of conservation of charge :- Charges are neither created nor destroyed, but are
simply transferred from one body to another body.
Unit -:The chosen standard of measurement of a quantity which has essentially the
same nature as that of the quantity is called the unit of the quantity.
If we measure a length = 3 meter. Then these 3 is the numerical value of length
and meter is the unit of measurement.
In general
Quantity (a) = numerical value(n) × size of its unit(u)
Concept of mass :- Mass of a body is defined as the quantity of matter in the body, which
can never be zero.
Mass are of usually two types :- inertial mass and gravitational mass.
Inertial mass of a body is a measure of inertia of the body .
gravitational mass of a body is a measure of gravitational pull of earth on the body.

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Concept of length :- length of an object may be defined as the distance of separation

between any two points at the extreme ends of the object.
Physical quantities are of two types:-

Fundamental quantities :- Quantities like length, mass, time, temp., current, amount of
substance which are not expressed in terms of other quantities are called fundamental
physical quantities.
Derived physical quantity :- quantities like speed, acceleration, volume, area etc. which
are expressed in terms of fundamental physical quantities are called derived
quantities.
The essential requirements chosen for measuring unit are:

(1) It should be of suitable size.
(2) It should be accurately defined.
(3) It should be easily accessible.
(4) It should be easily producible.
(5) It should not change with time.
(6) It should not change with the changing physical conditions like temperature,
pressure etc.
System of units :-
1) F.P.S :- The unit of length mass and time are foot (f), pound (p), and second
respectively.
2) C.G.S :- The unit of length, mass and time are centimeter, gram and second
respectively.
3) M.K.S :- The unit of length, mass and time are meter, kilogram and second
respectively.
4) S.I. :- The system of units, which is at present internationally accepted for
measurement is called S.I. This system of units is essentially a modification over the
M.K.S. system is therefore called rationalized M.K.S. system.
The S.I. is based on the seven fundamental units and two supplementary units as listed
in Table.

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Basic Physical quantity
(1) Mass kilogram kg

2) Length meter m
3) Time second S
4) Temperature Kelvin K
5) Electric current Ampere A
6) Luminous intensity Candela cd
7) Quantity of matter Mole mol
Supplementary
Physical quantity unit Symbol used

1) Plane angle Radian Rad.
2) Solid angle steradian Sr.
Advantage of SI over the other system of units :-

(1) SI is a coherent system of unit.
(2) SI is Rational system of unit.
(3) SI is an obsolute system of unit.
(4) SI is a metric system.
Some units of length :-
(1) Asytronomical unit (AU) :- It is the average distance of the centre of the
sun from the centre of earth.
1 A.U. = 1.5 ×1011 m
(2) Light year :- It is the author important unit of long distances. One light
year is the distance traveled by light in vacuum in one year.
1 Light year = 9.46 × 1015 m
(3) ParSec :- One Par Sec is the radius of a circle at the centre of which an arc. of the
1 A.U long subtends an angle of 1” at the center .
1 Parsec = 3.1 × 1016 m

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Indirect Method for measurement of length :-
(1) Eco or Reflection method :- in this method, an electro magnetic wave is directed
towards the objective and reflected signal is received.
Total distance = 2d
Time =t
Speed =c
ct
d=
2
(a) Distance of hill :- Let a sound wave is sent through air from point A
After reflection from hill Reaches back to point A after time t.
Speed of sound = v
vt
Distance =
2
(b) Distance of Moon :- Let a laser beam is sent from earth towards moon and after
reflection from moon, the laser beam is received back on earth after time t.
speed of light = c
ct
Distance (x) =
2

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(c) Distance of a aeroplane :- The Reader is used for this purpose The radio waves are
transmitted from transmitters. These waves are reflected and received by receivers.
After time t, speed of radio waves is C
ct
∴x =
2
(d) Depth of Sea :- This is done by SONAR. The ultrasonic waves travel through water
and received by receiver after time t,
2x vt
speed of ultrasonic waves is v = ,x =
t 2
(2) Parallex Method :- Large distances, such as distance of a planet or a star from earth
can be measured by the parallex method. Relative shiftobservation when an object is
seen from two different position is called parallex. e.g. a pen appears to be shifted when
it is seen from Two eyes i.e. closing one eye at a time when seen from other. The
distance between point of observation is called basis. Similarly one can see from the
moving. Train the object by the side of a railway track, running past.
This method is used to measure distance of near star from earth. We

considered AB as the diameter of earth orbit around the sum (s). We are to measure
the distance of star N, let d. F is for off star whose direction is taken practically, the
same at all particles of earth in its orbital motion. Let θ 1 is the angle between direction
of observations of N and F when observer at A, similarly θ 2 is the angle between NB
and FB at position B. observer reaches at B from A after 6 month.
From fig. ∠ANB = θ1 + θ 2 = θ
It is the angle which the near by star N. Subtends on the orbital
diameter of earth. Now
AB
θ=
AN

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AB
or AN =
θ
AB = 2 AS = 2 AU = 3×1011 m
Thus by measuring θ distance can be calculated.
Size of an astronomical object :- When the moon is seen through telescope from point o
on earth, the moon appears like circular disc.
Let r be the average distance of moon from the surface of earth. And r is very
long, compared to diameter AB of moon, therefore, the angle θ is very small
AB
=θ
r
AB = rθ
Triangular Method :-
(i) Height of an accessible object. (tree/Building)

Let us consider a tree AB of height h at a distance d from point of observation o.
∠AOB = θ is called angle of elevation of object and measured by a telescope from
AB h
∆AOB tan θ = =
OB d
H = d tan θ

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(ii) Height of inaccessible object :-

Consider a mountain height h. Let θ1 and θ2 are angle of elevation
from point C and D respectively.
From ∆ABC
AB
tan θ1 =
BC
AB
BC = ⇒ BC = AB cot θ1 (i)
tan θ1
From ∆ABD
AB
tan θ 2 =
BD
BD = AB cot θ 2 (ii)
Subtract (ii) from (i) BC – BD = AB(Cot θ1 - Cot θ2 )
CD = h(Cot θ1 - Cot θ2 )
d = h(Cot θ1 - Cot θ2 )
d
h=
(Cot θ1 − Cot θ 2 )
Dimensions :- Power to which fundamental physical quantities are raised to express a

drived quantity is called dimensions.
\Dimension formula :- The relation which tell us that how many powers are raised on
units of mass, length and time to express the derived quantity is called dimension
formula.
Dimensional Equation :- The equation relating the physical quantity and dimensional
formula is called dimensional equation.
Dis tan ce( L )
Speed (v) =
Time (T )

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V = M 0 L1T −1 Dimensional
Equation
(0,1,-1) are dimensions of mass, length and time.
M 0 L1T −1 is dimensional formula.
Four types of physical quantities :-
(i) Dimensional variables :- Those quantities whose value are changing but they have
dimensional formula are called dimensional variable e.g. – area, speed velocity etc.
(ii) Dimensional constant :- Those quantities whose value are constant but they have
dimensional formula are called dimensional constant. e.g. – gravitational constant,
planks constant, gas constant (R) etc.
(iii) Dimensionless variables :- Those quantities which has changing value but do not
passes dimensional formula. E.g.- angle, strain, dielectric constant.
(iv) Dimensionless constant :- Those quantities whose value are constant and they do
not have dimensional formula.
e.g. – pure numbers 1, 2, 3, 4

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Use of Dimensional Analysis :-
(i) Conversion of unit of a quantity from one system to another :-

Any quantity θ is expressed as θ = nu Let (n1, n2) and (u1, u2) are the Numerical
value and unit of physical quantity θ in two system then
θ = n1 u1 = n2 u2
Let M1L1T1 are unit of mass, length and time in one system
Let M2L2T2 are unit of mass, length and time in another system
[
∴ u1 = M 1 L1 T1
a b c
], [
u 2 = M 2 L2 T2
a b c
] where a, b, c are dimensions of
M1 L1T
[
∴ n1 M 1 L1 T1 = n 2 M 2 L2 T2
a b c
] [ a b c
],
a b c
M  L   T1 
n2 = n1  1   1   
 M 2   L2   T2 
e.g. – convert 1 Newton force into C.G.S unit
S.I. C.G.S.
n1 = 1 T1 = 1Sec n2 = ? L2 = 1 cm
M1 = 1 kg M2 = 1g T2 = 1sec
L1 = 1m
For force Dimensional formula is F = M1L1T-2
1 1 −2
1kg   1m  1s 
n2 = 1  1cm  1s 
 1g 
1 1 −2
1000g  100cm  1s 
=    
 1g   1cm  1s 
= 1000 ×100 = 105 C.G.S unit (dyne)
(ii) To drive a physical relation :- By using principal of homogeneity we can derive a

physical relation. Let us derive the time period of a simple pendulum.
Let time period t depends upon.
(i) mass of bab(m) (ii) Length of pendulum (l)
(iii) accn due to gravity (g)
t p mal b g c or t = kmal b g c

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writing dimension on both sides
[M ]
L T 1 = [M ] [l ] LT −2
0 0 a b
[ ]
c
= [M ]a [l ]b + c [T ]−2 c
Comparing Dimensions on both sides.
a=0 b+c=0 -2c = 1
1 1
b− =0 c=-
2 2
1
b=
2
t = km0l 1/ 2 g −1/ 2
l
t = k
g
3.To check the accuracy of a physical relation or formula :-

We can speak the correctness of given formula with the help of principle of
homogeneity.
Principle of homogeneity :- Acc. to this principle, a formula or relation only when the
dimensions of all terms on both sides of relation are same eg.
l
t = t = 2π
g
[
L.H.S = t = M 0 L1T 1 ]
R.H.S = 2π
l
g
=
lT
l
−2
[ ] [
= T + 2 = T 1 = M 0 L0T 1 ]
As L.H.S = R.H.S, the physical relation is dimensionally correct.
Limitations of Dimensional analysis :-

(1) In certain complicated situation, it is often not easy to find out factor on
which a physical quantity depends.
(2) Method of dimensions gives no information about the dimensionless
constant which to be determined by some other method.

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(3) It fails to derive a relation involving sum and difference of two quantities
1 2
e.g. S = ut + at
2
(4) It fails in deriving a relation having trigonometric function and
exponential function etc.
(5) It fails in deriving a physical relation if it depends upon more than three
parameters having dimensional formula.
(6) It does not tells wheather quantity is scalar or vector.

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UNIT – 2
KINEMATICS
Mechanics :- The branch of science which Deals with the study of motion of material
particles is called mechanics
Mechanics can be broadly classified into following Branches:
(i) Statics – It is a branch of mechanics which deals with the study of object at rest.
(ii) Kinematics – It is that branch of mechanics which deals with the study of motion of
object without taking into account the factors.
(iii) Dynamics – It is that branch of mechanics which deals with the study of motion
object with taking into account the factors which cause motion.
Rest and Motion:-
Rest – An object is said to be at rest if it does not change its position with time, with
respect to its surrounding.
Motion – An object is said to be in motion if it changes its position with time, w.r.t. its
surrounding.
Rest and Motion are Relative – It means an object in one situation can be at rest and in
another situation the same object can be in motion.
Ex- A person sitting in a moving train is at rest w.r.t. its fellow passengers but is in
motion w.r.t. object outside the train.
Types of motion of body -

(i) Rectillinear motion – is that motion in which a particle or point mass
body is moving along a straight line.
(ii) Translatory motion – is that motion in which a body which is not a

point mass body is moving such that all its constituent particles moves
simultaneously along parallel straight lines and shift through equal in
given interval of time.

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(iii) Circular Motion – is that in which a particle or point mass body is

moving on a circle.
(iv) Rotatary Motion – is that motion in which a body which is not a point
mass body is moving such that all its concentric circles, whose centres
lies on a line called axis of rotation and shift through equal angle in a given time.
Circular motion rotatory motion
(v) Oscillatory Motion – is that motion in which a body moves to and fro or back and
footh repeatidly about a fixed point in a definite interval of time.
(vi) Vibratory Motion – If in the oscillatory motion the amplitude is very small then if
is called Vibratory Motion.
One Dimension Motion - Motion of an object is said to be one Dimensional if one of its
position co-ordinates changes w.r.t. time. Eg. A car moving on a straight read.

