behavioral

sciences
Article
Analysis of Physical Education Classroom Teaching after
Implementation of the Chinese Health Physical Education
Curriculum Model: A Video-Based Assessment
Chao Liu 1 , Cuixiang Dong 2 , Xiaohui Li 3 , Huanhuan Huang 1 and Qiulin Wang 1, *

1 College of Physical Education, Yangzhou University, Yangzhou 225009, China

2 College of Physical Education and Health, East China Normal University, Shanghai 200241, China
3 School of Foreign Languages, Zhejiang Normal University, Jinhua 311121, China
* Correspondence: wangql@yzu.edu.cn

Abstract: This study assessed the Chinese health physical education curriculum model recently
suggested to meet the recommended physical education curriculum reforms addressing the declining
physical and mental health of students in China. We used video analyses of 41 physical education
classroom teaching cases with a physical education classroom teaching behavior analysis system to
provide quantitative and qualitative behavioral data. We established reference ranges for classroom
teaching behavior indicators, summarized classroom teaching patterns, and assessed classroom
discourse and the emotional climate. Notable findings included teachers in elementary schools using
closed-ended questions, predictable responses, and general feedback significantly more often than
teachers in senior high school, and ball sports instructors using demonstration and competition
significantly more frequently than instructors in athletics. Overall, three teaching patterns were most
commonly used—lecture, practice, and dialogue—with practice being dominant. Analysis of the
top 50 most commonly spoken words by teachers identified five types of discourse—motivational,
directive, specialized, transitional, and regulatory—with motivational words being most frequent.
The classroom atmosphere was mainly positive. These findings provide evidence that the use of this
curriculum model may bring positive changes to physical education classroom teaching methods in
Citation: Liu, C.; Dong, C.; Li, X.;
China and will inform subsequent innovative physical education classroom teaching practices.
Huang, H.; Wang, Q. Analysis of
Physical Education Classroom
Keywords: Chinese health and physical education curriculum model; teacher behavior; student
Teaching after Implementation of the
behavior; interactive behavior; video analysis
Chinese Health Physical Education
Curriculum Model: A Video-Based
Assessment. Behav. Sci. 2023, 13, 251.
https://doi.org/10.3390/bs13030251
1. Introduction
Academic Editors: Yi Ding, Su-Je Cho
From 1985 to 2010, the General Administration of Sports of China and the Ministry
and Cynthia Dong
of Education of the People’s Republic of China conducted a total of six national large
Received: 10 February 2023 sample sizes of students’ physical health assessment work, and the results of the study
Revised: 8 March 2023 were published. Most indicators show a continuous downward trend. The detection rates
Accepted: 9 March 2023 of obesity and overweight among students continue to increase, with the detection rates
Published: 12 March 2023 of overweight among urban boys, urban girls, rural boys, and rural girls aged 7–22 years
old are 14.81%, 9.92%, 10.79% and 8.03%, respectively, an increase of 1.56, 1.20, 2.59, and
3.42 percentage points, respectively, compared with 2005 [1]. According to the definition
of the International Obesity Working Group, there are 12 million overweight and obese
Copyright: © 2023 by the authors.
Licensee MDPI, Basel, Switzerland.
children and adolescents in China, and among the 155 million overweight and obese chil-
This article is an open access article
dren and adolescents in the world, one out of every 13 is a Chinese child or adolescent [2].
distributed under the terms and In terms of mental health, the Chinese Association for Science and Technology, together
conditions of the Creative Commons with the Chinese Psychological Association, has conducted a study on the “Survey on the
Attribution (CC BY) license (https:// Mental Health of Chinese Adolescents”, the results of which show that the proportion of
creativecommons.org/licenses/by/ adolescents with serious psychological problems in China is high, with 17.5% of adolescents
4.0/). having psychological problems and 3.1% having serious psychological problems; 63.3%

Behav. Sci. 2023, 13, 251. https://doi.org/10.3390/bs13030251 https://www.mdpi.com/journal/behavsci

