Chapter 4: Canal Design

BCE 6th sem

SOE, PU
• Canal:
• A canal is defined as an artificial channel constructed on the ground to carry
water from a source (reservoir , dam , river or another canal) to the field
usually canals have trapezoidal , rectangular, and triangular cross-sections.
• Irrigation conduits of a typical gravity project are usually open channel
through earth or rock formation.
• The canal is said to be in cutting when the ground level is above the top of
the bank and said to be in filling when the ground level is below the canal bed.
• A canal will be in partial filling and partial cutting when the ground level is in
between the bed level and top of the bank.
• Components of canal cross section
• A canal is generally taken in such a way that its section is partly in cutting and
partly in filling in order to approach close to the balancing depth.
• Many times however the canal is to be carried through deep cutting and deep
filling therefore a channel section may be either,
• In cutting
• In filling
• In partial cutting and filling.
• Side slope: The side slope constructed on both sides of the canal for
allowing the water to flow in between them.
• As the canal is to be constructed in cutting and embankment or both Side
slopes depends upon the nature of soil and the depth of cutting and filling.
Usually for design purposes the side slope is taken as 1:H:1V.
• Berms:- – They are the narrow strip of land at the ground level between the
inner toe of bank and top edge of cutting.
• This is horizontal distance, which is left at G.L. between the top edge of
cutting & toe of bank.
• When water flows in the canal at FSL (Full Supply Level), silt particles are
deposited on the berms and make the final side slope to 1.5:1.
• The width of berm is variable but it is kept such that bed line and bank line
remains parallel.
• Purpose of berms :-
• The silt deposited on sides is very compact and impervious. It serves therefore ,
as fairly impervious lining which reduce the absorption losses and prevents
leaks and consequent breaches.
• The berm provide bigger water way therefore its capacity increases.
• Berms protect the bank from erosion because of wave action.
• It sometimes provide additional inspection path.
• It provide additional strength to the bank.
• Free Board: It is the vertical distance between FSL and the top of bank. It is
provided to ensure that water does not over top the bank. It depends upon:-
• Size of canal
• Location of canal
• Water surface fluctuation.
 Discharge Free Board

< 0.3 cumec 0.3 m

Banks:
0.3to 1 cumec 0.4m
• The purpose of bank is to retain
1 to 5 cumec 0.5 m
water so long as the berm is not
5 to 10 cumec 0.6m
formed.
10 to 30 cumec 0.75m
• Thus bank has to withstand full
30 to 150 cumec 0.9m
pressure of water above ground
level.
Discharge Bank(Crest) • There is no special design for bank
< 0.3 cumec 1m but the crest should not be less than
0.3to 1 cumec 1.5m free board.
1 to 5 cumec 2m