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Two Dimensional Motion – Motion of an object is said to be two Dimensional if two of

position co-ordinates changes w.r.t. time. Eg. (i) an insect crawling over a floor.
Three Dimensional Motion – Motion of an object is said to be three Dimensional if all

the three co-ordinates changes with time. Eg – a flying bird.
Point Object – An object can be considered as a point object if during motion in a given
time, if covers distance much grcates than its own size. Eg. Distance of a car (2m)
which travel from Kashmir to kanyakumari can be ignored and can be treated as point
object.
Origin and Position – Some reference position w.r.t. which the position of an object is
defined is called origin. Eg – stating that my school is at one k.m. is meaningless until
we specify fromwhere. But it became meaningful it I say that my school is at one k.m.
from my House. Here house refer to origin.
Note –
(i) Origin of position axis can be shifted to any point on the position axis.
(ii) The Distance measured to right of origin are taken to be +ve and to left is taken to
be +ve.
Origin and time – Origin of time should be referred to define the time Co-ordintate of
an object. The origin of a time is assigned zero value.
Note – (i) The origin of time axis can be shifted to any point.
(ii) The time interval b/w two points an time axis does not change due to shifts in the
origin of time axis.
(iii) Time co-ordinates will be negative if an event occure before the origin of time
choosen and will be positive if an event occure after the origin of time choosen.
Distance – The length of actual path traveled by an object during motion in a given
interval of time is called Distance. It is a scales Quantity.
Displacement – of an object in a given interval of time is defined as the shortest path

length b/w initial an final position of an object. (vector Quantity)

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Characteristics – (i) The Displacement of an object has unit of length

(ii) The Displacement can be +ve, -ve or zero.
(iii) Magnitude of Displacement b/w two points gives the shortest Distance b/w these
points.
(iv) The Displacement of the object b/w two pointshas a unique value
(v) The actual Distance traveled by the object can be equal to or greater than the
magnitude of Displacement.
(vi) The Displacement of an object is unchanged due to shifts in the origin of position
axis.
Scalars – The physical Quantities which have only magnitude but no direction are
called scalars.
Vectors – The physical Quantities which have magnitude and Direction and also
follows vector low of Addition is called Vectors.
Speed :- Rate of change of distance is called speed.

Types of speed:-
Uniform speed:- If a body travels equal distance in equal interval of time then speed is
called uniform speed.
Non Uniform speed:- If a body travels unequal distance in equal interval of time then
speed is called non uniform speed.
Average speed:- it is the ratio of total distance travelled to total time taken
Average speed= total distance / total time taken
Instantaneous speed:- it is the speed of the body at a particular instant of time
Velocity :- Rate of change of displacement is called Velocity.

Types of velocity:-
Uniform Velocity:- If a body travels equal displacement in equal interval of time then
Velocity is called uniform Velocity.

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Non Uniform Velocity:- If a body travels unequal displacement in equal interval of time
then Velocity is called non uniform Velocity.
Average Velocity:- it is the mean of initial and final velocity

Average Velocity = (u+v)/2
U= initial velocity
V= final velocity
Instantaneous Velocity:- it is the Velocity of body at a particular instant of time
Acceleration:- rate of change of velocity with time is called acceleration
Uniform acceleration :- if there is equal change in velocity in equal interval of time then
acceleration is called uniform acceleration
Non Uniform acceleration :- if there is unequal change in velocity in equal interval of

time then acceleration is called nonuniform acceleration
Difference between speed and velocity

1) Rate of change of Distance 1) Rate of change of Displacement
Speed = distance traveled Velocity =Displacement travelled
Time taken time taken
2) It is a scalar Quantity 2) It is a vector Quantity.
3) Speed is always +ve 3) Velocity can be +ve or –ve.

Equations of motion:-
1) Velocity time relation:-
Let v1 = initial velocity at time (t1 )
v2 = final velocity at time (t 2 )

a = acceleration of body
a = change in velocity
time taken
v 2 − v1
a=
t 2 − t1
V2 − V1 = a (t 2 − t1 )

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v2 = v1 + a (t 2 − t1 )
Here v1 =u , (t1 ) =0 ; v2 =v ; (t 2 ) =t
:. v = u + a t
2) Position time relation:-
࢜૚ୀ velocity of body at time ࢚૚ and position is ࢞૚
࢜૛ୀ velocity of body at time ࢚૛ and position is ࢞૛
ࢉࢎࢇ࢔ࢍࢋ ࢏࢔ ࢊ࢏࢙࢖࢒ࢇࢉࢋ࢓ࢋ࢔࢚
Av.velocity= ࢉࢎࢇ࢔ࢍࢋ ࢏࢔ ࢚࢏࢓ࢋ
࢜૚ ା࢜૛ ࢞૛ష࢞૚
=
૛ ࢚૛ష࢚૚
We know v2 = v1 + a(t2 – t1)
 v + v + a(t 2 − t1 ) 
x2 − x1 =  1 1 (t 2 − t1 )
 2 
a (t 2 − t1 ) 2
x2 = x1 + v1 (t 2 − t1 ) +
2
࢞૚ =0 ; ࢚૚ = ૙ ; ࢜૚ = ࢛
࢞ ૛ = ࢙ ; ࢚૛ = ࢚
૚
S=ut +૛ ࢇ࢚૛
3)Position –velocity relation:-

࢜૚ୀ velocity of body at time ࢚૚ and position is ࢞૚
࢜૛ୀ velocity of body at time ࢚૛ and position is ࢞૛
a = change in velocity
time taken
v 2 − v1
a =
t 2 − t1
࢜૛ ି࢜૚
࢚ ૛ − ࢚૚ = (equ 1)
૛
ࢉࢎࢇ࢔ࢍࢋ ࢏࢔ ࢊ࢏࢙࢖࢒ࢇࢉࢋ࢓ࢋ࢔࢚
Av.velocity=
ࢉࢎࢇ࢔ࢍࢋ ࢏࢔ ࢚࢏࢓ࢋ
࢜૚ ା࢜૛ ࢞૛ష࢞૚
=
૛ ࢚૛ష࢚૚
(࢜૛ ା࢜૚ ) (࢜૛ ି࢜૚ )

=࢞૛ − ࢞૚
૛ ࢇ
Here v1 =u ; ࢞૚ =0 ; ࢞૛ = ࢙; v2 = ‫ܞ‬
࢜૛ − ࢛૛ = ૛ࢇ࢙

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Distance traveled in Nth second of Uniformly Acc n motion -:

Let u = Initial velocity of the object
a = Uniform Acceleration of the object
S n1 S n−1 = Distance traveled by a object in (n) and (n-1) seconds respectively
Dn = Distance traveled in nth second.
Then Dn = S n1 S n−1
1 2
Wehave: S = ut + at
2
1 2
Sn = un + an (1)
2
1
S n−1 = u(n – 1) + a (n − 1) 2 (2)
2
1
= un – u + a ( n 2 + 1 − 2n )
2
1 2 1
= un + an - u + a - an (3)
2 2
1
Dn = u - a + an
2
 1
= u + a n − 
 2
=u+
a
(2n − 1)
2
Relative Velocity :- When two objects A and B are moving with different velocities then
the velocity of one object w.r.t. another is called Relative Velocity.
Expression for Relative Velocity :- Consider two objects A and B moving with uniform
velocities V1 and V2 along parallel straight track in the same direction.
Let (i) x01 and x 02 be their displacements from the origin at t = 0
(ii) x1 and x2 be their displacements from origin at time t

For object A
x1 = x01 + v1t ________(i)
For Object B
x2 = x02 + v2t + __________(ii)
(2) – (1)

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X2 – x1 = (x02 - x01) + t (v2 – v1) ______(iii)
Let x02 – x01 = x0 which is initial Displacement of object B w.r.t A
X2 – x1 = x which is final displacement of object B w.r.t A

∴
x = x0 +(v2-v1) t
x − x0 x − x0
= v2 − v1 ⇒ = VBA
t t
Position – time graph in relative velocity ⇒
(i) If two object A and B are moving which some speed ⇒

then the relative displacement b/w A and B remains constant as Initial ∴ their
position – time graphs are parallel straight lines.
x − x0
(ii) If v2 – v1 is +ve ⇒ than from = v2 − v1
t
(x – x0) is +ve. It means that relative separation b/w two objects will increase y an
amount (v2 – v1) after each unit of time.
x − x0
(iii) If v2 - v1 is –ve ⇒ then from = v2 − v1
t

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(x – x0) is -ve. It means that relative separation b/w two objects first decreases
then become zero after some time and then increases as shown infig.
Figure:
Determination of relative velocity ⇒ When two objects A and B are in relative motion,
the relative velocity of object A w.r.t B can be obtained impassing equal and opposite
velocity of B an both A and B. The resultant of two velocity of A gives the relative
velocity of object A w.r.t object B.
(i) When two objects are moving along parallel straight lines in the same direction -
(ii) When two objects are moving along parallel straight lines in the opp. Direction ⇒
∴ VAB = VA + VB
(i) Thus if two objects are moving in the same direction the magnitude of relative
velocity of one object w.r.t another is equal to difference in magnitude of two
velocity.
(ii) Thus if two objects are moving in the opposite direction the magnitude of relative
velocity of one object w.r.t other is equal to the sum of the magnitude of their

26
velocity.
When the two objects are moving at an angle ⇒ To Find the relative velocity of A and
B moving at angle θ . Superimpose the velocity - v B on both the object A and B. Then
the object become at rest and the Resultant of vA and –VB acting at angle
(180- θ ) gives the Relative velocity Acc. to Parallelogram law of vector.
In Magnitude ⇒
VAB = VA + VB − 2VAVB Cosθ

2 2
angle b/w VA and R is β

vB Sin (180 − θ ) v B Sin θ
tan β = =
v A + v B Cos (180 − θ ) v A − v B Cos θ
Vectors :
Need of vectors – While describing motion in one Dimension the direction of

displacement, velocity and accn is well defined by taking +ve or –ve sign.
However while describing motion in two or three dimensions there
are a no. of possible directions which can not be defined by +ve or –ve signs and
therefore to deal with such cases, vector knowledge becomes important.
Representation of a vector – Analytically, a vector is represented by letter with arrow
on it eg- A , A represent modulus of vector which gives only magnitude and arrow on
it show its direction.
(i) Unit vector – A vector of unit magnitude is defined a unit vector. Unit vector refers
to direction only and represented by Â

27
A
Aˆ =
A
iˆ, ˆj , kˆ are unit vectors along x, y, z directions

(ii) Zero Unit – A vector having zero magnitude and any arbitrary direction is called
zero vector. Eg. If the initial and final point of a vector coincides, the vector is a
zero vector.
A vector which is not a zero vector is called Proper vector.
Importance of Zero Vector ⇒ We know that difference of vectors must be a vector.

Therefore when difference of two equal vector is to be re presented we need a zero
vector
Properties of zero vector ⇒ (i) A + o = A (ii) A − o = A
(iii) A − B = o (if A = B ) (iv) A × o = o
Equal vector ⇒ Two vectors are equal if their magnitude and direction are same.
Negative vector :- Two vector are negative if their magnitude are same and direction
are opposite

28
Co initial vector ⇒ Two vectors with common end points are called co – initial vector.
Eg.
Collinear vector ⇒ All the vectors which are parallel are called collinear vectors.
Position vector ⇒ Position vector of a point is the line joining the origin to the point P
and defined as oP and written as oP = r = xiˆ + yˆj + zkˆ
Its magnitude r = x2 + y 2 + z 2
xiˆ + yˆj + zkˆ

Its Direction rˆ =
x2 + y2 + z 2
x y z
Where Cosα = Cosβ = Cosγ =
x2 + y 2 + z 2 x2 + y 2 + z2 x2 + y2 + z2
Where α , β , r are the angle which r makes with x-axis, y-axis, z-axis respectively.
and cos α , cos β , cos γ are direction cosines of r
and cos 2 α + cos 2 β + cos 2 γ = 1
Addtion of vectors →
Resultant vector → The resultant of two or more vectors is a single vector which
produces some effect as produced by given vector which acting simultaneously
(a) Addition of collinear vectors → place second vector such that its tail coincide with

29
head of first.
When both are in same direction
When both are in opposite direction
(b) Addition of vectors inclined to each other at angle θ →

The vectors which are inclined to each other are added by following laws.
(i) Parallelogram law of vector addition
(ii) Triangular
(iii) Polygon law
(i) Parallelogram law → If two co initial vectors are re presented by two adjacent
sides of a parallelogram both in magnitude and direction the diagonal passing
through the same point will represented the resultant.