Behav. Sci. 2023, 13, 251 2 of 15

of adolescents were depressed, 29.1% were often nervous and upset, and 31.7% had more
feelings of anger [3]. Using a cross-sectional historical study, Xin et al. examined changes
in the mental health of secondary school students in China since 1992 and found that
the overall level of mental health of secondary school students has gradually decreased
and that the differences in mental health levels among secondary school students have
now increased, meaning that many secondary school students may currently have serious
psychological problems [4]. Therefore, in response to the declining physical and mental
health of students in China, the Chinese health physical education curriculum model was
developed. Any kind of physical education curriculum model is based on solving the main
problems, and the Chinese health physical education curriculum model is no exception. For
example, the physical education curriculum model focuses on how to improve students’
physical fitness [5]; the sports education curriculum model focuses on improving students’
ability to compete [6]; the personal and social responsibility curriculum model focuses on
cultivating students’ integrity and self-discipline, compliance with rules, respect for others,
willingness to help others, and communication and cooperation through sports [7]; and the
Chinese health physical education curriculum model focuses on solving the physical and
mental health of students. The curriculum model combined local characteristics with an
international perspective and included the basic concepts outlined in the national Physical
Education and Health Curriculum Standards to enable students to achieve healthy physical
and mental development [8]. The curriculum model puts forward clear overall require-
ments for classroom teaching, including that teachers should implement the principle of
“more practice and less lectures”, create real, complex learning and activity situations, and
integrate modern information technology tools with classroom teaching. Through smart
devices such as wearable sensors, holographic camera systems, infrared imaging, and eye
tracking, multi-modal data in the student ‘s learning process are dynamically collected
and managed, such as speech data, behavioral data, psychological data, physiological
data, and brain data. Multi-modal data interact to fully describe the students’ learning
process, establish a big data platform for primary and secondary school students’ sports
and health, create a full-life cycle health guarantee system, and achieve a comprehensive
quantification of the learning process. Students should be encouraged to use an indepen-
dent but cooperative inquiry learning style, with teachers guiding students to learn and
practice structured sports and skills while allowing them independent and active learning
time and space. Teachers should strive to move away from a teaching-oriented method,
toward a learning-oriented method, and create a flexible, diverse, and dynamic learning en-
vironment in the classroom. Teachers should encourage harmonious interactions between
themselves and the students, as well as among students, and establish a positive classroom
teaching atmosphere. The assessments of motivation, feedback, guidance, development,
etc., should consider both teacher and student appraisals. The curriculum model is the
first in the field of physical education in China complying with the Physical Education and
Health Curriculum Standards. The concept and method are novel, advanced, and highly
operational. As an increasing number of teachers are adopting this curriculum model,
students are benefiting [9].
The new round of physical education curriculum reform in basic education in China
began in 2001, and as of today, it has gone through a twenty year journey. If we take 10 years
as the interval and summarize the achievements and experiences in the past 20 years, the
focus of the physical education curriculum reform in basic education in the first 10 years is
the change of the curriculum idea and teaching concept, while the focus of the physical
education curriculum reform in basic education in the last 10 years is the improvement
of the quality of the physical education classroom teaching. Therefore, by analyzing the
physical education classroom teaching using this curriculum model, we can evaluate the
effectiveness of this reform in China and provide information for further physical education
curriculum reform. As one of the important indicators to improve and evaluate the quality
of classroom teaching, physical education classroom teaching behavior has become an
important entry point for this study. Physical education classroom teaching behavior refers
Behav. Sci. 2023, 13, 251 3 of 15

to the sum of various behavioral activities between teachers and students to accomplish
specific teaching objectives in a specific physical education classroom context under the
guidance of certain physical education teaching ideas, which specifically includes teacher
behavior, student behavior, and interactive behavior. These three behaviors interact and
influence each other, and as an organic whole, together determine the teaching quality of a
physical education class.
In the field of educational research, video analysis methods began to emerge in in
the 1970s. In 1974, the National Institute of Education held a subforum entitled “Teaching
in Cultural Contexts: As Linguistic Processes”, which attracted widespread academic
attention [10]. In 1977, that institute funded 10 research projects that explicitly supported
the exploration of educational issues through the documentation of classroom processes.
Most of the leaders of these 10 research projects used video analysis, and they became
the founders of the application of video analysis to the field of educational research [11].
After more than 50 years of development, video-based empirical research has become a
mainstream approach to study the learning processes in physical education classrooms.
Video analysis has been widely used to advance many areas of educational research,
including classroom teaching behavior [12], classroom teaching patterns [13], class-room
discourse [14], and the classroom climate [15].
In this study, we used a mixed method of qualitative and quantitative approaches
and applied physical education classroom teaching behavior as an analysis tool, aiming to
address the real state of physical education classroom teaching implementation under the
Chinese health physical education curriculum model. We attempted to establish a reference
range of classroom teaching behavior indicators, summarize classroom teaching patterns,
and assess classroom discourse and emotional climate to inform future innovative physical
education classroom practices.

2. Materials and Methods

2.1. Participants and Procedure
From the beginning of 2016, the research team of Chinese health physical education
curriculum model gradually set up experimental bases in more than 50 primary and
secondary schools in several provinces and cities across the country, and more than 100,000
students from base schools participated in the experiment. The vast majority of physical
education teachers in the base school have participated in different forms of centralized
training, and the members of the research team often go to the base school to carry out
guidance and communication. Every year, a classroom teaching demonstration exchange
activity is held between the base schools. In 2016–2018, the National School Sports Alliance
(physical education) also held a classroom teaching demonstration exchange activity for
the Chinese health physical education curriculum model for three consecutive years. All
on-site classroom teaching demonstrators were selected from the base. High-quality lessons
have attracted thousands of physical education teachers, experts, and scholars from all over
the country to observe and communicate, and have received extensive media attention
and reports [16–18]. Therefore, files of high-quality video obtained in classrooms, in which
teachers were using the Chinese health physical education curriculum model at the 4th, 5th,
and 6th National School Sports Federation (Physical Education) Congress, were selected
for this study. The learning environment and settings are shown in Figures 1 and 2. The
videos included 41 lessons taught across 13 elementary schools, 10 junior high schools,
and 18 senior high schools. Each session lasted for approximately 45 min. On the day of
filming, the researcher arrived at the gym at least 5 min before the scheduled start time.
A small clip-on microphone and recorder were attached to the instructor. The researcher
remained in an inconspicuous location away from the classroom instruction and recorded
the session until all students had completed their studies and left the area. To prevent
a possible Hawthorne effect [19], the researcher visited the teacher in the classroom in
advance of the filming. This ensured that the teacher and students were familiar with the
researcher’s presence at the time of filming.
 scheduled start time. A small clip-on microphone and recorder were attached to the in-
scheduled
structor. Thestart time. Aremained
researcher small clip-on
in anmicrophone
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recorder werefrom
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the classroom
structor. The researcher remained in an inconspicuous location away from
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instruction
left the area. Toandprevent
recorded the session
a possible until alleffect
Hawthorne students hadresearcher
[19], the completedvisited
their the
studies and
teacher
Behav. Sci. 2023, 13, 251 4 of 15
inleft
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in advance of theHawthorne
filming. Thiseffect [19], the
ensured researcher
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of filming.
were familiar with the researcher’s presence at the time of filming.