5 to 10 cumec 2.25m

10 to 30 cumec 2.5m

30 to 150 cumec 3m
• Dowel or Dowla: A dowla is provided by the side of an inspection road. The
top of dowla is kept above FSL by a margin of free board.
• The main purpose of dowla is to provide safety for automobiles driven on the
service road.
• The top width of dowla is kept 0.3 to 0.6 m and is about 0.3 m above the service
road.
• Service road. – Service roads are provided on canal for inspection purposes and
may simultaneously serve as the means of communication.
• Inspection roadway:- it is very necessary to have an access to all parts of a
canal system so that proper inspection may be done.
• It also increases the efficiency of maintenance.
• Main canal and branch canal have roadways on both sides if it is provided only
on one side , it is customary to provide on left side .
• Borrow pit :-
• When the earth work in filling exceeds the excavated quantity, borrow pits are
required to make good arrangement of filling. There are two types of borrow
pits a) outside borrow pit b) inside borrow pit.
• Outside borrow pit are generally avoided due to mosquito nuisance while
inside burrow pits are preferred as they silted up during course of time.
• The outside borrow pits are excavated at a minimum distance of 5 m and 10 m
from the toe of the embankment in case of small and large canal respectively.
The depth of outside borrow pits is limited to 0.3m.
• Inside borrow pits are excavated at the center of canal but depth is restricted to
1m.
• Spoil banks:
• When the quantity of earth obtained is much in excess of quantity required for
filling obtained from excavation or cutting is deposited near the cutting in the
form of bank known as spoil bank.
• It is the quantity of the extra earth available and is used to widen the service
road.
• The height of spoil bank is not kept large.
• A longitudinal drain is always made between the spoil bank and service road.
• Cross drains should also be provided at 100m intervals and at this place spoil
banks should be discontinuous.
• Canal can be classified in many bases:-
• Based on the nature of source of supply
• Permanent canal: -
• A canal which is constructed and operated permanently for their purpose are
called permanent canal.
• There is continuous source of water supply.
• The canal which get water throughout the year are called permanent canal. It
is a perennial canal.
• Constant maintenance is necessary to operate the permanent canal efficiently
and effectively.
• Canal can be classified in many bases:-
• Based on the nature of source of supply
• Inundation canal
• The canal which is constructed and operated temporary for their purposes are
called inundation canal.
• There is no continuous source of water supply. It draws water from river
during the high stage of the river.
• They are also called flood canal.
• Inundation canals only comes in operation during flood period primarily for
the purpose of flood irrigation hence are of temporary origin.
• Based on their function
• Irrigation canal:-
• A type of canal in which irrigation water flows from the source of supply to
the irrigation field, is called irrigation canal.
• It may be lined or unlined depending upon the purpose for which it is applied.
• Seepage loss is controlled by lined irrigation canal.
• A feeder canal is constructed for the purpose of supplying water to two or
more canals only but not directly irrigating the fields.
• Power canal:-
• A power canal supplies water to a hydro electric power generation plant for
generation of electrical power. Mostly lined canal from the diversion head
works to the power house for the purpose of power production.
• P= 𝛾 ∗ 𝑄 ∗ 𝐻
• Based on their function
• Drainage canal:-
• It is used to drain the excess water from the irrigation field.
• Navigation canal:-
• A carrier canal carries water for irrigating the fields and also feeds other canals
for their needs. A canal serving the purpose of in-land navigation is called a
navigation canal. It is used for transportation of goods.
• Based on system/Discharge:-
• Main canal(Q> 30 cumecs)
• Branched canal (Q= 5 to 30 cumecs)
• Distributary canal(Q=2.5 to 5 cumecs)
• Minor canals (Q=0.25- 2.5 cumecs)
• Field canal ( Water course )(Q=<0.25 cumec)
Components of canal irrigation system
• Main canal :- A main canal is the principal canal in a network of irrigation
canals. It directly takes off from a river, reservoir or a feeder canal. It has large
capacity and supplies water to branch canals and even to major distributaries.
• Branch Canal:- Branch canals take off from a main canal on either side at
regular intervals. They carry a discharge of about 5 cumec and are not usually
used to directly irrigate the fields.
• Major Distributary:- A major distributary takes off a branch canal or a main
canal. It has a discharge capacity of 2.5 to 5 cumec. They are used for direct
irrigation and also to feed minor distributaries.
• Minor Distributaries:- Minor distributaries are canals taking off from the
branch canals and major distributaries. They carry a discharge less than 2.5
cumec. These canals supply water to field channels.
• Field Canal Or Water Course :- A water course or field channel takes off from
either a major or minor distributary or a branch canal also. These are constructed
and maintained by the cultivators/farmers. The other canals are constructed and
maintained by the government or the Command Area Development Authority.
• Classification Based on Alignment
• The path followed by the canal from the source to the irrigation field in case of irrigation
canal is called canal alignment. Most economical way of distributing the water to the
land is that it must command as high as land possible.
• While aligning an irrigation canal, the following points must be considered.
• 1. An irrigation canal should be aligned in such a way that maximum area is irrigated with
least length of canal.
• 2. Cross drainage works should be avoided as far as possible, such that the cost is reduced.
• 3. The off taking point of the canal from the source should be on a ridge, such that the canal
must run as a ridge canal and irrigate lands on both sides.
• 4. Sharp curves in canals must be avoided.
• 5. In hilly areas, when it is not possible to construct ridge canals, the canal must be made to
run as a contour canal.
• 6. The canal should be aligned such that the idle length of the canal is minimum.
• 7. The alignment should be such that heavy cutting or heavy filling are avoided. If possible
balanced depth of cutting and filling is achieved.
• 8. It should not be aligned in rocky and cracked strata.
• 9. The alignment should avoid villages, roads, places of worship and other obligatory points.
• Watershed (Ridge )canal:-
• A Ridge canal or watershed canal is one which runs along the ridge or
watershed line.
• It can irrigate the fields on both sides. In case of ridge canals the necessity of
cross drainage works does not arise as the canal is not intercepted by natural
streams or drains.
• Watershed or ridge line is the highest line between two drainage area. It is
aligned along the water shed or runs for most of its length on watershed.
• When a channel is on watershed, it can command areas on both sides of ridge
through gravity and so a large area can be brought under cultivation.
• In its head reach it is very expensive because of cross-drainage structure.
• When slope of land are relatively flat and uniform it is advantageous to align
channel through water shed.
• In plain areas such alignment is used for canal and also the branch canal,
distributaries also run on subsidiary water sheds between smaller drainage.
• Cross drainage structure are less because the drainage starts from the ridge.
Fig:- Water Shed canal (Ridge canal)
• Contour canal:-
• A canal which is aligned nearly parallel to the contour
except for the necessary longitudinal slope is called
contour canal. Such type of canal is constructed in
hilly areas.
• It would not be economically feasible to take the canal
at the top of such ridge.
• The contour canal can irrigate only on one side. As the
drainage flow is always right angle to contours , such a Fig:- Contour canal
canal would definitely have more cross drainage
structures.
• A contour canal may be intercepted by natural
streams/drains and hence cross drainage works may be
essential.
• Side slope canal:-
• A canal which is aligned right angled to the contour
line is called side slope canal.
• It is a canal running between a ridge and a valley.
This canal is not intercepted by streams and hence
no cross drainage works may be essential.
• This canal has steep bed slope since the ground has
steep slope in a direction perpendicular to the
contours of the country. Fig:- Side slope canal