30
(ii) Triangle law of vector addition → If two vectors are represented by two sides of a
triangle by two sides of a triangle token in same order, the third side of the triangle
taken in opposite order will represented the resultant completely.

31
(iii)Polygon law → If a no. of co-initial vectors be represented by the sides of an open

polygon taken in order completely, closing side taken in opposite direction with
represented the resultant completely.
Subtraction of a vector → is also done by way of addition, suppose we are interested to

subtract B from A for this add negative of B to A
R = A + (− B)
Properties of vector addition →
(i) vector addition is commutative i.e. A+ B = B + A

Proofs
If ∆oac oc = oa + ac
R = A + B (1)
In ∆obc oc = ob + bc
R = B + A (2)
From (i) and (2) vector addition is commutative
( ) (
(ii) vector addition is associative A + B + C = A + B + C )
Considered three vectors A, B, C represented by sides of a polygon then
Closing side will gives the resultant
In ∆oac = oB = oA + AB
oB = A + B (1)

32
In ∆obc = oC = oB + BC
(
= A+ B +C ) (2)
In ∆abc ac = oB + BC
(
= B+C ) (3)
In ∆oac oC = oA + AC
= A+ B +C ( ) (4)
( )
From (2) and (4) A + B + C = A + B + C ( )
(
(3) Vector addition is distributive i.e. m A + B = m A + mB )
Resolution of a Vector → Splitting up of a vector into two vectors such that the two
vector together produces the same effect as was produced by single vector.
In general a vector is resolved by geometrical method

Eg- Let us consider a vector A and resolve it in two parts A1 and A2 along Dirn at θ1
and θ 2 respectively.
Rectangular Components → If Angle b/w component is 90° i.e. A1 and A2 are
Perpendicular to each other consider a vector A represented by oz at 0. Draw two

mutually ⊥ axis ox and oy. From z draw ⊥ on ox and oy.
From ∆oaz oz = oa + az
A = A1 + A2
Thus A is sum of A1 and A2

oa A1
From ∆oaz cos θ = = ⇒ A1 = Ax = A cos θ
oz A
az A2
sin θ = = ⇒ A2 = Ay = A sin θ
oz A

33
A= A1 + A2
2 2
Multiplication of Vectors → Vectors are multiplied by two ways (i) Dot product for
scalar (ii) Cross products or vector
(i) Scalar or dot product → If A and B are two vectors inclined at angle θ their dot
product is
A ⋅ B = AB cosθ = BA cosθ
Where A and B are magnitude of vector A and B
Thus A⋅ B = A × magnitude of B in dirn of A
A⋅ B = B × magnitude of A in dirn of B
(i) If θ = 0 A⋅ B = AB given vectors are parallel
(ii) If θ = 90 ° A⋅ B = AB cos 90 ° = 0 given vectors are Perpendicular
(iii) If θ = 180° A⋅ B = AB cos 180 ° = − AB given vectors are Antiparallel.
Properties → (i) It is commutative A⋅ B = B⋅ A
(ii) It is distributive A( B + C ) = A⋅ B + A⋅ C
(iii) If iˆ, ˆj , kˆ are unit vectors along x, y, z axis of Cartesian co-ordinates

then
iˆ ⋅ iˆ = ˆj ⋅ ˆj = kˆ ⋅ kˆ = 1
iˆ ⋅ ˆj = ˆj ⋅ kˆ = kˆ ⋅ iˆ = 0
(iv) Dot product of a vector with itself gives square of its magnitude i.e.
A ⋅ A = AA cosθ = AA cosθ = A2
(v) Dot product in Cartesian co-ordinates :-
Let A = Ax iˆ + Ay ˆj + Az kˆ
B = Bxiˆ + B y ˆj + Bz kˆ

34
(vi) A ⋅ B = AB cosθ
A⋅ B Ax Bx + Ay B y + Az Bz
cos θ = =
AB Ax 2 + Ay 2 + Az 2 Bx2 + By 2 + Bz 2
(ii) Cross product → If two vectors at angle θ their cross product is defined as
A × B = ABSinθnˆ
When n̂ is a unit vector ⊥ γ to both A and B

The direction of n̂ can be determined by right hand screw rule or right hand
Thumb rule.

35
Right hand screw rule → If states that if right handed screw placed with its axis ⊥ γ to
the place containing the two vector A and B is rotated from A and B then the sense
of tip of screw gives the Dirn of A× B
Right hand Thumb rule → It states that if we curl the fingers of right hand, keeping the
thumb exact in such a way that they point in the Direction of rotation if A to B then
thumb point the Dirn of n̂
Properties of Cross product →
(i) Vector product is not Commutative i.e. A × B = − B × A

(ii) Cross product is Distributive
( )
A× B + C = A× B + A× C
(iii) Cross product is Associative
(A + B )× (C + D ) = A × C + A × D + B × C + B × D
(iv) If iˆ, ˆj , kˆ are unit vector in Cartesian co-ordinate then
iˆ × iˆ = ˆj × ˆj = kˆ × kˆ = 0
iˆ × ˆj = ˆj × kˆ = kˆ × iˆ = 1
ˆj × iˆ = kˆ × ˆj = iˆ × kˆ = -1
(v) If A = Axiˆ + Ay ˆj + Az kˆ , B = Bxiˆ + B y ˆj + Bz kˆ
iˆ ˆj kˆ
A × B = Ax Ay Az = iˆ(Ay Bz − Az B y ) + ˆj ( Ax Bz − Az Bx ) + kˆ(Ax B y − Ay Bx )
Bx By Bz
Note: If A× B = 0

36
Ay Az
Ay Bz − Az B y = 0 ⇒ Ax B z = Az B y ⇒ = (1)
By Bz
Az Ax
and Ax B z − Az B x = 0 ⇒ Ax B z = Az B x ⇒ = (2)
Bz Bx
Ax Ay
Ax By − Ay Bx = 0 ⇒ Ax B y = Ay Bx ⇒ = (3)
Bx B y
Ax Ay Az
From (1), (2), (3) = = (Parallel vector)
Bx By Bz
− Ax − Ay − Az
= = (Antiparallel vector)
Bx By Bz
(Projectile Motion)
Projectile → A body thrown with some initial velocity with the horizontal direction
and then allowed to move under gravity alone is called a Projectile. The path followed
by projectile is trajectory eg-
(i) A bomb fired from gun.
(ii) A stone dropped from a moving bus.
A projectile moves under the combined effect of two velocities.

(i) A uniform velocity in the horizontal direction, which would not change
provided there is not air resistance.
(ii) A uniformly changing velocity in the vertical direction due to gravity.
Projectile given Horizontal Projection → Considered a Projectile thrown horizontally

with velocity v is from a height h. Let p(x , y) is two position of projectile at time t. Vx,
Vy are two component of velocity . Point of Projection is considered as origin.

37
For horizontal Motion → Since velocity is constant along horizontal dirn -: accn is zero.
The position of object at anylimit along the horizontal direction is given by
1 2
x = x0 + uxt + axt
2
Here xo = 0, ux = u, ax = 0
∴ x = ut ⇒ t = x/u
For vertical Motion :-
1 2
y = y0 + uy + ay t
2
Here y0 = 0, uy = 0, ay = +g
1 2
y= gt
2
2
1 x
y= g 
2 u
1 g  2
y=  2 x
2u 
1 g
y = kx2 (Where = K = Constant)
2 u2
This is eq. of Parabola, which is symmetrical to y-axis. Hence the path of projectile
projected horizontally from a certain height from ground is a parabolic path.
(ii) Time of flight → The time during which a projectile if remains in air. Let h be the

38
vertical height of point of Projection.

Taking vertical downward motion of object we have
y0 = 0, y = h, uy = 0, ay = g, t = T
1 2
y = y0 + uyt + at
2
1 2
y= gt
2
2y
=t
g
2h
=t=T
g
Horizontal Range → The distance covered by Projectile along horizontal during its
time of flight is called H.R.
1 2
x = x0 + uxt + axt
2
x=R x0 = 0, ux = u, ax = 0
R = x = uxt
2h  2h 
R=u t = 
g  g 
(iv) Velocity at long time t →

Horizontal velocity = ux = u
Vertical velocity = vy =uy + ayt = 0 + g t
u x +v y = u 2 + g 2 t 2
2 2
Resultant velocity =
gt  gt 
tan β = ⇒ β ⇒ tan −1  
v  v 
(2) Projectile at an angle θ with Horizontal →
Consider a projectile is thrown at angle θ with the horizontal with velocity u
Resolve u into the components
i.e. ux = u cos θ
uy = u sin θ

39
As the projectile moves upward, its vertical velocity goes of decreasing fill it become
zero at height H. From C to B vertical velocity goes on Increasing till at B, it become u
Sin θ . The Horizontal component remains constant trough out the motion.
Nature of trajectory →
(a) For Horizontal Motion → Let x be Horizontal distance covered in time t.
Position of object at any time in Horizontal direction is
1
x = x0 + uxt + axt2
2
x0 = 0, ux = u cos θ , ax = 0
x = u cos θ t ⇒ t = x/ucos θ
(b) For Vertical Motion →
1 2
y = y0 + uyt + ay t
2
y0 = 0, uy = usin θ , ay = - g
1
y = u sin θ t - g t2
2
2
 x  1  x 
= u sin θ   − g 
 u cos θ  2  u cosθ 
g sec 2 θ 2
y = x tan θ - x
2u 2
This eg. Represents a Parabola. Hence Path is Parabolic.
(ii) Maximum Height. Attained → If is the max. vertical Height covered by projectile

40
above the vertical plane. At max. hight vertical component of velocity becomes
zero.
Vy2 – uy2 = 2 a S
Uy = uSin θ , vy = 0, a = -g, S = h
u2sin2 θ = 2gh
u 2 sin 2 θ
h=
2g
Note: (i) At max height of projectile is not zero but only vertical component vanishes
and horizontal component remains same.
(ii) These are two times when Projectile has the same height
Height of Projectile at any time t is given by
1 2
h = u Sin θ t - gt
2
1 2
gt – usin θ t + h = 0
2
gt2 – 2usin θ t + 2h = 0
It is quadratic eg. in time. Hence we have two value of t when H is same.
(iii) Time of flight → It is a time during which a body remains in flight.

Time of flight = Time of a scent + Time of descent
Time of ascent = Time of descent
Time of ascent (t) ÷
Vy = uy + at
Vy = 0, uy = uSin θ , a=-g
0 = u sin θ - g t
u sin θ
t=
g
2u sin θ
Time of flight T =
g
(iv) Horizontal Range → The Horizontal distance covered by projectile during time of
flight.
R = Horizontal component of velocity X time
R = u cos θ ⋅ T
2u sin θ u 2 sin 2 θ
= u cos θ . =
g g

41
Condition for Max. Range –

When Sin2 θ = 1 2 θ = 90° ⇒ θ = 45°
R.max = u2/g
Two Angle of projection for the same horizontal Range →
When an object is projected with velocity u, making an angle θ with the horizontal
u 2 sin 2 θ
direction, then horizontal range will be R1 = (1)
g
When Angle of Projection is (90° − θ ) then
u 2 sin 2 (90 − θ ) u 2 sin (180 − 2θ )

R2 = =
g g
u 2 sin 2 θ
= (2)
g
From (1) and (2) R1 = R2
The angle (90 − θ ) means angle θ with vertical. For which Range is same but vertical
height is not same.
u 2 sin 2 θ
H =
2g
u 2 sin 2 θ u 2 sin 2 (90 − θ ) u 2 cos 2 θ

H1 = H2 = =
2g 2g 2g
H1
= tan 2 θ
H2
2u sin θ
T1 =
g
2u sin( 90 − θ ) 2u cos θ
T2 = =
g g
T1
= tan θ
T2
Relationship b/w Horizontal Rnage R and maximum height H →

u 2 sin 2 θ u 2 sin 2 θ
H= , R=
2g g
H sin 2 θ sin 2 θ
R and H is max at 45° = =
R 2 sin 2 θ 2.2 cos θ
u2 u2 H tan θ
H= , R= =
4g g R 4
H max 1
= ⇒ Rmax = 4Hmax
R max 4

42
Circular Motion
Body is said to be circular motion if its distance from a fixed point remains constant.
This distance is called radius of circle and fixed point is called centre of circle.
Circular motion is an example of accelerated motion because velocity of particle
changes at every point due to change in direction.
Angular Displacement → It is defined as the angle described by a particle about a

certain fixed point.
If particle at P at tie t and Q at time t + ∆t . Then angle θ is known as
angular Displacement.
Arcofcircle Pθ
θ = =
Radius OP
Unit of angular displacement is radian. Angular Displacement is a vector quantity and
its direction is given by right hand rule – which states that if the curvature
of the fingers of right hand represents the sense of rotation of object. Then thumb ⊥ γ
to curvature of fingers represents dirn. of displacement vector.