Figure 1. Senior high schools’ learning environment and settings.

Figure 1. Senior high schools’ learning environment and settings.
Figure 1. Senior high schools’ learning environment and settings.

Figure 2. Elementary schools’ learning environment and settings.

Figure
Figure 2. 2. Elementary
Elementary schools’
schools’ learning
learning environment
environment and
and settings.
settings.
2.2. Measures
2.2.
2.2.Measures
Measures
We used the classroom teaching behavior analysis system associated with the Chi-
neseWe We used
healthusedthethe
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[20]. associated
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curriculum [20].
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analysis
parts: a coding system, criteria for observing and recording codes, and methods for re- of three
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of a
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cording system,
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cordingbehavior,
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dimensions:
Teacherof teacher
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and and and,coded
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as instruction
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Student
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Student
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behaviorphysical
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and categories, motor
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coded fitness
motor
as 5–8, skill
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physical
Student–teacher activity
fitness practice,
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relaxation
behavior was respectively.
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coded asquestioning
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Student–teacher
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with4 learning
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and learning
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discussion teacher-student
with learning
and evaluation, co-competition,
codedand training,
as 9–12, and mutual
teacher-student
respectively discussion and
co-competition,
(Table 1).
evaluation, coded as 9–12, respectively (Table 1).
and mutual discussion and evaluation, coded as 9–12, respectively (Table 1).
The analysis system used both quantitative and qualitative recording methods. For
the quantitative recording, a temporal sampling method was used to collect a sample of
behaviors at 10-s intervals. The behaviors were coded based on the behavior categories.
For the qualitative recording, a combination of technical records and narrative systems
was used.
 Behav. Sci. 2023, 13, 251 5 of 15

Table 1. Behavior coding system.

Classification Code Behavior

1 Explanation and demonstration
Teacher 2 Instruction and evaluation
behavior 3 Information technology application
4 Transition
5 Preparation activity practice
6.1 Individual technique
Student 6 Motor skill practice 6.2 Combination technique
behavior 6.3 Display and competition
7 Physical fitness practice
8 Relaxation activity practice
9.1 Closed-ended
questioning, predictable
response, general feedback
9 Questioning and responding 9.2 Open questioning,
understanding response,
Interactive
professional feedback
behavior
9.3 Open-ended questioning,
comprehensible response,
professional feedback
10 Cooperating with learning and training
11 Teacher–student co-competition
12 Mutual discussion and evaluation

The systematic analysis methods included cluster analysis, information entropy anal-
ysis, redundancy analysis, ratio analysis, verbatim analysis, and temporal analysis, each
of which achieved different purposes in physical education classroom analyses (Figure 3).
Cluster analysis reflected the distribution of teaching patterns. Information entropy and
Behav. Sci. 2023, 13, x FOR PEER REVIEW
redundancy analysis reflected the amount of teaching information. Ratio analysis reflected
the structure within the classroom. Verbatim analysis can reflect the discourse and emo-
tional climate. Temporal analysis can reflect the process of teaching changes.

Figure 3. Schematic diagram depicting the quantitative and qualitative teaching behavior analysis
Figure
methods 3. Schematic
used diagram depicting the quantitative and qualitative teaching behavior
in the study.
methods used in the study.
To ensure the reliability and validity of the study, three trained observers indepen-
dently coded 10 identical videotapes of physical education classes to assess inter-rater
2.3. Statistical Analysis
reliability. One observer coded the same 10 classes twice, 2 weeks apart, to assess intra-rater
The reference
reliability. ranges for each
Inter- and intra-observer dimension
agreement of classroom
(reliability) teaching
of the three coders’ behavior
ratings wer
was
minedexamined
usingusing a two-way randomKruskal–Wallis
the non-parametric intra-class correlation
testcoefficient
for school (ICC) [21].(elementary
stage The
results showed that inter-observer (MICC = 0.94 to 0.97) and intra-observer (MICC = 0.96)
high, and senior high schools) and sport (ball sports, gymnastics, and athletics),
non-parametric Mann–Whitney test for teacher gender and post hoc multiple co
sons of the differences in the distribution of each dimension of teaching be
Shapiro–Wilk tests were used to determine whether the data were normally dist
Behav. Sci. 2023, 13, 251 6 of 15

reliability reached very good levels. In addition, the results showed that students’ learn-
ing behaviors were influenced not only by their instructors’ teaching behaviors (t = 3.52,
p = 0.00) but also by teaching interactions (t = 2.26, p = 0.03), indicating that the classroom
teaching behavior analysis system had good predictive validity [22].