• Such a canal is roughly parallel to the natural

drainage flow so no need of cross-drainage
structure.
• It does not normally intercept drainages or they
also run perpendicular to the contour.
• Classification based on the canal surface
• Lined canal:- In this type of canal the side and bed are lined by the impervious
material to prevent seepage of water.
• A lined canal is one which is provide with a lining of impervious material on its
banks and beds, to prevent the seepage of water and also scouring of banks and
bed.
• Higher velocity for water can be permitted in lined canals and hence cross
sectional area can be reduced.
• Unlined canal:- In this type of canal there is natural bed and side surface. In
this type of canal the bed and banks of the canal are made up of natural soil
through which it is constructed.
• A protective lining of impervious material is not provided. The velocity of flow
is kept low such that bed and banks are not scoured. This type of canal may be
Alluvial canal and Non-alluvial canal.
• Alluvial canal:- A soil which is formed by the continuous deposition of silt
through the agency of water over a course of time is called alluvial soil.
• The canal constructed on the alluvial soil are called alluvial canal.
• Non-Alluvial canal:- Mountainous or hilly regions may undergo disintegration
over a period of time resulting the formation of rocky plain area called non-
alluvials.
• It has an uneven topography and hard foundation are generally available. Canal
passing through such non-alluvial areas (Hard rock) is called non-alluvial canal.
• Classification based on the financial output: On the basis of the financial
output /revenue from the canals, the canals are called as
• a) Productive canals
• b) Protective canals
• Productive Canal:- A productive canal is one which is fully developed and
earns enough revenue for its running and maintenance and also recovers the cost
of its initial investment. It is essential the cost of its initial investment is
recovered within 16 years of construction.
• Protective canal:- Protective canals are those constructed at times of famine to
provide relief and employment to the people of the area. The revenue from such
a canal may not be sufficient for its maintenance. The investment may also not
be recovered within the stipulated time.
• Canal standard and balancing depth:-
• Balance Depth:- For a given cross-section of a canal there is always only one
depth for which the cutting and filling will be equal this depth is known as
balance depth.
• The longitudinal section of a channel should be such that it results in balanced
earthwork which means the amount of excavated soil is fully utilized in fillings.
This will minimize the necessity of burrow pits and spoil banks. The earthwork is
paid for on the basis of either the excavation or the filing in embankments
whichever is more.
• A channel with balanced earthwork will therefore, reduces the cost of the project,
for the small length of channel in the vicinity of the fall, there is always an
unbalanced earthwork which should be kept minimum for obvious economic
reasons.
• The depth of excavation that will result the balance in earthwork is called the
balancing depth.
• Let , y= Balancing depth,
• D= full supply depth
• H= height of the top of the bank (Embankment ) from bed.
• T= Top width of the bank T
• B= bed width of channel
n:1 D
• m:1= side slope in cutting section H
m:1 y
• n:1 = side slope in filling section.
• For balancing depth, B
Area of Cutting = Area of Filling
• y * (B + m * y) = 2 * (H-y) * {T + n*(H -y)}…………………………1)
• Generally, m=1 and n= 1.5
• Water losses due to seepage and Evaporation:-
• During the passage of water from main canal to the outlet at head of water course,
water lost by evapo-transpiration from the surface or by the seepage through
channels.
• Evaporation loss:- The amount of water lost by evaporation is generally very small
as compared to the water lost by seepages in certain channels. Evaporation losses are
generally 2-3% of total losses. It depends upon the temperature, wind velocity,
humidity, water surface area etc.
• Seepage losses:- Seepage loss is most important as this forms the major portion of
loss of canal water. It mainly depends upon the followings:-
• Types of seepage i.e. whether percolation or absorption.
• Soil permeability/Porosity of soil and sub-soil.
• Amount of silt carried by the canal.
• Design of canal cross-section.
• Physical properties of canal water.
• Condition of canal system; the seepage through a silted canal is less than that from a
new canal.
• The seepage loss may be of two types as below: -
• Percolation: - Percolation is the process of a liquid slowly passing through a
filter. in percolation there exists a zone at continuous saturation from the canal to
the water table and a direct and continuous flow is established. Almost all water
lost from the canal joins the ground water reservoir. The loss of water depends
upon the difference of the top water surface level of the channel and level of
water table.
• :-
 Absorption
• When the water table is considerably below the ground level, the water
seeping through pores is unable to join the water table and wets the sub-soil
locally forming a saturated bulb. The zone between saturated zone and the
zone of capillary moisture remains unsaturated.
• In this case, the rate of loss is independent of seepage head(H) but depends
only upon the water head ‘h’( i.e distance between the water surface level of
canal and bottom saturated zone) plus capillary head hc.
• Use of Manning uniform flow equation for canal design
• Manning give an important formula for the determination of flow or velocity
through a channel,which consists of:
• n = mannings rugosity constant : A value used in Manning's formula to
determine energy losses of flowing water due to pipe or channel wall roughness.
• R = Hydraulic radius of the channel
• S = Longitudinal slope.
• According to manning's formula, for low uniform flow, velocity of flow is given
by,
1 2 1
•𝑉= 𝑅3 𝑆 2 ------------ (1)
𝑛
𝐴 𝐴𝑟𝑒𝑎
• R= = If 'Q' be the flow through the channel then,
𝑃 𝑊𝑒𝑡𝑡𝑒𝑑 𝑝𝑒𝑟𝑖𝑚𝑒𝑡𝑒𝑟
2 1
1
• ∴Q= 𝐴 𝑅 𝑆 ------------- (2)
3 2
𝑛
• The value of 'n' depends upon the roughness of the surface.
• Greater the roughness, greater will be the value of 'n' & hence lesser will be the
velocity through such rough surface.
• In the engineering field, specially in the field of hydraulics, the use of manning's
formula is very important& most of the problems are solved by the use of manning's
formula.
• Hence, without manning's formula, the design of various important flow channels
will be incomplete.
• Also a scientist Chezy gave a relation like manning's formula.
• V= 𝐶 𝑅𝑆 , where C is Chezy's coefficient.
• Kutter gave,
1 0.00155
+(23+ )
• C= 𝑛 𝑆
0.00155 𝑛 R=hydraulic mean depth in metres/s
1+ 23+
𝑆 𝑅

• S= Bed slope of the channel

 Numerical
• Calculate the balancing depth for a channel section having a bed
width equal to 15 m and side slopes of 1:1 cutting and 2:1 in filling.
The bank embankments are kept 3 m higher then the ground level
(berm level) and crest width of the bank is kept as 2 m.