43
Angular Velocity → It is defined as the rate of change of angular displacement i.e.

∆q
lim ∆t =w
∆t → o
If T is time taken by the particle to describe a complete circle i.e. one revolution round
the circle.
∆θ = 2π
∆θ 2π
w= = = 2πf
T T
f = frequency = no. of circle per second.
Angular velocity is a vector quantity and its Direction is given by right hand rule.
Time Period → It is the time taken by a particle to complete one circle or one vibration
or one revolution
1
Frequency → It is the no. of revolutions completed by a particle in one second. =T
v
Relationship b/w Linear velocity and Angular velocity → Let a point object is moving
with uniform angular velocity w and linear speed v in a circular path of radius r. At
any time t, the object be at θ and at time t + ∆t at Q.
∆l
Linear velocity (v) =
∆t
∆ l = v∆ t (1)
∆θ
Angular velocity (w) =
∆t
∆θ = w ⋅ ∆t (2)
∆l ∆l
∆θ = ⇒ w ⋅ ∆t = ⇒ ∆l = w ⋅ ∆t ⋅ r (3)
r r
From (1) and (3)
v ⋅ ∆ t = w ⋅ ∆t ⋅ r
v = w⋅r
Angular Acceleration → The rate of change of angular velocity with time is called
angular acceleration.
Let w1 and w2 arc the angular velocity of a particle at instant t1 and t2
then
∆w = w2 – w1 and ∆t = t2 – t1

44
∆w w2 − w1
α= =
∆t t 2 − t1
The S.I. unit is Radian/sec2 and Dimension is M ° L°T −2 .

α is vector Quantity and its Direction is along the change in angular velocity and
given by right hand screw rule.
Relation b/w Linear acceleration and Angular acceleration →

We know
v=wr
dv d ( wr )
=
dt dt
a= αr
Direction of v → When ∆t → o then ∠OPQ = π / 2
∴ PQ ⊥ OP i.e. PQ is directed along the tangent to the circle at P. Hence the
velocity at P is directed along the tangent to the circle at P in the Dirn of motion.
Centripetal force → acc. to newton’s laws, when a body moves with uniform motion a
straight line, no force is needed to maintain its uniform velocity. Put in a uniform
circular motion, velocity of particle changes due to change in direction. So uniform
circular motion is an accelerated motion and hence to cause acceterated motion and
hence to cause acceteration a force is needed. This force is called centripetal force,
which is defined “as the force which deflects the body from its linear path and makes it
to move along the circular path and acts radially inward. The direction of this force is
such that its component along the direction of motion is zero. As it changes direction
only but these is no change in magnitude of vector.
Centrifugal force → to move a body in a circular path, the force applied inward abng
radius called centripetal force. Acc to newton’s third law. The body exerts equal and
opposite force on the agent supplying centripetal force. This force which acts opp. to
centripetal force and along the radius outwards is called centrifugal force.
Expression for centripetal force → let us considered a pactide of mass in moving with
constant speed u and uniform it angular velocity w, in a circular path of radius r. let us

45
at any time t particle is at P with velocity v1 and at t+ ∆ particle is at Q with velocity u2,
clearly
∆θ
W= , v1 = v2 = v
∆t
Now Draw PA P ′A′ and PB P ′B ′
r r
Representing velocity vectors v1 , v 2
Then from ∆ A′P ′B ′

r r
A ′B ′ = P ′B ′ − P ′A ′ = v 2- v 1
As ∆ t r o , A′ lies close to B. Then A′B ′ can be taked as an arc A′B ′ of circle of radius
r
A′B′ AV
∴∆ θ = = v ⇒ ∆ v = ∆ θ .V
P′A′ V
now the centripetal accn is given by

r v∆Q ∆θ
a= lim ⇒ v lim = vw
∆t → o ∆t ∆t ∆t
force = ma
r v v2
a = vw = v ⋅ =
r r
mv 2
=
r
=wrw
= w 2r
v2
a= = w2 r
r
mv 2
F= = mrw 2 (centri - pital force)
r

46
Tangential and radial acceleration → considered a point moving in a circular path of

radius r with center o. let at any instant particle be at P with linear velocity v and
angular velocity w. Then
v = w× r
Diff. both sides
dv dw dr
= ×r + ×w
dt dt dt
a = α × r + w× v
= aT + ae
aT = Tangential acceleration of particle at P. It acts and along the tangent to the
circular path.
ac = Radial acceleration or centripetal acceleration which acts along the radius at P.
acc. to right hand rule.
Note – In case of uniform circular motion w = constant
dw
= 0 ⇒ aT = 0 But ac ≠ 0
dt
Application of centripetal force →
(i) Rotation of Planets around the Sun → All the Planets moves around the sun in
circular arbit, in these, gravitational attraction provides the necessary centripetal
force.
GMm
Gravitational attraction =
R2
Centripetal force = mv 2 / R
GMm mv 2 GM
⇒ v =
2
=
R2 R R
(ii) When a bucket full of water is rotated in a vertical circle, the water does not fall
down even at the highest point. It is due to centripetal force because at highest
point.
mv 2
C⋅F = , wt = mg
R
mv 2
= mg ⇒ vmin = rg
R

47
(iii) Rounding of a level curved road → While motion an a level circular road,
centripetal force is provided by the friction b/w roads and the tyres.
m = move of vehicle, R = Normal reaction of roads on wheels
R = mg
F = Force of friction b/w tyres and roads.
F = u R = u mg
mv 2
Centripetal force =
R
mv 2
≤ u mg
R
V≤ urg
Banking of Roads → The circular roads are banked at its outer edge to create
centripetal fore in addition to friction.
Resolve normal reaction R and force
Of friction F as shown
Now
mv 2
= RSin θ + FCos θ (1)
r
mg + F Sin θ = R Cos θ
mg = R cos θ - u R Sin θ (2)
Divide (1) by (2)
mv 2 RSinθ + FCosθ
=
rmg RCosθ − uRSinθ
v 2 Sinθ + uCosθ
=
rg Cosθ − uSinθ
tan θ + u
=
1 − u tan θ
 tan θ + u 
v 2 = rg  
 1 − u tan θ 

48
 tan θ + u 
Vmax = rg  
 1 − u tan θ 
Condition for parking → When we are to Park a vechical on a banked track i.e. V= 0
 tan θ + u 
rg   =0
 1 − u tan θ 
u + tan θ = 0
u ≥ − tan θ
Now if friction is zero →
mv 2
RSin θ = (From (1))
r
RCosθ = mg (From (2))
RSinθ mv 2 / r v2
(1) ÷ (2) = ⇒ tan θ
RCosθ mg rg
Let AB = h, OA = b then
h
OB = b2 − h2 , tan θ =
b2 − h2
h
Usually h pp b tan θ =
b
= rpSin φ As θ +φ = α
φ = α −θ
ON ON
From ∆OPN Sinφ = = or ON = rSinφ
OP r
∴ L = p(ON )
ON is ⊥ distance between Line of action of momentum and axis of rotation.
Radial component of linear momentum does not contribute to angular momentum. It

is only transverse component which will contribute to L.
Geometrical Meaning of Angular Momentum → Consider a particle rotating in xy
plane at any time ‘t’ whose position vector is r In a small time dt Let the particle
reaches from P to Q
i.e. OQ = r + dr ⇒ PQ = dr

49
Area swept by position vector in small time dt.
d A = Area of ∆PQO
1
= r × dr
2
dA 1 dr
= r×
dt 2 dt
1
= r ×b
2
1 b
= r×
2 m
dA 1 dA
= L Or L = 2m
dt 2m dt
dA
Here is the area swept by position vector per unit time and is called areal velocity
dt
of position vector.
∴ Angular momentum = 2 × mass × Areal velocity
Rotational Motion and moment of Inertia :- Consider a right body rotating about xy-
axis. Let m1, m2,_ _ _ , mn are masses of n particle at distance r1, r2, _ _ _ , rn from axis
of rotation, when the body rotates, all the particle rotate in concentric circle with same
angular velocity w but different linear velocity v1, v2, v3, _ _ _
1 1
m1v1 + m2 v2 + _ _ _
2 2
Total K.E. of rotating body =
2 2
1 1
m1r1 w1 + m2 r2 w2 + _ _ _
2 2
=
2 2
1 2
w (m1r1 + m2 r2 + _ _ _ _)
2 2
=
2
K.E. = 1 Iw 2
2
Where I = m1r12 + m2r22+ _ _ _

50
∑m r
2
I= 1 1 is called moment of inertia of a body about a given axis of rotation.
i =1
It is defined as
“Sum of product of masses and square of their distance from axis of rotation”.
1
If w = 1 then K.E. = I or I = 2 K.E.
2
Thus “M.I. of a body about a given axis of rotation is equal to 2 times its K.E. when its
angular velocity is unity.
Physical significance of M.I. :- The K.E. of a body in rotational motion is given by K.E.
1 2
= Iw
2
1 2
and the K.E. of body in translatory motion is K.E. = mv
2
The comparison between two shows that linear velocity is analogous to angular
velocity w. Also the M.I. in rotational motion play same role as played by mass in
translatory motion. Mass is a measure of inertial in translatory motion. So, M.I. is
measure of inertial in Rotational motion.
The M.I. depends upon.
(1) Position of axis of rotation.
(2) Orientation of the axis of rotation.
(3) Shape of the body
(4) Size of the body
(5) Distribution of mass of the body about the axis of rotation.
Radius of gyration:- The radius of gyration of a body about a given axis of rotation is
defined as the distance of a point from given axis of rotation where it is assumed that
whole mass of the body is concentrated such that its motion remain unchanged
Let a body having N particles each of mass m at distance r1, r2, r3, _ _ _ , rn from axis
of rotation.
∴ I = mr1 + mr2 + _ _ _ +mrn2
2 2
= m(r1 2 + r2 2 + _ _ _ )
( r1 + r2 + rn 2 )
2 2
= mN
N
I = MK2 Where M = mN

51
r + r2 + rn 2
2 2
K = 1
2
K is called radius of gyration. It is equal to square root of the means of square of

distance of particles from axis of rotation S.I. unit of K is meter and Dimension
[
formula is M 0 L1T 0 ]
Note:- 1. When a body rotates about a given axis end axis of rotation also moves, then
Total K.E. of body = K.E. of translation + K.E. of rotation
K = KT + Kr
K = 1 MV 2 + 1 IW 2
2 2
Torque and moment of Inertia :- Set a consists of masses m1, m2, _ _ _ , mn at distances
r1, r2, r3, _ _ _, from axis of rotation. Let α is angular acceleration for all particles and
a1, a2,_ _ _ are linear acceleration then a1 = r1 α , a2 = r2 α , _ _ _ , an = rn α
Force on particles is
f1 = m1a1 = m1r1 α , f2 = m2r2 α and so on.
Torque on particles is
τ 1 = m1r12α , τ 2 = m2 r2 2α and so on.
Total torque = τ = m1r12α + m2 r2 2α + _ _ _
= (m1r1 + m2 r2 + m3r3 + _ _ _)
2 2 2
τ = Iα
(This is equivalent to F = ma)
If α = 1 , τ =I=
Hence M.I. of a body about a given axis is equal to torque acting on the body rotating
with unit acceleration about it.