2.3. Statistical Analysis

The reference ranges for each dimension of classroom teaching behavior were deter-
mined using the non-parametric Kruskal–Wallis test for school stage (elementary, junior
high, and senior high schools) and sport (ball sports, gymnastics, and athletics), and the
non-parametric Mann–Whitney test for teacher gender and post hoc multiple comparisons
of the differences in the distribution of each dimension of teaching behavior. Shapiro–
Wilk tests were used to determine whether the data were normally distributed for each
dimension of teaching behavior. The final determination of the reference range for each
dimension of teaching behavior was based on statistical outcomes, as well as the concepts
and requirements in the Chinese health physical education curriculum model. Classroom
teaching patterns were assessed using K-means cluster analysis for the frequency data
in the three dimensions of teacher behavior, student behavior, and interactive behavior.
Discourse word frequency analysis and emotional function analysis were conducted using
Nvivo, Version 12, to analyze the classroom discourse and emotional climate, respectively.

3. Results
3.1. Establishment of a Reference Range for Each Indicator of Classroom Teaching Behavior
We established a reference range for each indicator of classroom teaching behavior
implemented through the Chinese health physical education curriculum model to enable
the visualization of the current teaching structure and to provide a practical reference for
subsequent physical education classroom teaching.

3.1.1. Differences in Classroom Teaching Behaviors by Student School Stage, Sport,

and Gender
Non-parametric tests were conducted with school stage (elementary, junior high, and
senior high school), sport (ball sports, gymnastics, and athletics), and teacher gender (male
and female) as independent variables, and each indicator of classroom teaching behavior
as a dependent variable. The results are given in Table 2.
The frequencies of closed-ended questioning, predictable response, and general feed-
back showed statistically significant differences by school stage (p = 0.02). The frequencies
of display and competition (p = 0.02) showed statistically significant differences by sport.
However, none of the indicators of classroom teaching behavior showed statistically signifi-
cant differences by teacher gender.
Further post hoc multiple comparisons indicated that closed-ended questioning,
predictable response and general feedback were significantly different between elemen-
tary school and senior high school (p < 0.001), with elementary school (median, 13.00;
inter-quartile range, 10.00–15.00) greater than senior high school (median, 6.00; inter-
quartile range, 2.00–10.00). Display and competition were significantly different between
ball sports and athletics (p = 0.01), with ball sports (median, 42.00; inter-quartile range,
36.00–47.00) being greater than athletics (median 20.5; inter-quartile range, 9.80–34.30).
On the basis of these findings, the reference ranges were established for closed-ended
questioning, predictable response, and general feedback at the different school stages,
the reference ranges were established for the indicators of display and competition at
different sports and universal reference ranges were established for other indicator of
classroom teaching behavior.
Behav. Sci. 2023, 13, 251 7 of 15

Table 2. Non-parametric analysis of each indicator of classroom teaching behavior, by school stage,
sport, and student gender.

School Stage Sport Student Gender

Indicator Kruskal–Wallis Kruskal–Wallis Mann–Whitney
p p p
H Statistic H Statistic z Score
Explanation and
0.49 0.78 1.56 0.46 −0.26 0.79
demonstration
Instruction and evaluation 2.63 0.27 3.70 0.16 −0.31 0.76
Information technology
0.19 0.91 2.71 0.26 −0.51 0.61
application
Transition 1.19 0.55 2.19 0.34 −0.15 0.88
Preparation activity
1.06 0.59 3.17 0.21 −0.89 0.37
practice
Individual technique
1.45 0.49 0.23 0.89 −0.43 0.66
practice
Combination technique
0.09 0.96 5.27 0.07 −1.63 0.10
practice
Display and competition 2.62 0.27 8.05 0.02 * −0.22 0.83
Physical fitness practice 0.32 0.85 0.17 0.92 −0.61 0.54
Relaxation activity practice 1.97 0.37 0.48 0.79 −0.13 0.90
Closed-ended questioning,
predictable response, 7.52 0.02 * 3.70 0.16 −0.31 0.76
general feedback
Open-ended questioning,
comprehensible response, 2.63 0.27 0.88 0.65 −1.49 0.14
professional feedback
Cooperating with learning
4.19 0.12 0.90 0.64 −0.83 0.41
and training
Teacher–student
3.51 0.17 6.00 0.09 −0.74 0.46
co-competition
Mutual discussion and
0.98 0.61 4.34 0.11 −1.45 0.15
evaluation
Teacher behavior (total) 5.35 0.07 1.70 0.43 −0.52 0.60
Student behavior (total) 0.65 0.72 4.75 0.09 −0.39 0.70
Interactive behavior
0.61 0.74 0.32 0.85 −1.79 0.07
(total)
Note: * significant at the 0.05 level.