15 m
• Tractive Force approach in canal design
• Tractive force approach is based on the fact that the soil particles of channel are
incoherent i.e. cohesion less ,C = O ; such as sand and gravels.
• The basic mechanism behind the sediment transport is the drag force exerted by
water in the direction of flow, on channel bed. This force is nothing but a pull of
water on the wetted area, and is known as tractive force or shear force or drag
force.
• Let us consider a channel of length L and Cross sectional area of A
• Hence,
• Volume of water stored= A* L
• ∴ Wt. of stored water =ϒw A L ,
• ϒw= unit weight of water =𝜌𝑤 ∗ 𝑔, 𝜌𝑤 =density of water
• Horizontal component of this force is = ϒwAL sinθ = ϒwALS
• S = sinθ ≈ tanθ  slope of the bed.
• This horizontal force exerted by water is nothing but tractive force.
Average tractive force per unit wetted area =
ϒ𝑤 𝐴 𝐿 𝑆
unit tractive force 𝜏0 =
𝑤𝑒𝑡𝑡𝑒𝑑 𝑎𝑟𝑒𝑎
ϒ𝑤 𝐴 𝐿 𝑆
=
𝑃∗𝐿
= ϒ w(A/P)s
= ϒwRS
This average unit tractive force is also called as
the shear stress. 𝜏0 = ϒ𝑅𝑠 . This average
tractive force is not uniformly distributed over
the wetted perimeter. A typical distribution is
shown in figure (For trapezoidal channel)
Hence, Avg. unit tractive force also called Shear stress 𝜏0 = ϒ𝑅𝑠
 Incipient motion condition
• When the velocity of flow through a channel is very small, the channel bed
does not move at all. And the channel behaves as a rigid boundary channel.
• As the flow velocity increases steadily, a stage is reached when the shear
force exerted by the flowing water on the bed particles will just exceed the
force of opposing their movement. At this stage. A few particles on the bed
will just start moving intermittently. This condition is called the incipient
motion condition or simply the critical condition or the threshold point.

• Strickler’s formula for n (Manning’s rugosity coefficient)

1
1
n= 𝑑 6 d = grain dia in metres
24
Numerical
• Design a canal to carry a discharge of 50 cumec. The
slope of the channel is 1 in 5000. the soil is coarse
alluvium with having a grain size 0f 6 cm . Tractive
stress is not exceed 2.35 N/m2.
 Solution 1
• Q = 50 m3/s ,S = , d= 6 cm =0.06m
5000 1 1
1 1
• From Strickler’s formula n= 𝑑 (0.06) =0.0260
6 = 6
24 24
• Tractive stress on bed level of canal τ = 𝜏0 = ϒ𝑅𝑠.
9810∗𝑅∗1
• 2.35=
5000
• R =1.198 m
1 2 1 1 2
1 1
• From manning formula, 𝑉 = 𝑅3𝑆 2 = *1.1983 ( )2 =0.614 m/s
𝑛 0.026 5000
𝑄 50
• Area = = =81.49 m2
𝑉 0.614
𝐴
• P = =(81.49/1.198) =68.02 m
𝑅
• Now , assuming side slope of channel 0.5:1
• Area(A) = BD+0.5D2 = 81.49 m2 …………………(1)
• Perimeter(P) =B+D 5 = 68.02𝑚…………(2)
• By solving eq 1 and 2
• We get , D =1.23 m, B =65.208 m
• There are four types of problems in Canal design:
• Rigid boundary canal(channel) carrying water.
• Rigid boundary carrying sediment laden water.
• Erodible(alluvial) canal carrying sediment laden water.
• Erodible(alluvial) channel carrying clear water.
• Rigid boundary canal(channel) carrying water.
• When the velocity of flow through a channel section is very small, the channel
bed does not move at all and the channel behaves as a rigid boundary channel.
• The channel is designed for the entry of water to develop the non- scouring
highest possible flow velocity at peak flow.
• For design we can use following two formulas.
• Chezy's formula
• V= 𝐶 𝑅𝑆 , where C is Chezy's coefficient.
1 0.00155
+23+
•C= 𝑛 𝑆
0.00155 𝑛
1+ 23+ 𝑆
𝑅
• Manning's formula
1 2 1
• V= 𝑅3 𝑆 2
𝑛
• Q= AV

• Rigid Boundary channel carrying sediment laden water.