52
Angular Momentum and moment of Inertia:- Consider a body with n particles of masses
m1, m2, m3,_ _ _, at distances r1, r2,_ _ _ , rn from axis of rotation. Let body is moving
with uniform angular speed linear velocities of particles. Then
V1 = r1w, v2 = r2w,_ _ _ , and so on.
Linear momentum of particles are

P1 = m1v1 = m1r1w, p2 = m2r2w and so on.
Angular momentum of particles are

L1 = r1p1 = m2r12w, L2 = m1r22w and so on.
Total angular momentum

L = L1 + L2 + L3 + _ _ _ _
= m1r12w + m2r22w + _ _ _
= (m1r12 + m2r22+ _ _ _ _)w
L = IW
Where I = m1r12 + m2r22+_ _ _ _
Is called moment of Inertia
This equation is corresponds to p = mv
1. We know L = IW, differentiate it
dL dw
=I = Iα = z so
dL
z=
dt dt
& dt
Theorems on moment of Inertia :- When M.I. of a body about any given axis is known,
we can calculate M.I. of the same body about another axis using following two
theorems.
Theorem of perpendicular axis :- The M.I. of a plane lamina sheet about an axis ⊥ to
plane of lamina is equal to the sum of M.I. of sheet about two mutually ⊥ axis in its
plane intersect each other at the point through which axis of rotation passing.
Proof :- Consider a lamina in xy plane
Let Z axis is ⊥ to sheet Ix1 Iy1 Iz
Are M.I. about x axis, y axis, z axis

53
Suppose the lamina consists of n particles

of masses m1, m2, _ _ _ at ⊥ distance
r1, r2,_ _ _, rn from z axis.
Let x1, x2,_ _ _, xn are ⊥ distance from y axis
y1, y2,_ _ _, yn “ “ “ “ “ “ x axis.
Then Ix = n1y12 + n2y22+_ _ _ _
N
∑M
2
= i 1 y
i =1
J =1
Iy = mx2 – m2x22+_ _ _
N
∑M r
2
= 1 1
i =1
J =1
Iz = m1r12 + m2r22+ _ _ _
N
∑m r
2
= 1 1
i =1
N N
∑ m1 y1 + ∑ m1 x1
2 2
Ix + Iy =
i =1 i =1
∑ m (x + yi )
2 2
= i i
i =1
From fig. it is clear that ri2 = xi2 + yi2

N
∑m r
2
Ix + Iy = i i
i =1
Ix + Iy = Iz
Theorem of parallel axis :- The M.I. of a body about any axis parallel to axis passing
through its C.M. is always equal to sum of M.I. of the body about the axis of rotation
and product of mass and the square of distance between two parallel axis.
Proof :- Consider an axis AB through C.M. and another
axis CD parallel to AB, let a particle of mass
m at distance r from AB.
τ = Iα M.I. of particle about AB is = mr2
N 2
M.I of whole body about AB = ∑ mi ri = Ic

i =1
N
M.I. of particle about CD = m(r+ n)2 M.I. of body about CD= ∑ mi ( ri + n) 2
i =1

54
N 2
= ∑m r
i =1
i i + ∑ mi h 2 + 2∑ mi ri h
I = Ic + Mh2
The term ∑ m ⋅ 2rh is equal to zero because a body balance about its C.M.
Application of theorem on M.I. →
1. M.I. of a thin circular coil :-
(a) About an axis passing through C.M. :- Consider a coil of radius R and
axis xy passing through its centre. Let M is mass of ring then Length of
ring = 2 πR
Mass per unit length = M/2 πR
M
Mass of small element dx = × dx
2πR
 M 
M.I. of this element about γoγ ′ =  dx  R 2
 2πR 
[x]
2πR
M MR 2πR MR
M.I. of ring about γoγ ′ = ∫ × dx × R 2 = = × 2πR
x =0
2πR 2π 0 2π
Ic = MR2
M.I. of a Disc → Surface area of disc = πR 2

Mass per unit area of the disc = M/ πR 2
Consider a small element of the disc, which would be a circular strip of radius x and
width dx
Length of this element = 2 πx
Surface area of this element = 2πx ⋅ dx
M
∴ Mass of the element = (2πxdx )
πR 2
2 Mxdx
=
R2
R
2M  x 
R
4
2Mxdx 2 2M 2M 4
∫ ⇒
R ∫
x ⋅ dx =
R 4
= [R − 0]
3
Total I = x
R2 2 2
4R2
0
  0

55
1
M.I. = MR 2
2
(b) about any diameter →
Consider two mutually ⊥ diameter’s AB & CD. From theorem ⊥ axis
I = IAB + ICD
1
MR 2 = I c + I d
2
Id = 1 MR 2
4
(c) about a tangent in plane of disc →

Let x′y′ a tangent to disc in plane of disc From theorm of IIn exit.
I x′y′ = IAB + MR2
1
= MR 2 + MR 2
4
I x′y′ = 5
MR 2
4
(d) about a tangent ⊥ to plane of disc :-

Let Az1 be tangent to disc at A Then from theorem all II axis
IAz1 = I0z + MR2
= I + MR2
1 3
= MR 2 + MR 2 = MR 2
2 2
IAZ1 = 3 MR 2
2
(3) M.I. of a thin straight rod :- Consider a uniform thin rod of mass ‘M’
length ‘l’ and centre ‘o’.
(a) about an axis passing through its centre :- Let oc is axis of rotation Mass
M
per unit length =
l
Consider a small element of length dx a1 a distance x from o.
M.I. about this element = mass × (distance)2

56
M
= dx × x 2
l
M 2
= x dx
l
l/2
M
τ ok M. I. = ∫ x dx
2
l −l / 2
l/2
M x 
3
M  l 3  − l 3 
=   −   
l  3 
=
3l  2   2  
  −l / 2
M l 3 l 3 
M.I. =  + 
3l 8 8
M.I. = 1 Ml 2
12
Law of conservation of angular Momentum:-

“The total angular momentum of body remains constant till no external torque is
applied.
dL
We know τ =
dt
As no external torque is applied i.e. τ = 0
dL
⇒ =0 or L = Constant
dt
Also L = Iw = Constant
i.e. L = I1w1 = I2w2
Here I = M.I. of a body, w = angular velocity.

57
Unit 3 (I)
Laws of Motion
Force → Force is an external effort in the form of push or pull which change or tri to
change the position of an object is called force.
Linear Momentum → The linear momentum of a body is defined as the product of

mass of the body and its velocity
P = mv
Linear Momentum is a vector Quantity.
Newton’s laws of motion →
First law → A body remains at rest if it is in rest, or in motion if it is in motion until no

external force is applied on the body.
Second law → Force applied an the body is directly proportional to the rate of change
of linear momentum.
d ( P)
Fp
dt
Third law → Acc. to this law to every action there is equal and opposite reaction.
Inertia → It is the inability of the body to change its state of rest, motion or direction.
It is of three types.
(i) Inertia of rest → It is the Inability of a body to change by itself its state of rest.
Ex :- If we are sitting in a stationary bus. If the bus starts suddenly. We get thrown
backward with a jerk.
(ii) Inertia of motion → It is the Inability of a body to change by itself its state of
motion.
Ex:- If we are sitting in a moving bus if the bus suddenly stop we get thrown
forward.
(iii) Inertia of direction → It is the Inability of a body to change by itself its state of
direction.

58
Ex:- When a car round rounds suddenly, the person sitting inside its thrown
outward.
Explanation of Newton’s second law → Acc. to Newton second law, the rate of
Change of linear momentum of a body is directly proportional to the external
Force applied on body.
Let m = mass of a body
v = velocity of the body

∴ The linear momentum of the body
p = mv
let F = external force applied on the body in the direction of motion of a body.
∆p = a small change in linear momentum of the body in a small time ∆t .
∆p
Rate of change of linear momentum of the body =
∆t
Acc. to Newton second law
∆p
pF
∆t
∆p
Fp
∆t
∆p
FpK
∆t
∆p
F p K lim Here K = 1
∆t → o ∆t
d ( p)
F=K F = ma
dt
Kd (mv )
F=
dt
dv
F = Km = K ma
dt
Dimensions and Units of Force →
[
Dimensional formula → M ′L′T −2 ]
(a) Absolute Units → The absolute unit of force on SI is a Newton.
One Newton force is that much force which Produces an acceleration of 1 ms-2
in a body of mass 1kg.
(b) The absolute Unit of force an c. g. s system is dyne.

59
One dyne force is that much force which Produces an acceleration of

1cms-2 in a body of mass one gram.
Impulse → The force which act on bodies for short time are called Impulsive force.
Hence impulse of a force is a measure of total effect of the force.
Impulse = Force × Time
According to Newtons IInd law
d ( p)
F=
dt
()
f p2
∫ F ⋅ dt = ∫ d p
o p1
F t0 =
t
[p] p2
p1
F av × t = p 2 − p1
Impulse, I = F av × t = p2 − p1
Hence Impulse of a body is measured by the total change in linear momentum

produced during the imact.
Dimensional formula M ′L′T −1 [ ]
S. I. Units are [N − S ]
Ex: -
1. A cricket player lowers his hands while catching a cricket ball. While doing this
he takes a longer time time to stop the ball and hence force is reduced.

60
Explanation of Newton third law of motion → Acc. to Newton third law to every action
there is equal and opposite reaction.
Consider an isolated system consisting of two bodies A and B moving along
the same straight line.
Let they collide and ∆p . and ∆p2 be the change in linear momentum of body
A and B respectively.
Acc. to law of conserration of linear momentum the net change in linear momentum of
the system is zero. i.e.
∆p + ∆p2 = 0
∆p = - ∆p2
∆p1 ∆p
=− 2
∆t ∆t
∆p1 ∆p2
lim ∆t = lim −
∆t →0 ∆t →0 ∆t
d ( p1 ) d ( p2 )
=−
dt dt
FAB = - FBA
EX: - (1) While walking, a person presses the ground in the backward direction by his
feet. The ground pushes the person in forward direction with an equal force.

61
Horse and Carl problem →
(1) Weight (w1) of the cart C is balanced by the reaction R1.

(2) Weight (w2) of the Horse H is balanced by the reaction R2.
(3) The horse pulls the cart with a force T in the forward direction. The cart in turn, pull
the horse with the same force T in the backward direction. These two force are also
balanced.
(4) While pulling the cart, the horse pushes the ground backward with its foot by a force F
inclined at a angle θ with the horizontal. As a reaction the ground exacts force R on
the horse equal and opposite to F.
(5) R can be resolved into two react angular components R Sin θ vertically upwards and R
Cos θ along the horizontal.
(6) The component RCos θ tends to move the cart forward. This motion is opposed by the
force of friction f between the cart and the ground. The cart will move only when RCos
θ f f.
Apparent weight of a man in a lift →
(a) When lift is at rest →

Accn of the Person = 0
Net force on the Person f = 0
i.e. R-mg = 0
R = mg

62
(b) When lift is moving uniformaly up →

Accn of the Person = 0
Net force on the Person f = 0
i.e. R-mg = 0
R = mg
(c) When lift is accelerating upwards →

Suppose uniform upward accn of the Person in the lift = a
Net upward force on the Person h = ma
f = R1 − mg
R1 = f + mg
= ma + mg
R1 = m (a + g)
R1 f m g
(d)When the Elevator is accelerating downwards →

Suppose uniform downward accn of the person in the lift = 1
Net downward force on the person
f = ma,
f = mg – R2
R2 = mg – ma
R2 = m (g – a)
R2 p mg
(v) In the free fall of gravity a = g

R2 = m (g – g) = 0
(vi) When downward accn is greater than g →
R2 = m (g – a) = -ve
In this case the person will rise from the floor of the lift and stick to the culing
of the left.

63
Principle of conservation of linear momentum → Acc to this principle, in an isolated

system, the vector sum of the linear momentum of all bodies of the system is conserved.
Let these is an isolated system in which two Bodies A and B. with initial momentum
are P A and P B Let them collide for a small time ∆t and separate with find
momentum
1 1
P A and P B
If FAB = Force on A applied by B

If FBA= Force on B applied by A
then Acc. to Newton second law
FAB × ∆t = p1 A − PA (1)
FBA × ∆t = p1 B - P B (2)
Acc. to Newton IIIrd law

FAB = -FBA
FAB × ∆t = -FBA × ∆t
PA − PA = − PB − PB 
1 1 1 1
 
PA − PA = PB − PB
1 1
PA + PB = PA + PB
1 1
Which show that total Initial momentum of a system is equal to total final momentum.