3.1.2. The Specific Numerical Value Establishment of the Reference Range of Each Indicator
of Classroom Teaching Behavior
The data for each indicator of teacher behavior, student behavior, and interactive
behavior under the Chinese health physical education curriculum model were tested for
normality using the Shapiro–Wilk test (Table 3). Data for the following indicators were
not normally distributed (i.e., p < 0.05): instruction and evaluation, information technol-
ogy application, transition, preparation activity practice, individual technique practice,
physical fitness practice, open-ended questioning, comprehensible response, professional
feedback, cooperating with learning and training, teacher–student co-competition, and
mutual discussion and evaluation. By contrast, data for the following indicators were
normally distributed (i.e., p > 0.05): explanation and demonstration, combined technique
practice, display and competition, relaxation activity practice, closed-ended questioning,
predictable response, general feedback, teacher behavior, student behavior, interactive
behavior, and total time.
The reference ranges were determined by selecting the bilateral limits (i.e., mean ±
(1.96 × SD)) or the one-sided upper limit (i.e., mean + (1.645 × SD)) and the one-sided
lower limit (i.e., mean − (1.645 × SD)) within the 95% confidence interval for each indicator
that was normally distributed. Reference ranges for indicators that were not normally
distributed were established using the non-parametric percentile method with double-
Behav. Sci. 2023, 13, 251 8 of 15

sided limits (2.5%, 97.5%) or with a single-sided upper limit (95%) or a single-sided lower
limit (5%) (Table 4).

Table 3. Normality test results for each indicator of physical education classroom teaching behavior.

Frequency Time (min) Shapiro–Wilk

Indicator
Mean ± SD Mean ± SD p Value
Explanation and demonstration 25.76 ± 8.89 4.29 ± 1.48 0.96
Instruction and evaluation 11.59 ± 5.07 1.93 ± 0.85 0.92 *
Information technology application 0.93 ± 2.78 0.16 ± 0.46 0.38 **
Transition 19.00 ± 7.33 3.17 ± 1.22 0.93 *
Preparation activity practice 31.24 ± 8.52 5.21 ± 1.42 0.89 **
Individual technique practice 13.79 ± 17.30 2.30 ± 2.88 0.80 **
Combination technique practice 44.52 ± 19.59 7.42 ± 3.26 0.93
Display and competition 30.66 ± 16.89 5.11 ± 2.81 0.96
Physical fitness practice 38.21 ± 8.83 6.37 ± 1.47 0.91 *
Relaxation activity practice 12.97 ± 4.23 2.16 ± 0.70 0.94
Closed-ended questioning, predictable
8.10 ± 4.64 1.35 ± 0.77 0.94
response, general feedback
Open-ended questioning,
comprehensible response, professional 1.83 ± 1.83 0.30 ± 0.31 0.86 **
feedback
Cooperating with learning and training 6.59 ± 5.17 1.10 ± 0.86 0.93 *
Teacher–student co-competition 3.86 ± 6.11 0.64 ± 1.02 0.69 **
Mutual discussion and evaluation 5.07 ± 4.44 0.85 ± 0.74 0.91 *
Teacher behavior 57.79 ± 14.10 9.63 ± 2.35 0.93
Student behavior 173.93 ± 18.22 28.99 ± 3.04 0.94
Interactive behavior 26.62 ± 9.97 4.44 ± 1.66 0.95
Total time 43.16 ± 2.76 0.95
Note: * significant at the 0.05 level. ** significant at the 0.01 level.

3.2. Analysis of Classroom Teaching Patterns

The teaching patterns used in the physical education classrooms implementing
this model were assessed with K-means cluster analysis using the frequency data from
the three dimensions—teacher behavior, student behavior, and interactive behavior—as
the base. The results indicated that it was reasonable to divide the classroom teaching
patterns into three types. The descriptive statistics for these three types are given in
Table 5. The means for each dimension of physical education classroom teaching behavior
were significantly different for the three different teaching patterns (teacher behavior,
F = 20.17, p < 0.01; student behavior, F = 30.27, p < 0.01; and interactive behavior, F = 8.95,
p < 0.01). The percentages of the three physical education classroom teaching patterns
were 32.26%, 29.03%, and 38.71%, which were evenly distributed, indicating a good
clustering effect.
The first type of physical education classroom teaching pattern was most prominent
for the dimension of interactive behavior, with teacher behavior being more prominent
and student behavior less so. Taken together with the overall requirements of the Chinese
health physical education curriculum model for physical education classroom teaching,
this type of classroom can be summarized as a dialogue type and accounts for 32.26% of
the total. In this type of classroom, teachers and students are in dialogue with each other.
The role of the teacher is to make decisions about the content of the physical education,
including the target concepts to be discovered and the sequence of questions to be set for
the students. The students’ role is to reason, ask questions, and discover accurate answers
during the learning and practice processes.
Behav. Sci. 2023, 13, 251 9 of 15

Table 4. Reference ranges for each classroom teaching behavior indicator.