• Design is based on permissible velocity V = 0.7 to 1.0 m /sec
• Alluvial (Erodible) channel carrying sediment laden water.
• Two types of approaches of design:
• a) Regime theory
• Kennedy's theory
• Lacey's method
• b) Design Based on sediment load.
• Regime Channels:
• Those channels in which neither silting nor scouring takes place are called
regime channels. Such a stage is not possible in river but can be possible in
artificial channel.
• The basis for designing non-silting, non-scouring channel is that whatever silt
enters into the head of the channel is kept in suspension, so that it does not settle
down & deposit at any point of the channel.
• Moreover, the velocity of the flow should not be greater than a limit such that it
does not produce local slit by erosion of channel bed & sides.
• Hence, the velocity of flow should be selected in such a way that it neither silts
nor scour the channel section. Such a velocity is called non-silting & non-
scouring velocity.
• Slit Theory of Kennedy:
Kennedy carried out extensive investigations on some of the canal reaches in
upper Bari Dob canal(UBDC) system in Punjab.
• From the observation, he concluded that the slit-supporting power of a canal
cross-section depends upon the generation of eddies rising to the surface.
• Hence, the sediment in a channel is kept in suspension which is mainly due to
the vertical component of eddies, which are generated on the channel bed.
• If the velocity of flow is sufficient to generate such eddies so as to keep the
sediments in suspension, silting will be avoided.
• The mean velocity of flow in the channel at which the channel is free from
silting & scouring is called critical velocity (Vo)
• Based on the observations, the critical velocity is given by:
• Vo= 0.55ℎ0.64 which is valid only in UBDC system
• But in general Vo= 0.55mℎ0.64 ,
𝑉
• where m=critical velocity ratio =
𝑉𝑜
• h= depth of water in meters
•
• m > 1 for sediment coarser than UBDC system
• m= 1 for UBDC system
• m < 1 for sediments finer than UBDC system
• Design procedure:
• 1. Assume a trial value of depth 'h'
• 2. Determine critical velocity by
𝑉
• Vo= 0.55𝑚 ℎ0.64 , m= critical velocity ratio =
𝑉𝑜
𝑄
• 3. Calculate area (A) =
𝑉𝑜
• 4. Calculate hydraulic radius(R), from the wetted perimeter(p) & area(A). Assuming
2V:1H side slope for alluvial soil.
𝐴
• 𝑅=
𝑃
• Calculate the mean velocity (V) by the manning's formula
1 2 1
• V= 𝑅3𝑆 2
𝑛
• Compare Vo with 'V' , if Vo=V then assuming depth ‘h' is ok. Otherwise repeat the
procedure with new ‘h' till V & Vo becomes nearly equal.
• Mean velocity can be Obtained any one of the following equation:
• Chezy's eqn and by Manning's formula
 Numerical
• Design an irrigation channel to carry 40 cumec of
discharge, B/D, i.e. base width to depth ratio as 2.5. the
critical velocity ratio is 1. Assume a suitable value of
kutter’s rugosity coefficient and use kennedy’s method.
From kutter’s formula
• Drawbacks of Kennedy's theory:
• Kennedy didn't notice the importance of B/D ratio.
• There is no account for silt concentration and bed load and the complex silt
carrying phenomena was in corporate in a single factor 'm'.
• Silt charge and silt grade are not considered. The complex phenomenon of silt
transportation is incorporated in a single factor are called critical velocity ratio.
• Kennedy’s did not give any slope equation.
• Kennedy’s uses kutters formula , therefore the limitations of kutters formula
will also associate in Kennedy's formula.
• This theory is aimed to find out only the average regime condition for the
design of channel.
• The design of channel by the method based on this theory involves trial and
error which is quite cumbersome.
• Lacey's Theory
• Kennedy’s concept for the regime channel is that the channel with neither scouring
nor silting velocity is regime channel which is not really true according to lacey. He
put on his theory for regime channel and explained that the channel performing non-
scouring and non silting velocity may not be in regime condition.
• He therefore differentiated between the three regime conditions.
• True Regime:
• Sediment discharge must be constant.
• The flow must be uniform.
• Silt charge and silt grade is constant
• There is only one section and only one longitudinal slope at which the canal will
carry a particular discharge with a particular silt grade.
• The channel is flowing through a material which can be scoured as easily as it can be
deposited (such soil is known as incoherent alluvium) and is of the same grade as is
transported.
Artificial channels can never be in “true regime” they can either be in initial regime or
final regime, as explained below
• Initial Regime:
• If the cross section remains unchanged and only the bed slope of the
channel varies due to dropping of silt, then the channel is said to be initial
regime.
• Final regime:
• If there is no resistance from the sides and all the variables such as
perimeter, depth, slope etc. are equally free to vary and finally get adjusted
according to discharge and silt grade then the channel is said to have
achieved permanent stability called final regime.
• Channel section is shown in figure.Final regime channel has a tendency to
assume
a semi elliptical section. Carrying
Carrying medium sized silt coarse
silt
Carrying fine silt
• Assumptions:
• The slit-supporting eddies are generated from bottom as well as from the sides of
channel. Kennedy has neglected the eddies from the sides but lacey did not.
• Grain-size of silt is an important factor. silt factor (f) is produced in the lacey's
equation which depends upon the particles size, f=1.76 𝑑𝑚𝑚 d = avg. particle size
in 'mm'
• Lacey's equation
• Based on various observation. Lacey derived or gave the equation.
2
• V= 𝑓𝑅 -------------(1)
5
• A f 2 =140 V5 ----------(2)
• where
• V= velocity of flow , f = silt factor , f = 1.76 𝑑𝑚𝑚 A = area of section
2 1
• By plotting large mass of data, Lacy obtained 𝑉 = 10.8 𝑅 𝑆 ------------(3) , where s=
3 3
slope of water curve
• Design Procedure
1
Qf2 6
• . Calculate the velocity of flow:- V=
140
5 𝑉2
• Work out hydraulic radius:- R=
2 𝑓
• .Work out wetted perimeter:- P = 4.75 𝑄
𝑄
• 4.Compute area of cross section:- A=
𝑉
• Knowing these values, the channel section is known; and finally bed slope 'S' is
5
𝑓3
determined by the equation:- S= 1
3340 𝑄 6
Lacey’s regime width and scour depth for alluvial river
• For wide rivers, as we know wetted perimeter P, approximately equal
to the river width. Therefore, regime width= W =4.75√𝑸
• scour depth
1
• R= 0.473(𝑄/𝑓) 3 if W≈ 𝑃
1
𝑞2 3 𝑄
R= 1.35 , q= (for other value of active river width,)
𝑓 𝐿
• # Derivation of formulae: • Perimeter Discharge
• Given formulas: Relations:
2 • P = 4.75 𝑸
• V= 𝑓𝑅
5 2
• V= 𝑓𝑅 --------------(i)
• Af =140
2 V5 5

• f= 1.76 𝑑𝑚𝑚 , • Af 2 =140 V5 -----------------(ii)