64
Ex – Recoiling of gun →
Let there is an isolated system of bullet and gun
m1 = mass of bullet
m2 = mass of gun
v1 = velocity of Bullet
v2 = velocity of Gun
Before firing →
v1 = 0 and v2 = 0
so
m1v1 + m2v2 = 0 (1)
After firing –
Total linear momentum
m1v1 + m2v2 (2)
As linear momentum is conserred
m1v1 + m2v2 = m1v1 + m2v2
0 = m1v1 + m2v2
-m1v1 = m2v2
− m1v1
= v2
m2
-ve sign show tat gun recoil backward.
Newton second law is a real law of motion →
To establish it we shall show that

(a) Ist law is contained in the second law
(b) IInd law is contained in the second law
First law from second law → Acc. to Newton second law
F = ma If no external force is applied on body
F=0
ma = 0
m ≠0 therefore a = 0

65
Thus there will be no acceleration in the body if no external force is applied. This
means that a body at rest will remain at rest and a body in uniform motion will
continue moving uniformly along the same line in the absence of external force.
Third law from second law →

Consider an isolated system of two bodies A and B. During Collision, let the body A
exerts a force F , on body B for a time ∆t . Let the body B exerts a force F 2 on body A
for some time ∆t .
As change in linear momentum
= Force × Time
∴ Change in linear momentum of A
= FAB × ∆t .
Change in linear momentum of B
= FBA × ∆t .
Total change in linear momentum = FAB × ∆t + FBA × ∆t
If no external force is applied then total change in linear momentum of the system is
zero FAB × ∆t + FBA × ∆t = 0.
FAB = - FBA
Connected motion → Consider a system containing two bodies m1 and m2 connected on

the end of a string which passes over a pully. The heavier body will move downward
and lighter body will move upward let ‘a’ is the comma acceleration of the system.
On the heavy body →
(i) Its weight m1g acting downward.
(ii) The tension T in the string upward.

66
As the body moves downward with accn a so

f = m1g – T
m1a = m1g – T (1)
On the lighter body –
(i) Its weight m2g acting downward.
(ii) The tension T in the string upward.
As the body moves upward.
f = T – m2g
m2a = T – m2g
Add (1) and (2)
m1a + m2a = m1g – T + T – m2 – g
a (m1 + m2) = g (m1 – m2)
a=
(m1 − m2 ) g
(m1 + m2 )
Divide (1) and (2)

m1a m1 g − T
=
m2 a T − m2 g
m1 (T − m2 g ) = m2 (m1 g − T )
m1T − m1m2 g = m1m2 g − m2T
m1T + m2T = m1m2 g + m1m2 g
T (m1 + m2 ) = 2m1m2 g
 2m m 
T =  1 2  g
 m1m2 

67
Unit 3 (II)
Friction → is an opposing force that comes into play when one body actually moves or
even tries to moves over the surface another body. It develops at the surface of contact
of two bodies.
(i) Static friction → The opposing force that comes into play when one body tends to
move over the surface of another, but the actual motion has yet not started is called
static friction.
(ii) Limiting friction → is the maximum opposing force that comes into play, when one
body is just at the range of moving over the surface of the other body.
(iii) Kinetic friction → is the opposing force that comes into play when one body is
actually moving the surface of another body.
Cause of friction force →
A surface which appears very smooth to the naked eye is found to have irregularities
when seen through a powerful microscope. When two bodies are in contact with each
other, the irregularities in the surface of one body get interlocked in the irregularities
of the other surface. To move one body over the surface of other, these interlockings
have to be broken. Hence some force has to be applied. This applied force is a measure
of friction between the two surfaces in contact.
Rolling friction → The opposing force that comes into play when one body is actually
rolling over the surface of other body is called rolling friction

68
.
Cause → When a body rolls on a level track, the area of contacts is very small.
Therefore pressure exterted which is equal to weight/area is very large. This cause a
depression in the surface below and a mount in front as shown
In turn, the surface of rolling body in contact gets slightly compressed. Thus a rolling
wheel (i) constantly pulls out of depression and goes until on the mount LM. Which is
opposed by the force of adhesion between the surface in contact. This cause rolling
friction of why static friction is a self Adjusting force.
Laws of limiting friction →
(1) The magnitude of the force of limiting friction between any two bodies in contact
is directly proportional to the normal reaction (R) between them i.e. F × R
(2) The direction of the force of limiting friction is always opposite to the direction in
which one body it at the range of moving over the other.
(3) The force of limiting friction is independent of the apparent area of contact, so
long as normal reaction remains the same.
(4) The force of limiting friction between any two bodies in contact depends on the
nature of materials of the surfaces in contact.

69
Co-efficient of friction → Acc. to first law of limiting friction

F×R
F=uR
Where u is a constant of proportionality and is called the co-efficient of limiting
friction.
F
u=
R
Hence coefficient of limiting friction between any two surfaces in contact is defined as
the ratio of the force of limiting friction and normal reaction between them.
Value of u is depend upon

(i) nature of surface in contact.
(ii) material of the surface in contact.
Angle of friction → is defined is the angle which the resultant of the force of limiting
Friction F and Normal reaction R makes with the direction of normal Reaction R. It is
represented by θ
Ac
tan θ =
oA
oB F
= = =u
oA R
u = tan θ

70
Angle of Repose → is defined as the minimum angle of inclination of a place with the
horizontal such that a body placed on the place just begins to slide down.
Various force involved are : -

(i) weight mg of the body, acting vertically downward.
(ii) normal Reaction R, acting Perpendicular to AB.
(iii) Force of friction F, acting up the Plan – AB.
F = mg Sin α (1)
R = mg Cos α (2)
Dividing (1) by (2)
F mgSinα
=
R mgCosα
u = tan α
Acceleration of a Body Down a Rough Inclined Plane →

When a plane is inclined to the horizontal at an angle θ . Which is greater than the
angle of repose. If the body slides down with an accn a.
R = mg Cos θ (i)
ma = mgSin θ - F
= mgSin θ - u R
= mgSin θ - u (mg Cos θ )
ma = mg (sin θ - u Cos θ )
a = g (Sin θ - u Cos θ )

71
Work done in moving a Body up a Rough inclined Plane →

Suppose a body of mass m is moved up a rough plane AB inclined to the horizontal at
an angle θ .
Various force involved →

(i) Weight mg of the body acting vertically downwards.
(ii) Normal Reaction R acting perpendicular to plan AB
(iii) Force of Friction F acting down the plane AB
as the body moves up the plane.
R = mg Cos θ
P = mg Sin θ + F
= mg Sin θ + u R
= mg Sin θ + mg Cos θ . u
P = mg (Sin θ + u Cos θ )
W = Force × Displacement
W = mg ( W = mg (Sin θ + u Cos θ ) × S
Friction is a necessary evil →
(a) Friction is a necessity →

1. Walking will not be possible without friction
2. No two bodies will sick to each other if these is no friction
3. brakes of the vehicles will not work without friction
4. writing an the black board as paper will also not be possible without friction
5. Cleaning with sand paper will not be possible without friction

72
(b) Friction is an evil →

1. Friction involves unnecessary expense of energy. It means output is always less than
the input
2. Friction causes wear and tear of the posts of machinery in contact.
3. Frictional forces results in the production of hear, which causes damage to the
machiney.
Methods of reducing friction →
1. By polishing → Polishing makes the surface smoother, therefore, reduce friction.
2. By lubrication → Lubricants likes oil, grease fill up irregularities of the surface

making them smoother.
3. By using ball bearing → using Ball bearing siding friction is converted into rolling
friction which is much less. Thus we reduce friction.
4. By streamlining → Friction due to air is considerably reduced by streamlining the

shape of the body sharp in front moving though air.

73
Unit 4
Work,Power,Energy
Work:- Work is said to be done when a force displaces a body in its own direction.
Let F = Force acting on body
S = Displacement of body
Then, work done W = Force x displacement
Expression of work:- Let a force F is applied an a body of mass m making an angle Q
with displacement S.
r
Displacement = S
r r
Component of force along S = F cosθ
W=(Fcos θ ) × S
W=F S cas θ
r r
W= F .S
* work is equal to dot product of force displacement.
* work is a scalar physical quantity.
Special cases:-
(1) If F=0, W=0 e.g. An electron moving in space in such a region where no kind of electric
& magnetic field exists does no work.
(2) If S=0, W=0 e.g. A person pushing a wall falls to displace it.
(3) If Q= 90° ,w=0 as cos 90° =0 e.g if a coolie with load on this head moving along a
horizontal path does no work.
(4) If Q= 0° ,w=F × S × Cos 0° = FS = Maximum.

74
Work done by variable force:- Let us plot a graph b/w force and displacement S.
Let F is the force considered uniform over a small displacement ds, then work done
over this displacement is dw given by
dw = F ⋅ ds
Total work done between S1 and S2
S2
W = ∫ dw = ∫ F .ds
S1
S2
W= ∫ F ds
S1
i.e. area under the F ⋅ S curve represents work done force

Dimension:- M 1 L2T −2
Unit
(a) Absolute unit :-
S.I. unit – Joule → W = FS = 1N × 1m = 1 j
One joule is that work which is done by a force of 1N in displacing a body through 1
meter in the direction of force.
Cgs unit ergs : → 1erg. = 1dyne × 1c.m.
One erg. Is that work done by a force of one dyne in displacing a body through 1 c.m.
(b) Gravitational unit →

S.I. unit → 1kgm = 1kgwt1 × 1m
One kg meter is that work which is done by a force of 1kg wt. in displacing a body
through 1m.

75
Nature of work done :-

(a) Positive work → w = F ⋅ S ⋅ Cos θ
When θ lies b/w 0° to 90° then the work done is positive.
e.g. When a spring is stretched, work done in the stretching force is positive.
(b) Negative work → w = FSCos θ
When θ is greater than 90° then the work done is negative.
e.g. work done by frictional force.
(c) Zero work : - W = FSCos θ
When θ is 90° then the work done is zero.
e.g. A coolie with load on his head moving along a horizontal path does no work.
Conservative & Non-Conservative force :-
(a) Conservative force :- A force said to be conservative if work done by any force
b/w any two point is independent of the path chosen is called conservative force.
e.g. :- Gravitational force is a conservative force.
(a) fig. (a) shows the body being raised vertically upward.
Force applied F = mg
W = F ⋅ SCos θ
= (mg)h Cos 0° = mgh (1)
fig. (b) shows the body being, taken along a smooth inclined plane CB of height
AB = h and inclination θ ..
W = F ⋅CB
= mg Sin θ ⋅ CB [F = mg Sin θ ]

76
AB
= mg × × CB [ Sinθ = AB / CB]
CB
= mgh [AB = h]
(b) fig. (c) shows that body being taken up through the same height AB = h over a
stair case.
Let each step of vertical Height = h1
Horizontal width = x
Total stairs = n
W3 = n [mgh1 cos 0° + mgx Cos 90°
= n × mgh1 = mgh (nh1 = h)
(d) fig. (d) show the body being carried through the same Height AB = h over any
arbitrary zigzag path.
Let divide this path over a large number of infinitesimally small Horizontal
displacement (dx) and vertical displacement (dh).
∴ work done
= ∑ mg (dh) cos 0° + ∑ mg (dx) cos 90°
w4 = mgh
From the above discussion, we find that work done is the same, whatever be the path
followed the given initial position A and final position B. This establishes that
gravitational force is a conservative force.
Non-conservative forces :- A force is said to be non-conservative, if work done by or
against the force in moving a body form one position to another, depends on the path
followed between these two positions.
Power:- Power of a body is defined as the rate at which the body can don the work, i.e.
work
Power = Rate of doing work =
time
The power P of an agent can also be expressed in terms of the force applied
F and the velocity v of the body.
work w F ⋅S
As P = = = ∴
time t t
S
Where V = P = F ⋅V
t
Hence Power of n agent can be expressed as the dot product of force applied and
velocity of the body.
If θ is angle between F and v , then

77
P = F.V = FvCos θ . However, when V is along F , θ = 0°

∴ P = FvCos 0° = Fv
As Power is the ratio of two scalar quantities want t, therefore, Power is a scalar. That
is why it is expressed as dot product of F and V .

