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Chapter

Botanical Insecticides and Their

Potential as Anti-Insect/Pests: Are
They Successful against Insects
and Pests?
Toheed Iqbal, Nazeer Ahmed, Kiran Shahjeer, Saeed Ahmed,
Khalid Awadh Al-Mutairi, Hanem Fathy Khater
and Reham Fathey Ali

Abstract

In low-income countries, subsistence and transitional farms frequently use

botanical insecticides. The shortage or high cost of industrial pesticides also
prompts their use. Botanical insecticides are also prescribed by agricultural and
development programs and certain development organizations. However, since
insecticidal proof of their effectiveness and protection might not be sufficient or
usable, this may be called into question. While insecticidal botanicals have been
extensively studied, there has yet to be a fusion that focuses especially on the
domestic synthesis of biopesticides that work infield and storage effectively. In this
chapter, we look at the effectiveness of botanicals (neem, garlic, and essential oil)
that are used as insecticides. In addition, this chapter also focuses on research car-
ried out on the use of these essential oils as insecticides. Processes that use variable
amounts of ingredients and concentrations and ratios of active ingredients can have
varying impacts on the efficacy of plant-based biological insecticides. Finally, using
home-made insecticides would reduce the losses that occur during food production
and enable us to use environment-friendly pest management methods.

Keywords: garlic, neem, essential oil, repellent, phytotoxicity, safety, economics

1. Introduction

In global terms, yield losses due to arthropods, diseases, and weeds are estimated
to an approximately 35% of the total agricultural products. Yield losses in develop-
ing regions with limited pest management options may exceed up to 50% [1]. There
are many adverse interactions between insects and plants, like insects, pests, and
pathogens, leading to total or complete crop failure [2]. Crop protection has played
a crucial role in ensuring food security, preserving crop productivity, and rising
yields. More recently, the use of integrated pest management for pest control has
become more prevalent in developed countries, but the continued use of pesticides
to manage pest epidemics remains prominent [1, 3]. Increased use of synthetic
pesticides is observed in the developed and transitional countries [4]. Many farmers

1
Global Decline of Insects

in developing countries lack access to synthetic pesticides [5]. Biological controls

and botanical pesticides (in this case, plant products) are frequently unavailable or
expensive. They are used in alternative ways, like inter-crop pest control rather than
pesticide sprays to eliminate crops [6, 7].
Botanicals were used in agricultural pest control in China two thousand years ago
and Greece and India before they became widely accepted [1]. Traditional botanical
pest control for crop protection or storage remains widely distributed today among
traditional and subsistence farmers [1, 4]. In some areas of Zimbabwe and Uganda, up
to 100% of farmers use botanical products [5, 8]. Globally, there have been reports that
more than 2500 plant species from 235 families have biological pest control activities
[9, 10]. Notably, in many farmer surveys, using various botanical substances to control
insect pests is underlined, with 10 botanicals used by farmers worldwide [5, 11].
Given the limited availability of synthetic pesticides and the prohibitive cost for
farmers and transitional growers, botanicals are often a viable alternative to syn-
thetic pesticides in the developing and subsistence agriculture sector [1]. Botanical
preparations are vigorously promoted in the advisory materials of many govern-
ment agricultural departments. As a result, plant-wise national extension partners,
led by the CABI, sometimes use homemade pesticide products in their guidelines
and extension materials (www.plantwise.org).
Different insecticidal activities such as toxicity, feeding deterrence, and repel-
lency against other insect pests are possessed by plant secondary metabolites such
as terpenoids, alkaloids, and phenols. The protection of plant species against insect
herbicides has been used for many years in botanical insecticides, such as extracts
and essential oils. Natural enemies are sometimes killed or injured by synthetic
insecticides [1, 5, 12]. Additionally, plant extracts tend to have multiple actions and
low toxicity, making them safer for non-target species. However, another significant
advantage of botanical is that they tend to depend rather than on one active ingredi-
ent on closely related “suites” of active substances. It could either prevent or delay the
spread of pest population resistance. Biopesticides have been utilized as a long way
to keep pests under control until synthetic pesticides have replaced plant extracts.
There is currently only about 1 per cent of the global use of pesticides for botanical
insecticides, but that number increases due to greater attention on this class of prod-
ucts [13–15]. Plant extracts from common weed species are frequently produced in
developing countries that are accessible and obtain labour as the only cost. However,
Botanical pest management is a less expensive alternative to insecticides [16, 17].
The suitability of botanical recommendation and use can be questioned to
control pests. Over the past decades, the evidence for the use of botanicals generally
has been deemed consistent, but it must be re-evaluated to assess their effective-
ness. Some botanicals used to control pesticides may be without active ingredients,
a waste of time for little growers. Moreover, results may be unpredictable because
of varying levels of active ingredients, concentrations in the used plant material,
and differences in the preparing methods [7]. Despite this, their toxicity to non-
targets has not been proven. While there is rising scientific evidence that some plant
pesticides are less toxic to non-target species than synthetic pesticides, there is also
evidence that some non-target species or ecosystems may be threatened by other
botanicals, livestock, or the general environment [14]. Despite their significant
prevalence, however, it is impossible to ignore the use of botanicals for pest control.
There have been extensive research trials in the use of traditional pesticides and
control methods conducted over the last several decades. However, a comprehensive
scientific understanding of the use of conventional botanicals for insecticides,
including those used by subsistence and transition farmers, is lacking.
Three distinct botanicals were investigated in this chapter to see either they
worked against insects or pests, including their scientific proof for their efficacy