2 1 • Fourthing equation (i)
• 𝑉 = 10.8 𝑅 𝑆 3 3
4 2 2
4
• 𝑉 = 𝑅 𝑓 from (i)
25 𝐴2 25
25 𝑉 4 ∗ =𝐴𝑉
• f 2= 2
𝑅 140 ∗ 4
4 𝑅2
• Now from Equation (ii) 140 ∗ 4
𝑃2 = 𝑄
25 𝑉 4 25
• A* = 140 V5
4 𝑅2
∴ P = 4.75 𝑄
• Velocity – discharge – Regmie Slope equations:
silt factor relationship 𝟓
1 S=
𝒇𝟑
Qf2 6
𝟏
𝟑𝟑𝟒𝟎 𝑸𝟔
• V=
140 2 1
𝑉 = 10.8 𝑅 𝑆 ……………………..(i)
3 3
• Af 2 =140 V5
𝐶𝑢𝑏𝑖𝑛𝑔 𝑒𝑞𝑢𝑎𝑡𝑖𝑜𝑛 (𝑖)
• 𝐴𝑉 𝑓 2 = 140𝑉 6
V3= 1260 R2S-------------------(ii)
• Qf 2 =140 V6
1 Again, V=
2
𝑓𝑅 ………………(iii)
Qf2 6 5
• V= Again cubing equation (iii)
140
3
2 2
V3= 𝑓𝑅
3
 • then 5
3 3 3 𝑉2 3 1
2 2 2 2 ∗
f R = 1260 R2 s 𝑅 1 1
• 1260𝑅 3 𝑉 3
5 5
2 3 1
3 3 = 𝑓 ∗ 1
2 2 3 𝟑 5
𝑓2 𝑓2 𝟎.𝟎𝟎𝟎𝟐 𝒇𝟐 1260 (𝑉𝑅)3
• s= 5
1 = 1 = 𝟏
1260𝑅 2 4980𝑅 2 𝑹𝟐 5
𝑓3
• Also s= 1 S-f-Q relations
2 1 3340𝑄 6
• 𝑉 = 10.8 𝑅 𝑆 3 3

• V3= 1260 R2S

5
𝑉3 𝑉2 3
•S= = 1
1260 𝑅 2
1260 𝑅 2 𝑉 3
• Regime Scour Depth Equations 1
•
𝑄 1/3
R=0.47( ) Qf 2 3
𝑓 𝑉2 =
140
2
• We know , V= 𝑓𝑅 -----------(i) Now substituting value of “V” in equation
5
(ii)
• Squaring both side, 1
• 𝑉2
2
= *f*R 5 Qf2 3 1
𝑅= ∗ *
5 2 140 𝑓
•𝑅
5 𝑉2
= ∗ 1 1 2
2 𝑓 5
3 1 3 3 1
…………………………..(ii) 𝑅= ∗ Q ∗ ∗ 𝑓 *
2 140 𝑓
1 1 1
Qf2 6 Q 3 Q 3
• 𝑎𝑔𝑎𝑖𝑛, 𝑉 = 0.47 ⇒ 𝑹 = 𝟎. 𝟒𝟕
140 1−
2 f
𝑓 3
Numerical
• Design a regime channel for a Discharge of 50 cumecs and silt Factor
1.1 using Lacy’s theory.
• Solution:
• Q=50 cumec
• f=1.1
• Draw backs in Lacey‘s theory
• 1. The theory does not give a clear description of physical aspects of the problem.
• 2. It does not define what actually governs the characteristics of an alluvial channel.
• 3. The derivation of various formulae depends upon a single factor f and dependence
on single factor f is not adequate.
• 4. There are different phases of flow on bed and sides and hence different values of
silt factor for bed and side should have been used.
• 5.Lacey’s equation do not include a concentration of silt as variable.
• 6. Lacey did not take into account the silt left in channel by water that is lost in
absorption which is as much as 12 to 15% of the total discharge of channel.
• 7. The effect of silt accumulation was also ignored. The silt size does actually go on
decreasing by the process attrition among the rolling silt particles dragged along the
bed.
• 8. Lacey did not properly define the silt grade and silt charge.
• 9. Lacey introduced semiellipse as ideal shape of a regime channel which is not
correct.
 Kennedy theory Lacey's theory

It states that the silt carried by the flowing It states that the silt carried by the flowing
water is kept in suspension by the vertical water is kept is suspension by the vertical
component of eddies which are generated component of eddies which are generated
from the bed of the channel . from the entire wetted perimeter of the
channel.

(1) Kennedy introduced a term 'm' (C-VR) in (1) Lacey introduced a concept of silt factor 'f'
his equations for different grades of channel, in his equation & suggested a method to
but he did not give any idea to measure 2
0.64 determine V= 5 𝑓𝑅
its value . Vo=0.55m ℎ
Af 2 =140 V5
where , f= 1.76 𝑑𝑚𝑚

(2) Kennedy assumed that the silt is in

suspension due to the vertical eddies raised (2) Lacey assumed that the silt is suspension
from the bottom or bed of the channel only. due to the vertical eddies raised from both bed
& sides of channel.