Reference Range Reference Range

Indicator
(Frequency, No. of Observations) (Min)
Explanation and
(10.00, 43.00) (1.39, 7.19)
demonstration
Instruction and evaluation (5.00, 21.00) (0.83, 3.50)
Information technology
(>0.00) (>0.00)
application
Transition (8.00, 36.00) (1.33, 6.00)
Preparation activity practice (22.00, 52.00) (3.66, 8.67)
Individual technique practice (<51.00) (<8.50)
Combination technique
(45.00, 77.00) (7.42, 12.80)
practice
ball sports (44.00, 60.00) (7.33, 10.00)
Display and competition athletics (38.00, 52.00) (6.33, 8.67)
gymnastics (24.00, 42.00) (4.00, 7.00)
Physical fitness practice (19.00, 50.00) (3.17, 8.33)
Relaxation activity practice (5.00, 21.00) (0.79, 3.53)
Closed-ended questioning, elementary school (<18.00) (<3.00)
predictable response, and junior high school (<16.00) (<2.67)
general feedback senior high school (<14.00) (<2.33)
Open-ended questioning,
comprehensible response, (>0.00) (>0.00)
professional feedback
Cooperating with learning
(0.00, 21.00) (0.00, 3.50)
and training
Teacher–student
(0.00, 20.00) (0.00, 3.33)
co-competition
Mutual discussion and
(0.00, 16.00) (0.00, 2.67)
evaluation
Teacher behavior (30.00, 85.00) (5.02, 14.24)
Student behavior (138.00, 210.00) (24.17, 34.50)
Interactive behavior (7.00, 46.00) (1.19, 7.69)
Total time (>38.61)

Table 5. Descriptive statistics for the three types of physical education classroom teaching patterns in
each of three dimensions.

Dimension Type 1 (Mean ± SD) Type 2 (Mean ± SD) Type 3 (Mean ± SD) F/P
Teacher behavior 65.58 ± 14.37 67.78 ± 9.43 40.80 ± 4.02 20.17 **
Student behavior 154.33 ± 8.57 183.67 ± 14.51 189.60 ± 11.39 30.27 **
Interactive behavior 33.92 ± 12.44 16.89 ± 6.31 27.60 ± 5.97 8.95 **
Percentage 32.26% 29.03% 38.71%
Note: ** significant at the 0.01 level.

The second teaching pattern was most prominent for the dimension of teacher behavior,
with student behavior being more prominent and interactive behavior being less prominent.
This type of physical education classroom can be summarized as a lecture II type and
accounts for 29.03% of the total. Compared with a traditional classroom in which the
physical education teacher explains and demonstrates (lecture I), a lecture-II-type classroom
has time for explanations and demonstrations by the teacher but also leaves time for
students to practice.
The third type of physical education classroom teaching pattern was most prominent
in the student behavior dimension, interactive behavior was more prominent, and teacher
behavior was not prominent. This type of classroom can be summarized as a practice type
and accounts for 38.71% of the total. In this type of classroom, the role of the physical
education teacher is to make decisions about the content and organization, and to provide
 Behav. Sci. 2023, 13, 251 10 of 15

timely feedback to the students, who spend most of their time engaging in individual,
group, and collective practice and communication.

3.3. Analyses of Classroom Discourse and Emotional Climate

, 13, x FOR PEER REVIEW 3.3.1. Discourse Analysis
In order to analyze the discourse characteristics of physical education teachers, the top
50 most commonly spoken words were selected by importing the transcribed classroom
teaching audio text into Nvivo 12 for discourse word frequency analysis. The results of the
analysis are shown in Figure 4.

Figure 4. Top 50 words spoken by physical education teachers in sample physical education classes.
Note: the size of words in the schematic diagram, from small to large, represents the frequency of
use, from less to more, respectively; color represents the category of discourse.
Figure 4. Top 50 words spoken by physical education teachers in sample p
ses. Note: the size of ofwords
The discourse physicalin the schematic
education teachers wasdiagram,
divided into from small
five major to large, r
categories
based on word frequency and presented herein in descending order.
quency of The
use, from
first less
category wasto more, respectively
motivational ; color
words, for example, represents
cheer, can, the categor
and great. Teaching
under this model focuses on the motivational and developmental functions of assessment,
which requires teachers to give more praise or encouragement to students. Appropriate
The discourse
praise or encouragementof can
physical education
stimulate student motivation,teachers
creativity, andwas
desire divided
to perform, into
so that students have a successful sports experience, which may aid in achieving a healthy
based personality
on word andfrequency and presented herein in descending order
good character development.
The first category
The second was
category was motivational
directive words,
speech, for example, for and
ready, start, example, cheer,
pay attention.
Instructions are key initiatives in organizing and sustaining physical education classroom
ing under this and
instructions model havingfocuses on the
a positive effect motivational
on classroom management. and The development
appropriate
use of directive speech by teachers may trigger or mobilize students to participate in
ment, which requires teachers to give more praise or encouragemen
the classroom activities, stimulate student interest in learning, inspire student thinking,
priate enhance
praiseinteractions
or encouragement
between teachers andcanstudents,
stimulate student
and improve motivation,
the effectiveness of cr
classroom teaching.
perform, so The that students
third category have
of words used a
wassuccessful sports
specialized speech, experience,
for example, passing, de-which
fense, and coverage. Specialized speech mainly plays a guiding role. Teachers give rein-
a healthy personality and good character development.
forcement and feedback to students who are practicing in response to the actual situation,
The second
and promote the category wasaction
formation of correct directive
awareness.speech,
Teachers may for example,
either stop studentsready
for focused instruction or give “tour guidance” as students continue to practice.
tion. Instructions are key initiatives in organizing and sustaining phy
room instructions and having a positive effect on classroom manag
ate use of directive speech by teachers may trigger or mobilize stud
the classroom activities, stimulate student interest in learning, insp
 Behav. Sci. 2023, 13, 251 11 of 15