Energy:- “capacity of doing work is called energy”
Dimension and units of energy are same as those of “work”.
Apart from this,
1 calorie = 4.2J is the unit of hear energy.
1 Kilowatt hour = 1 kwh = 3.6 × 106 unit of electrical energy
1 electron volt = 1.6 × 10-19 J = unit of energy used in nuclear energy.
Various types of energy:-
(1) Mechanical Energy (2) Heat Energy (3) Light Energy
(4) Sound Energy (5) Electric Energy (6) Nuclear Energy
(7) Chemical Energy etc. (8) Internal Energy
(1) Mechanical Energy:- The mechanical energy of a body is the sum of kinetic
energy and potential energy. (E = K+v) value of mechanical energy of a body
depends upon frame of reference.
(2) Heat Energy:- It is the energy possessed by a body by virtue of random motion
of the molecules of the body.
(3) Electric Energy:- E.E. arises on account of work required to be done in moving
the free charge carries in a particular direction through a conductor.
(4) Nuclear Energy:- N.E. is the energy obtainable from an atomic nucleus. Two
distinct modes of obtaining nuclear energy are (i) Nuclear fission (ii) Nuclear
fusion.
(5) Chemical Energy:- C.E. of a body, say a chemical compound is the energy
possessed by it by virtue of chemical bonding of its atoms. The chemical energy
becomes available in a chemical reaction.
(6) Internal Energy:- It is the total energy possessed by the body by virtue of
particular configuration of its molecules and also their random motion.
What is Transformation of energy?
“Conversation of one type of energy into other type is called transformation of
energy.”
Eg.
I. Electric Motor:- Electrical into mechanical
II. Heater:- Electrical energy into heat energy

78
III. Chemical cell:- Chemical energy into electrical energy

IV. Generator:- Mechanical into electrical
Einstein’s – Energy Relation:- According to Einstein, mass can be converted into
energy and energy into mass.
Let m = mass c = speed of light (3 × 108 m/s)
Then E = energy = mc2
Mass = Energy relation
E = mc2
Mechanical Energy:- It is of two types

a. Kinetic energy (K.E.)
b. Potential Energy (P.E.)
Mechanical Energy = KE + PE
Define Kinetic energy. Give example. Drive expression:-
Definition:- Energy of a body to its motion is called Kinetic energy.
Examples:- (1) Flowing water gas K.E.
(2) Blowing wind has K.E.
(3) Bullet fired from gun has K.E.
Expression:- Let a body of mass m is initially at rest with acceleration ‘a’. Some work
is done on the body S.t. its velocity increases to v after moving a displacement S. for
small distance dx.
dv
dw = F.dx = ma.dx = m ⋅ dx
dt
⇒ dw = m.vdv
Integrating both side under the limit of motion
v
∫ dw = ∫ m.v.dv
0
v
v 2
1 2 1
W = m.   = mv − m × o 2
2 2
2 0
i.e. work done on the system is used to change its K.E.

i.e. work done on the body is stored as its kinetic energy.
W = E = ½ mv2
Define Potential energy. Give Example. Derive expression:-

79
Definition:- “Energy of a body due to its position or configuration is known as

potential energy.”
Examples:- (1) Stored water has P.E.
(2) Stretched bow has P.E.
(3) Stretched/elongated spring has P.E.
(4) Electron resolving in orbit has P.E. (also has K.E.)
Expression:- m= mass of body lying at Surface
h = height by which it is taken against force of gravity
Force applied on the body F = m × g
Work done on the body by applied force.
W = Force × Distance
W = F × S = (m × g) × h QS=h
∴ W = mgh
This work done is stored in the body as its potential energy.
P = mgh
Work Energy Theorem / Principal:- According to it

“work done on a body is equal to change in its K.t.”
i.e.
W= 1 mv2 - 1 mv2
2 2
Proof for work Energy Theorem:- Let a body of mass m is moving with velocity u with
acceleration ‘a’. Some work is done on the body S.T. its velocity increases from u to v
after moving a displacement S.
For small distance dx.

dv
Dw = F.dx = ma.dx = m ⋅ dx
dt
⇒ Dw = m.vdv.
Integrity both side under the limit of motion
u
∫ dw = ∫ m.v.dv
v
u
2
w = m⋅
v =
1 2 1
mv − mu 2
2 2
2 v

80
i.e. work done on the system is used to change its K.E.

Relation b/w Momentum & K.E.:-
Momentum of a body, P = m × v
1 2 2
or P2 = m 2 × v 2 = m v ×2
2
1 
=  mv 2  × 2m
2 
= KE × 2m
or KE = P2/2m
P =or 2m× KE
Que. Explain what do you mean by low of conservation of energy by giving a

suitable example.
Ans. The fact that “energy can neither be created nor destroyed but can be
transformed from one form to another” is called law of conservation of
energy. For e.g. energy of water fall is converted into electrical energy at
power generating station. Let us illustrate the law of conservation of energy
by a suitable example.
A ball is let drop from a height ‘h’ from point A.
At A K.E. of ball = 0
P.E. of ball = mgh
Total energy = K.E. + P.E.
T.E. = mgh (1)
1 2 1
At B K.E. = mv = m.2 gx = mgx
2 2
P.E. = mg (h - x)
T.E. = K.E. + P.E. = mg (h – x) + mgx = mgh (2)

81
1 2 1
At C K.E. = mv = m.2 gh = mgh
2 2
P.E. = 0
T.E. = mgh + 0
T.E. = mgh (3)
From (i), (ii) & (iii) we see that total energy of the ball does not change through it
continuously.
is changing from its potential energy from to kinetic energy.
If we show it in a graph:- So, what remains in the universe is the energy.
Expression For potential energy of a stretched spring:-

Define force constant or spring constant:-
“The force required per unit elongation of the spring is called its force constant.”
Let F = Defining or stretching force
X =elongation of the spring or increase in length
Then force constant
F stretching force
K= =
x Elongation
value of spring constant (K) depends upon the nature of spring.

F M 1 L1T −2 1 0 − 2
Dimension of K – k= = M LT
x L1
F
Units:- k = = N.m-1 or dyne. cm-1
x
Expression for potential energy:- Let a spring of force constant = k
Its elongation = x
∴ F = Kx

82
Suppose the spring is further elongated by dx.

Then work is done by in doing so
dw = F × dx = (kx) × dx
Total work done in elongating it from x = 0 to x = x
x x x
W = ∫ dw = ∫ k .x.dx =k ∫ x.dx
0 0 0
x
x 2
 x2 
or W = k   = k  ÷ 0
2 2 
  0
x2
W=k
2
This work done is stored in the spring as its

P.E.
1 2
PE = Kx
2
The graph b/w stretching force (F) & elongation of spring (x) is a straight line as
F oc x
The area under F –x graph is always equal to potential energy stored in the spring for
its elongation. Let spring is increased by X0, then
P.E. = Area OAB
Collision:- It is defined as mutual Interaction or Particles for a short interval of time as
a result of which energy & momentum of Interacting particles changes.

83
Types (1) Elastic (2) Inelastic collision

(1) Elastic:- Those collision in which both momentum and K.E. of system are
conserved are called elastic collision.
(2) Inelastic:- momentum and T.E. is conserved, but K.E. is not conserved. A parter
whole of mechanical energy may be converted into other form. Forces are non-
conservative in nature.
Elastic collision in one Dimension:- Let us consider two perfectly elastic bodies A & B
of mases m1, m2 moving with vel. u1, u2.
After collision their velocity are v1, v2.
After collision bodies separate & acquire vel. v1, v2 Due to conservation of Linear
momentum.
M1u1 + m2u2 = m1v1 + m2v2 (1) (1)
By K.E. Conservation
1 1 1 1
m1u1 + m1u1 = m1v1 + m1v1
2 2 2 2
(2 )
2 2 2 2
From (1) m1(u1 – v1) = m2(v2 – u2) (3)
From (2) m1(u12 – v12) = m2(v22 – u22) (4) divide (4) by (3)
u1 + v1 = u2 + v2
(
m1 u1 − v1
2 2
)=
(
m2 v2 − u2
2 2
)
⇒ v1 = v2 + u2 − u1
m1 (u1 − v1 ) m2 (v2 − u1 )
v2 = v1 + u1 − u2
Put v1 in (1), we get
M1 (v2 + u2 – u1) + m2v2 = m1u1 + m2u2
(m1 + m2)v2 = (m2 – m1)u2 + 2m1u1
( m2 − m1 )u 2 + 2m1u1
⇒ v2 =
( m1 + m2 )
Put v2 in (1), we get
(m1 − m2 )u1 + 2m2u 2
V1 =
( m1 + m2 )
V1 = u2
Special cases:- (1) It m1 = m2 = m V2 = u1
Bodies

84
Inter change their velocities in one = Dimensional elastic collision

(2) When B at rest, u2 = 0
( m1 − m2 )  2m1 
v1 = u1 & v2 =  u1
( m1 + m2 ) m
 1 + m2 
2 (a) If m1 = m2 If A, B of equal masses initially B at rest.

Then finally, A at rest.
V1 = 0
V2 = u1
(b) If m2 pp m1 , m2 can be neglected
m1
v1 = m2 pp u1 , v2 = 2u1
m1
V1 = u1
V2 = 2u1
When A collides with B (at rest) , then A should keep on moving with same velocity but
B have speed double than that of A.
(c) If m2 pp m1 , m1 can be neglected.
m2
v1 = - u1 = - u1
m2
 Awillmovein 
2m1u1  
v2 = ≈ 0 [m is small] n
oppositedir but 
m2
 Bcomesatrest 
 
Elastic collision in two Dimension:- Let us consider two perfectly elastic bodies A & B
of masses m1, m2 alone some straight line with u1, u2. Let
After collision A, B travel with velocities v1, v2 making angles θ1 ,θ 2 Because of elastic
collision K.E. must conserved
1 1 1 1
m1u1 + m2u2 = m1v1 + m2v2
2 2 2 2
2 2 2 2
momentum is vector quantity, so is separated along two (x & y) axis.
Component of momentum of body A along x – axis = m1v1 Cos θ1
Component of momentum of B after collision along x – axis = m2v2 Cos θ2
Using law of conservation of momentum m1u1 + m2u2 = m1v1Cos θ1 + m2v2Cos θ2 (1)
IIndly component of momentum A along y – axis = m1v1 Sin θ1
IIndly component of momentum B along y – axis = -m2v2Sin θ2
0 + 0 = m1v1 Sin θ1 + (-m2v2 Sin θ2 ) (2)

85
Initially objects are moving along x-axis not along y-axis. Here your parameters
are connected by 3 equations, so can’t be find out.

86
Unit 5
Centre of mass → Centre of mass of a body is a point of which whole mass of body is
supposed to be concentrated. The motion of body remain unchanged if all the forces
aching on the body are directly applied on centre of mass.
Two-particle system → Considered two particle system with position vector r, and r2
respectively when an external force applied on the body. Then
dr1
velocity of particle 1=v1=
dt
dr2
Velocity of particle 2=v2=
dt
r
So total momentum of the system P =m1v1+m2v2
r dr dr
P =, m1 1 +m2 2
dt dt
r d
P = (m1r1+m1r2)
dt
r
P =(m1+m2)
u1 f u 2
d  m1r1 + m 2 r2 
 
dt  m1 + m2 
r d  m r + m 2 r2 
P =M  1 1 
dt  m1 + m2 
Where M=m1+m2=total mass of the system. Let M is placed at the centre of mass and
K is its position vectors. Then its momentum.
r DR
P =Mv=M (2)
DF
 m r + m 2 r2 
From (1) and (2) R=  1 1  it will fall on lice joining two planet.
 m1 + m2 
r +r 
Special cases → (1) if m1=m2=m then R=  1 2 
 2 
If m1>m2 C.M. will close to m, and vice ver&a.
m1 x 1 + m 2 x 2
Co-ordinates of C.M → X=
m1 + m 2
m 1 y1 + m 2 y 2
Y=
m1 + m2

87
m1 z 1 + m 2 z 2
Z=
m1 + m 2
Centre of mass of n-particle system → Let these are n-particle of masses m1,m2----
mn situated at r1,r2,r3----,rn from origin.
m1 r1 + m 2 r2 + m3 r3 + − − − − + mnrn
R=
m1 + m3 + m3 + − − − − + mn
n
∑ miri
i =1
R=
M
Conservation of velocity and momentum of C.M. → Consider system having N-particle
of masses m1,m2----,mn situated at r1,r2,----,rn from the origin.
n
dr d miri
The velocity of C.M., V= =
dt dt
∑
i =1 M
dv d 2 r d 2 n
miri
The accn of C.M., a= = =
dt dt 2 dt 2
∑
i =1 M
The momentum of body in teams of C.M; P=MV
The momentum of body in teams of individual particle is given
d n
P= ∑ mivi = ∑ miri
dt i =1
dp d dv
Let external force is F then F= = (17v) = M
dt dt dt
d n
And F= ∑ miri
dt i =1
dv dv
Let F=0 then M = c ,AS M ≠ 0 so = 0 ∴ v=constant
dt dt
Thus when no external force is applies on a body, the C.M. remained at rest or in
uniform motion.
d n n
Also ∑ miri =0 or
dt i =1
∑ miri =constant
i =1
Thus momentum is also conserved.