(3) Kennedy used kutter's formula to find the (3) Lacey gave his own formula to give velocity
mean velocity. 1
Qf2 6
V=
140
(4) Kennedy gave no formula for longitudinal (4) Lacey gave the formula,
slope of canal. 5
𝑓3
1
3340𝑄 6
(5) Shape of regime channel should be semi-
(5) Kennedy simply gave idea that a non- ellipsed
silting, non- scouring velocity channel will be a (6) Relation between V and R
regime channel. (7) This theory does not involve trial and error
(6) Relation between V and D method
(7) The design is based on trial and error
method
• Design of lined canals with economic analysis
• Canal lining is treatment given to the canal bed and banks so as to make the
canal section impervious.
• Traditionally earthen canal is mostly used but the loss of water through seepage
is much more.
• The approximate amount of water loss by seepage is 25-50% of the water
supplies.
• This is very serious loss and proportionality reduces the irrigation potential of
the same water.
• To avoid the seepage loss lining of canal is must. It is a process of applying
stable surface like concrete, tiles, asphalt etc on the earthen surface of canal
which is in direct contact with water.
• Depending upon the type of material adopted for lining the seepage loss can be
reduced by 2-5% of their original values by lining the canal.
• Apart from reduction in seepage loss there are various other advantages of
lining in the channels.
• Needs of canal lining
• To minimize the seepage losses in canals
• To increase the discharge by increasing velocity
• To prevent the erosion of bed and side due to high vel.
• To reduce the maintenance of canal.
• To prevent the weed& grass growth
• To improve the canal operation
• Advantages of canal lining:
• Reduces the seepage loss, more area can be irrigated.
• Water logging measure
• Increases the capacity of canal with increased velocity
• Increased velocity minimizes loss due to evaporation,
• Higher velocity, prevents silting
• Higher velocity, no bed erosion
• Reduces the plant weed growth
• Maintenance and operation cost is low
• Economical water distribution
• Types of lining:
• (A) Hard - surface Type Lining
• Cement concrete lining:- Concrete as a lining material with excellent
hydraulic properties. Concrete grades M10, ,M20
• Plaster or cement mortar lining :- Usually used as sandwitch material
between brick layers.
• Precast concrete lining :- Consists of well prepared precast slabs & laid on
well compacted and prepared subgrade. The joint is grouted with cement or is
scaled with asphalt to prevent any seepage through joint.
• Brick or tile lining :- Consists of a single or double layer of bricks or tiles or
combination of both.(effective hydraulically as efficient as concrete lining.
• Boulder( stone pitching ):- Stone pitching
• Asphalt lining:- Asphalt lining is carefully controlled mixture if asphalt and
graded aggregate.
• B) Earth-type lining
• Soil-cement lining:- Mixture of cement & soil. Placed in sub grade and properly
compacted.
• Compacted earth lining:- A fine soil is placed on the subgrade & compacted
properly
• Sodium Carbonate Lining:- Consists of clayey soil and sodium carbonate
mixture. Used in small canal, not found to be durable.
• (C) Buried & Protected Membrane type lining
• Fabricated light membrane lining :- Fibers of asbestos or jute coated with
asphalt. Laid on smooth & prepared subgrade & is covered with a layer of earth
material.
• Benetonite soil & clay lining :- Consists of bentonite soil or clay membrane
over a sub-grade & is covered with earth material
• Road oil lining:- The road oil is sprinkled on a sub-grade. The sub-grade is
then rolled so that oil enters the soil pores.
• Disadvantages of canal lining
• High initial investment
• Being permanent, difficult to shift canal outlet
• Difficult to manage damaged lining
• Without berm, lowers the safety
• Economics of Canal Lining
• At times, the choice of canal lining is to be done on the financial consideration
besides the technical feasibility.
• For determining the economic viability on the cost benefit analysis is done
• The benefits occurred from the canal lining should be greater than the cost to be
incurred in the lining
• Annual benefit :
• Irrigation water is sold to the cultivators at a certain rate. Let this rate be
Rupees R1 per cumec. If ‘m’ cumec of water is saved by lining the canal
annually then money saved by lining = mR1.
• Lining will also reduce the maintenance cost , the average cost of annual up
keep of unlined canal can be worked out from previous records. Let it be Rs.
R2 .If ‘P’ is the percentage fraction of saving achieved in maintenance cost by
lining the canal, then amount saved= PR2.
• ∴ 𝑇𝑜𝑡𝑎𝑙 𝑎𝑛𝑛𝑢𝑎𝑙 𝑝𝑟𝑜𝑓𝑖𝑡 = 𝑚𝑅1 + 𝑃𝑅2.
• Annual cost
• If the capital expenditure required on lining is “C” rupees and the lining has a
life of say “y” years then the annual depreciation charge will be (C/y) rupees,
If “r” is the rate of interest (%) for a locked up capital of ‘C’ rupee would earn
annually C*(r/100) rupees at interest charges. Since, the capital value of the
asset decreases from C to Zero in Y years,
𝐶
• Final capital value of the average annual interest may be taken as( ∗
𝑟 2
)rupees.
100
𝐶 𝐶 𝑟
• ∴ 𝑇𝑜𝑡𝑎𝑙 𝑎𝑛𝑛𝑢𝑎𝑙 𝑐𝑜𝑠𝑡 𝑜𝑓 𝑙𝑖𝑛𝑖𝑔 = + ∗
𝑦 2 100
𝑩 𝑨𝒏𝒏𝒖𝒂𝒍 𝑩𝒆𝒏𝒆𝒇𝒊𝒕𝒔 𝒎𝑹𝟏+𝑷𝑹𝟐
• 𝑁𝑜𝑤, 𝒓𝒂𝒕𝒊𝒐 = = 𝑪 𝑪 𝒓 p is generally taken 0.2
𝑪 𝑨𝒏𝒏𝒖𝒂𝒍 𝒄𝒐𝒔𝒕 + ∗
𝒚 𝟐 𝟏𝟎𝟎

• B/C ratio must be > 1 for feasible project.

• Design of lined canals:
• Lined channel Section design
• Q> 55 m3/sec -> trapezoidal section
• Q ≤ 55 m3/ sec -> triangular section
• Two types of channel sections:
• Triangular section or curved section
• Trapezoidal section or flat bottom shaped channel.
• Side slopes are so selected that they are nearly equal to the angle of response of the soil so that no
earth pressure is imposed on the lining,
• The corners are rounded off to improve the hydraulic efficiency,
• Triangular section are adopted for small discharges as it is the best discharging section,
• For higher discharges, trapezoidal sections may be adopted.
• In order to design the lined channel following data is required:
• Discharge(Q)
• n
• Limiting velocity(v)
• Longitudinal slope (s)
• Side slope
• Triangular section or curved section :
2 𝜃 1
• A= 𝜋𝑦 . +2∗ 𝑦. 𝑦 𝑐𝑜𝑡𝜃
𝜋 2
𝜃
• = y2 𝜃 + 𝑐𝑜𝑡𝜃
𝜃
• P = 2𝜋y * +2ycot
𝜋
• = 2 y 𝜃 + 2 y cot 𝜃 = 2y (𝜃 + 𝑐𝑜𝑡𝜃)
𝐴
• R=
𝑃
• 2. Trapezoidal section:
𝜋𝑦 2 ∗𝜃 1
• A = By+2 + 2 ∗ * y * y cot 𝜃
2𝜋 2
• = By + y2(𝜃 + cot 𝜃)
• = y [ B+ y 𝜃 +ycot 𝜃]
𝜃
•P =B + 2[2𝜋y ] + 2(y cot 𝜃)
2𝜋
• = B + 2y 𝜃 + 2ycot 𝜃
 Numerical 1
• Design a concrete lined channel to carry a discharge of 350 cumecs at a
slope of 1 in 5000.The side slopes of the channel may be taken as 1.5:1
.The value of n for lining is 0.014. Assume limiting velocity in the channel
as 2 m/sec.