The fourth category was transitional speech, for example, words such as then, next,
and last. Transitional speech mainly serves as a link between physical activity and physical
education content. In the classroom, the appropriate use of transitional speech effectively
reduces the time it takes to teach team movement, field layout, pauses, and the like,
increases the time for students to learn and practice motor skills, and improves the logic
and hierarchy of classroom teaching.
The fifth category was regulatory speech, with words such as breathing, adjustment,
and rhythm. In the physical education classroom, the correct use of regulatory speech
helps students stay within a reasonable exercise load, promotes the development and
recovery of their physical functions, avoids sports injuries, and ensures their health and
safe participation in exercise.
ehav. Sci. 2023, 13, x FOR PEER REVIEW
3.3.2. Emotional Climate Analysis
Emotional climate was assessed using automatic coding with Nvivo 12 to identify
emotional functions (Figure 5).

Figure 5. Example reference nodes for teaching emotional climate.

Figure 5. Example reference nodes for teaching emotional climate.
There were 235 very negative reference points, 224 more negative reference nodes,
1598 more positive reference nodes, and 280 very positive reference nodes. The sum of the
There were 235 very negative reference points, 224 more negative refe
more positive and very positive nodes (1878) was substantially greater than the sum of
1598 more
the more positive
negative reference
and very negativenodes, andindicating
nodes (459), 280 very positive
that reference
the emotional climatenodes.
of T
more positive
the physical and classroom
education very positive nodes
under this model(1878) was substantially
was predominantly greater
positive, and the tha
classroom atmosphere was very good.
the more negative and very negative nodes (459), indicating that the emotion
the physical education classroom under this model was predominantly pos
4. Discussion
classroom atmosphere
This study was very
established reference good.
ranges by using statistical methods consistent with
existing related studies for: (1) Closed-ended questioning, predictable response, and
general feedback at the level of elementary, junior high, and senior high school; (2) In-
4.dicators
Discussion
of different project displays and competitions; and (3) Each indicator of other
teaching
Thisbehaviors. For example,reference
study established one previous study used
ranges the percentile
by using method
statistical to
methods co
determine bilateral reference ranges for blood and serum iron levels in Tibetan children
existing related studies for: (1) Closed-ended questioning, predictable respo
aged 2–14 years based on the distribution characteristics of test indicators [23]. Another
eral
studyfeedback at the level
used the percentile of elementary,
method junior high,
to determine bilateral and and
95% limits senior high school;
to establish
reference
of ranges
different for anemia-related
project displays andtesting indexes in older and
competitions; adults(3)
andEach
centenarians in of o
indicator
Hainan, China [24]. In the present study, the use of closed-ended questioning, predictable
behaviors. For example, one previous study used the percentile method to d
response, and general feedback in physical education classes implementing the Chinese
lateral reference ranges for blood and serum iron levels in Tibetan childre
years based on the distribution characteristics of test indicators [23]. Anothe
the percentile method to determine bilateral 95% limits and to establish refe
for anemia-related testing indexes in older adults and centenarians in Haina
Behav. Sci. 2023, 13, 251 12 of 15