Example of motion of centre of mass →
1. Projectile Motion → When a bomb is projected upward it follow the parabolic path,
let in air the bomb explodes into different pieces, these pieces will move in different
direction but centre of mass will follow the same path as followed if it was not
exploded. It is due to the fact that no external force is applied the velocity of C.M.
remains constant.

88
Consider a boat person system, initially at rest. The C.M. is at A. Let the person jumps
out from boat inforward direction, the boat moves in backward direction conserve
momentum. The Position of C.M. is shill found at A.
Internal force play no role towards the motion of body only external forces produces
change in motion.
Rigid Body → A body is said to be rigid body if there is no change in interatomic
distance when external force is applied on it. No body is perfect rigid body.
C.M. of various symmetrical body :- The C.M. of a body may be inside or outside the
body. It depends upon the shape and size of the body. On symmetrical bodies the
center of mass coincide with geometrical centre.
(1) Uniform ring → At the centre of ring (5) Triangle → At the intersection
(2) Uniform disk → At the centre of Disk of three median.
(3) Solid sphere → At the centre of Sphere (6) Cube → Point of intersection
(4) Hollow sphere → At the centre of sphere of Diagonals.
(7) Hollower → At the centre of Hollower.
Centre of mass and centre of cravity → The CM is the point where whole of mass of
body is assumed to be concentrated, such that its motion remain unchanged
The C.G. is a point where the wt. of the body is assumed to be acting.
In Symmetrical shape bodies the C.M. always coincide with C.M.
Motion of a Rigid body → In general the motion of a rigid body consists of both the
transtatory motion and rotational motion.
Rotational Motion → There must be an axis of rotation about which every particle of
body will rotate. Let the axis of rotation is z-axis and the body is rotating in xy-plane.
Characteristics of rotational Motion →
(1) Every particle of the body describe a circle lie on axis of rotation
(2) The angular speed of every particle of the body is same as that of the body.
(3) The linear speeds of the particles are different the particles which are closer to v = wr
axis have low speed and those away have high speed.
Torque (T) :- The turning effect of a force acting on a body is called Torque. Torque is
also called moment of force.
The torque is measured by the product of magnitude of force and ⊥ γ
Distance of the line of action of force from axis of motion. The ⊥ γ distance is called
moment.
τ = Force × moment

89
Dimensions
= F×r ⊥ τ = Force × moment
[
M 1L1T −2 × L = M 1L2T −2 ]
(I) In case the force is applied such that its line of action is axis of rotation the z is
zero.
Vector form of Torque :- Let a particle is rotating in xy-place about z-axis and is at P
at any time t.
r = op = Position vector of P
F = Applied force
ON = ⊥ distance between line of action of force and z-axis
We know
τ = F × ⊥ dis tan ce
= F × ON
but from ∆OPN
ON
= Sinθ ⇒ ON = OP × Sinθ
OP
r ⊥= rSin θ
Direction of Torque :- Direction of τ is given by right hand screw rule. If r and f are
in plane of xy then the τ is along
Discussion :- (i) If r = 0 i.e. line of action of force passes through the axis of rotation.
Then τ = 0 i.e. such applied force produce no rotation.
(ii) Let θ = 0 i.e. line of action of force is along the position vector r
τ = rFSin θ = rFSin θ = 0
(iii) Let θ = 90 ° i.e. line of action of force is ⊥ r to the position vector
τ = rFSin90° = rF (max .)
i.e. when a force is applied in a direction ⊥ to position vector,
the turning effect is max. Due to this reason the force is applied at outer edge of
the door and at 90° so that the torque produced is maximum. The door or
wndow can be opened or closed easily.
(iv) Torque is only due to transverse component of applied force only. The radial
component of force has no role to play in the torque

90
Ft = FSinθ
Two component of applied force.
Fr = FCosθ
Difference between work and torque → The S.I. unit of work is joule while that of
torque is N-m. The work is a scaler quanty but Torque is a vector quanty. The work
done by a force does not depend upon where the force is applied but the torque
depends upon the point where the force is applied.
Relational Motion of a particle and Torque :- Consider a particle P in x – y place
where position is given by position vector r. Let the force F is applied on particle P and
it moves to point Q after covering distance ∆ r . The radius vector covers angle ∆θ in
time ∆t . Resolve F into Fx and Fy. The Torque τ is given by
τ = r×F
r = xiˆ + ˆjy
F = Fxiˆ + Fyˆj
∴ τ = ( xiˆ + yˆj ) × ( Fxiˆ + Fyˆj )
τ = ( xFy kˆ − kˆy Fx )
τ = kˆ( xFy − y Fx )
Unit vector k̂ show that the direction of τ is along z – axis.

Work done by force is rotational motion → When Force F applied on particle, it will
move through distance ∆ r , the work done is given by.
∆w = F ⋅ ∆r
Now F = ( Fxiˆ + Fyˆj ) ⋅ (∆xiˆ + ∆yˆj )

= Fx ⋅ ∆x + Fy ⋅ ∆y
Now
x= rCos θ y = rSin θ
dx dy
= −rSinθ = rCosθ
dθ dθ
dy
= -y =x
dθ
dx = -y dθ dy = x dθ
w = -yFx ∆θ + xFy ∆θ = ( xFy − yFx ) dθ
∆w = τdθ

91
Totalwork = τθ
work ∆w dθ
Power:- Power = = =τ = τw
time ∆t dt
dθ
When w = is called angular velocity.
dt
Relation between force, torque and lever arm:-
Consider a particle P in xy plane whose position
Vector is r . Let force F is applied on particle

P. Fx and Fy are component of force.
τ = xFy − yFx (1)
In ∆OPM
x= rCos θ Fx = FCos α
y = rSin θ Fy = FSin α
⇒ τ = rFCos θSin α − rFSin θCos α

= rF (CosθSinα − SinθCosα )
= rF ( Sinα − θ ) = rFSinφ Qθ + φ = α
(2) φ = α −θ
ON d
In ∆OPN , Sinφ = =
OP r
d = r Sin φ
Put in eq. 2
τ = F ⋅ d where d is called lever arm
The lever arm is defined as the ⊥ γ distance between the line of action of force from
axis of rotation.
Note:- F can be resolved into two component i.e. one along radius or Position vector
called radial component and other ⊥ to radius called transverse component.
Fr = FCos (α − θ ) , Fθ = FSin(α − θ )
Fr, τ = 0 as ⊥ distance is 0. The torque is produced by Fθ and given by

τ = F × d for a given force, the force depends upon d. If d is more. The τ
will also be more and vice-versa. Thus τ can be increased or decreased by d. When a
nut is unscrewed, the force applied by w is limited. So by increasing d, we can increase

92
torque and the nut rotates easily. Similarly to rotate a wheel, the force is applied at
outer edge, so that d become maximum.
Angular Momentum → the moment of linear momentum is called angular
momentum. The angular momentum is the product of the linear momentum and ⊥
distance between line of action of linear momentum and axis of rotation.
Angular momentum = Linear momentum × ⊥ distance
τ = r× p
It is a vector quantity whose direction is given by right hand screw rule.
When r = iˆx + ˆjy , p = p xiˆ + p y ˆj
L = (iˆx + iˆy ) × (iˆp x + ˆjp y ) = xp y iˆ × ˆj + ypx ˆj × iˆ
L = kˆ( xp y − ypx )
Lz = xpy - ypx
Unit vector k̂ shows that direction of angular momentum is along z-axis. The
magnitude of angular momentum is give by
Unit and Dimension of L :- As L = r × p = [L] MLT −1 = M 1L2T −1 [ ] [ ]
Unit of L is kgm/sec.
Relation between τ and L :- Consider a particle of mass m with position vector is
acted upon by a force F. Let Fx, Fy are x and y Components of force and Px, Py are
components of linear momentum.
d d
Now Fx = Px or Fy = m vx
dt dt
dPy d
Fy = or Fy = m vy
dt dt
Now τ = xFy − yFx
d d ( Px )
( Py ) − y
τ = rFθ
= x
dt dt
d
= ( xPy − yPx )
dt
d
τ= (L )
dt

93
Angular Momentum in polar co-ordinates → Consider a particle P in xy plane whose
direction form origin is given by position vector r Let force F is applied on it which a
momentum P in Now px and py are components of P . Then from fig. it is clear that
x rCos θ , y = rSin θ
Px = pCos α , py = rSin α
Now
L = xpy – ypx
= rCos ⋅ pSinα − rSinθ ⋅ pCosα
= rp ( SinαCosθ − Sinθ ⋅ Cosα )
= rpSin (α − θ )
= rp sin Φ
AS Θ + Φ = α
[ ]
Φ =α -Θ
ON ON
From ∆ OPN Sin Φ = =
OP R

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1

PASCAL INSTITUTE AZAD NAGAR HISAR 9255353514

Fundamental forces in Nature:-

Where G is gravitational constant and has value

(2) Weak Nuclear forces:-

Hence it is concluded that an electron and an antineutrino interact with each

PASCAL INSTITUTE AZAD NAGAR HISAR 9255353514

PASCAL INSTITUTE AZAD NAGAR HISAR 9255353514

(4) These forces do not obey inverse square law.

Some Conservation laws :-

gravitational mass of a body is a measure of gravitational pull of earth on the body.

PASCAL INSTITUTE AZAD NAGAR HISAR 9255353514

Concept of length :- length of an object may be defined as the distance of separation

Physical quantities are of two types:-

The essential requirements chosen for measuring unit are:

PASCAL INSTITUTE AZAD NAGAR HISAR 9255353514

Basic Physical quantity

(1) Mass kilogram kg

Physical quantity unit Symbol used

Advantage of SI over the other system of units :-

Some units of length :-

PASCAL INSTITUTE AZAD NAGAR HISAR 9255353514

Indirect Method for measurement of length :-

PASCAL INSTITUTE AZAD NAGAR HISAR 9255353514

This method is used to measure distance of near star from earth. We

PASCAL INSTITUTE AZAD NAGAR HISAR 9255353514

(i) Height of an accessible object. (tree/Building)

PASCAL INSTITUTE AZAD NAGAR HISAR 9255353514

(ii) Height of inaccessible object :-

Subtract (ii) from (i) BC – BD = AB(Cot θ1 - Cot θ2 )

Dimensions :- Power to which fundamental physical quantities are raised to express a

PASCAL INSTITUTE AZAD NAGAR HISAR 9255353514

Four types of physical quantities :-

PASCAL INSTITUTE AZAD NAGAR HISAR 9255353514

PASCAL INSTITUTE AZAD NAGAR HISAR 9255353514

PASCAL INSTITUTE AZAD NAGAR HISAR 9255353514

Use of Dimensional Analysis :-

(i) Conversion of unit of a quantity from one system to another :-

(ii) To drive a physical relation :- By using principal of homogeneity we can derive a

PASCAL INSTITUTE AZAD NAGAR HISAR 9255353514

writing dimension on both sides

3.To check the accuracy of a physical relation or formula :-

Limitations of Dimensional analysis :-

PASCAL INSTITUTE AZAD NAGAR HISAR 9255353514

PASCAL INSTITUTE AZAD NAGAR HISAR 9255353514

Rest and Motion:-

Types of motion of body -

(ii) Translatory motion – is that motion in which a body which is not a

PASCAL INSTITUTE AZAD NAGAR HISAR 9255353514

(iii) Circular Motion – is that in which a particle or point mass body is

Circular motion rotatory motion

PASCAL INSTITUTE AZAD NAGAR HISAR 9255353514

Two Dimensional Motion – Motion of an object is said to be two Dimensional if two of

Three Dimensional Motion – Motion of an object is said to be three Dimensional if all

Displacement – of an object in a given interval of time is defined as the shortest path

PASCAL INSTITUTE AZAD NAGAR HISAR 9255353514

Characteristics – (i) The Displacement of an object has unit of length

Speed :- Rate of change of distance is called speed.

Instantaneous speed:- it is the speed of the body at a particular instant of time