• Note : if limiting velocity is not given, use

• For concrete lining(unreinforced) 2 to 2.5 m/s
• Clay tile lining 1.8 m/s
• Boulder lining 1.5 m/s
Numerical 2
An unlined canal giving a seepage losses of 3.3 cumec per milllin sq. meters of
wetted area is proposed to be lined with 10 cm thick cement concrete lining
which costs Rs. 180 per 10 sq.m. Given the following data workout the
economics of lining and benefit cost ratio.
Annnual revenue per cumec of water from all crops = 3.5 lakhs
Discharge= 83.5m3/sec
Area of channel = 40.8 sq.m
wetted perimeter of channel = 18.8m
Wetted perimeter of lining = 18.5m
Annual maintainance of unlined canal per 10 sq.m= Re. 1.00
Assume other data suitably

•.
• Soln: Considering 1 km reach
• Wetter surface per km = 18.8*1000 = 18,800 m2
.• (i) Annual benefit
3.3
• = 6 ∗ 18,800 = 0.06204 cumecs/km
10
• Assuming no seepage loss after lining
• Net saving= 0.06204 cumecs/km;
• Annual revenue = 0.06204* 3.5 Lakhs
• = 0.21714 lakhs = RS 21,714
• Annual maintenance cost of unlined channel for 10 sq.m = Rs 1
• ∴ Annual maintenance cost/ km = 18,800*1/10 = Rs 1,880
• Assuming 40% saving in maintenance cost.
• Annual saving in maintenance = 0.4 * 1880 = Rs 752
∴ Total saving = 21714+752 = Rs 22,466
(ii)Annual cost
∴ Capital investment for lining/km ,
18.5∗1000∗180
c= = 333,000
10
Assume life of lining y = 40 years
333,000
∴ depreciation cost per year = = 8325
40
Assume 5% interest rate
333,000
Average annual interest = ∗ 0.05 = Rs 8325
2
Total annual cost =8325+8325 =Rs 16,650
22466
∴ B/C = = 1.349' feasible' .
16650
• Numericals for assignment:
• 1) Design a lacey's Regime channel flowing through material of average
diameter 0.328 mm for the following data : Culturable land area = 100000 Ha ,
Intensity of irrigation , Rabi = 40% , Kharif = 30% , Outlet discharge factor =
1,800 hec/cumec for rabi = 800 hec/ cumec for Kharif. Assume conveyance loss
to be 10 %.
• 2) Design a regime channel in alluvial soil to convey a discharge of 60 cumec.
The average size of particle in channel is 0.05mm.
• 3) Design a regime channel for a discharge of 50 cumecs and silt factor 1.1 using
Lacey's theory.
• 4) Design an irrigation canal to convey a flow discharge of 10.85 cumec at a
slope of 1:5000 on silty loam ground with Kutter’s rugosity coefficient 0.022
and critical velocity ration is 1:1. Take canal side slope coefficient of 0.6.
• 5) Design a irrigation channel to carry 40 cumes of discharge, with B/D i.e. base
width to depth ratio as 2.5. The critical velocity ratio is 1.0. Assume a suitable
value of kutter's rugosity coefficient and use kenedy's method.
• Numericals:
• 6) Design an irrigation canal to convey a flow discharge of 10.85 cumec at a Bed
slope of canl 1:5000 such that the flow velocity in this canal may lay between
0.75 to 0.8 m/sec and ratio of bed width to its flow depth is 1.5m while side
slope coefficient is 0.6 take n=0.023.
• 7) Design a concrete lined trapezoidal canal to carry a discharge of 20 cumecs at
slope of 1:5000. The side slope of the canal is 1:1 and Manning’s n is 0.014.
Assume limiting velocity of canal is 0.9 m/sec.
• 8)Design an irrigational canal to carry 50 cumecs of discharge. The channel is to
be laid at a slope of 1 in 4000. The critical velocity ratio for soil = 1 :1 . Use
Kutter's rugosity coeff as 0.023.
• 9)
9 • An unlined canal giving a seepage losses of 3.3 cumec per milllin
sq. meters of wetted area is proposed to be lined with 10 cm thick
cement concrete lining which costs Rs. 180 per 10 sq.m. Given the
following data workout the economics of lining and benefit cost
ratio.
Annnual revenue per cumec of water from all crops = 3.5 lakhs
Discharge= 83.5m3/sec
Area of channel = 40.8 sq.m
wetted perimeter of channel = 18.8m
Wetted perimeter of lining = 18.5m
Annual maintainance of unlined canal per 10 sq.m= Re. 1.00
Assume other data suitably
10 • Design a lined channel to carry discharge of 15 cumecs. The available
and accepted country slope is 1 in 9000. assume suitable values os side
slope and good brick work in lining.
• 11. Design a lined channel to carry discharge of 350 cumecs at a slope
of 1 in 6400. the side slopes of the channel may be taken as 0.5:1 . The
value of n for lining material may be taken as 0.013. assume limiting
water depth of channel as 4 m. Garg 191
• Thanks
• End of Chapter 4