health physical education curriculum model was significantly different between elemen-
tary school and senior high school (p < 0.01), with greater usage in elementary school than
in high school. This is consistent, to some extent, with the findings of previous studies.
One study found that at the elementary level, teachers spend the vast majority of their
classroom time engaged in the question–answer–feedback cycle, with teachers asking
an average of more than 100 questions per day [25]. Classroom questioning is a key tool
for promoting the development of student thinking skills. Especially at the elementary
level, the content, format, and number of questions teachers ask play a critical role in the
development of the students’ mind [26].
The present study also found that the use of display and competition in classrooms
implementing the curriculum model was significantly different for ball sports and athletics
(p < 0.05), with greater usage in ball sports than in athletics. Plausible reasons for this finding
are that athletics involve closed motor skills with periodic and procedural characteristics.
The key to the formation of motor skills lies in repeated practice until a standard pattern
and degree of automation is achieved. By contrast, ball sports, such as basketball, involve
open motor skills with confrontational and open characteristics. The formation of motor
skills in ball sports requires both static and repeated reinforcement practice of technical
movements and the rational use of technical movements in dynamic game situations. It
should be noted that this explanation is based on assumptions and generalizations about
the nature of the motor skills required for each sport, which may not be appropriate for all
people or situations. There may be other factors that influence display and competition in
different sports, such as cultural norms, teacher preferences, and student interests.
Our K-means cluster analysis indicated that three teaching patterns were predomi-
nately used under the Chinese health physical education curriculum model—dialogue,
lecture II, and practice, with the highest percentage of classrooms using the practice type.
This finding indicated a positive change in teaching patterns. This gives empirical support
to previous research to a certain extent; for example, Liu reported that ensuring the athletic
load of physical education classes meant that it would be necessary to change the traditional
physical education teaching styles away from the “didactic”, “technical”, “safety”, and
“military” forms that have been used for decades and build new forms that meet the spirit
and requirements of curriculum standards [27]. All three teaching styles used most with
the curriculum model helped to achieve the goal of cultivating student core literacy in
physical education. The form teachers ultimately choose to follow will depend on the
learning situation, the characteristics of the classroom materials, and the amount of class
time allotted. For example, Griffey used command and task-based teaching styles to teach
volleyball forearm passing and serving skills. The results showed that high school students
with higher skill levels performed better in task-based teaching.; Jenkins and Byra used the
practice style to teach school-aged children to hit the ball with a racket. The results showed
that using the practice style to teach can effectively promote school-aged children’s motor
skills learning [28].
Using Nvivo 12 word frequency analysis, the present study found five main discourse
systems used by teachers instructing under the Chinese health physical education cur-
riculum model: motivational speech, directive speech, specialized speech, transitional
speech, and regulatory speech. This finding provides empirical support to the results of
some previous studies. For example, one study classified classroom discourse into three
categories from the perspective of the function of the discourse: course content discourse
(specialized speech and regulatory speech), discourse of social control in the classroom
(directive speech and transitional speech), and discourse that expresses the individual’s
personality (motivational speech) [29]. Classroom discourse is an important factor affecting
teaching effectiveness, and it is also an important reflection of the quality of a physical
education teachers’ speech and discourse efficiency [30]. The appropriate use of discourse
not only promotes the development of student thinking, but also stimulates students’
emotions and has an emotional impact on them. Some studies have shown that through a
teacher’s encouraging attitude and appreciative language, students gain psychological com-
Behav. Sci. 2023, 13, 251 13 of 15

fort, develop a better understanding and knowledge of the learned content, and become
more motivated to participate in classroom questions and activities. This type of discourse
helps create a learner-centered teaching atmosphere that better facilitates teaching and
learning [31].
The present study also found that classrooms using the Chinese health physical ed-
ucation curriculum model had a predominantly positive emotional climate with a good
atmosphere. A positive classroom climate helps to motivate and initiate student learn-
ing, assists in exploring students’ learning potential, and encourages students to enjoy
sports [32]. This finding provides empirical support to previous study findings. For exam-
ple Liu suggested that classroom teaching under the Chinese health physical education
curriculum model should focus on creating a classroom teaching atmosphere with harmo-
nious teacher–student interactions, positive emotions, lively and enthusiastic scenarios,
and a positive atmosphere. A good classroom teaching atmosphere plays a direct role
in influencing students’ learning abilities and effectiveness, enables active learning, and
allows students to experience the joy of learning [33].

5. Conclusions
In summary, this study established the frequency and time reference ranges for closed-
ended questioning, predictable response, general feedback at three different school stages,
for display and competition indicators at different sports, and for other teaching behavior
indicators. Of the three classroom teaching patterns (dialogue, lecture II, and practice)
used most often under the Chinese health physical education curriculum model, practice
was predominant. Teachers instructing under this curriculum model used five types of
discourse (motivational speech, directive speech, specialized speech, transitional speech,
and regulatory speech), and the emotional climate in the physical education classroom was
mainly positive.
The video case analysis tool in this study can be used as a reference for other re-
searchers to conduct related studies. By analyzing the reference range of each indicator of
physical education classroom teaching behavior, generalized physical education classroom
teaching patterns, classroom discourse, and emotional climate, not only provides a more
systematic and in-depth understanding of current physical education classroom teaching,
but also can be used to improve the quality of physical education teaching in China.
This study has limitations that should be considered. Owing to the limitations of the
video samples used in this study, our findings and conclusions may not be generalizable to
all physical education programs in China. Thus, future studies should increase the sample
size to collect more data to strengthen the generalizability of the study findings.

Author Contributions: C.L., C.D. and Q.W. conceived the idea for the study. C.L., H.H. and X.L.
performed the statistical collections and analysis. C.L., X.L. and Q.W. wrote the paper. All authors
have read and agreed to the published version of the manuscript.
Funding: This work was supported by the Humanities and Social Sciences Research Youth Program
of the Ministry of Education of the People’s Republic of China (22YJC890013), and the Youth Program
of Jiangsu Social Science Foundation of the People’s Republic of China (22TYC003).
Institutional Review Board Statement: This study protocol was approved by the Ethics Committee
of Yangzhou University and performed in accordance with the Declaration of Helsinki.
Informed Consent Statement: Before the study, all participants or their legal guardians provided
written informed consent agreeing to be in the videos and to have the videos used for research
purposes.
Data Availability Statement: All data generated or analyzed during this study are included in this
published article.
Conflicts of Interest: The authors declare no conflict of interest.
Behav. Sci. 2023, 13, 251 14 of 15

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