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Botanical Insecticides and Their Potential as Anti-Insect/Pests: Are They Successful…
DOI: http://dx.doi.org/10.5772/intechopen.100418

and reliability was discovered. The findings indicate the potential and limitations as
alternatives to pesticides of selected botanical insecticides. The safety and well-being
of humans are briefly mentioned, as well as considerations of cost and practicality.

2. Botanical insecticides

A substance employed to destroy pests that cause damage or obstacle to desired

crops, shrubs, trees, timber, and plant growth is called insecticide. Pesticides that
usually remain in nature and/end up take a long time in the body or tissue pose
significant problems for humans and the environment for a wide range of environ-
mental health and safety. Many pesticides are non-specific, so they can kill or be
responsible for the death of either beneficial or destructive organisms [5].

2.1 Definition of botanical insecticide

One of the naturally occurring chemicals found in plants is referred to as botani-

cal pesticides. Nature-oriented pesticides can be used as an alternative to synthetic
formulations, but they are usually claimed to be more toxic to humans. Some of the
most lethal carcinogenic substances, like deadly toxins, develop quickly and thrive
in nature [18].

2.2 Mode of action of botanical insecticides

Mode of action is defined as a specific functional or physiological change in a

living organism resulting from its exposure to a substance. The affected biologi-
cal steps, enzymes, or proteins of the living organism are usually included in the
mode of action. Most others classify pesticides as controlled, physical, or chemical
characteristics; the mode of action primarily refers to how the pesticide interrupts
an organism’s biological processes [1, 18].

2.3 What is the significance of the mode of action?

Scientists must understand the mode of action to increase the quality and long-
term viability of a product used in pest management plans. To better understand
how pesticides function, it is critical to understand how the targeted system of
the pest is working. Understanding how humans and other systems operate also
helps us to control pests effectively. It also needs to learn the modes of action of the
pesticides, which will help to prevent resistance to the specific pesticide(s) [18].

3. Botanical insecticide efficacy

3.1 Garlic (Allium sativum)

Sulfur-containing compounds produced by the enzymatic degradation of allicin

are thought to be responsible for garlic’s pesticide activity. There have been labora-
tory trials that have demonstrated that garlic extracts have insecticidal and acaricidal
properties. They can also be used as control agents for Coleoptera, Lepidoptera, and
Hemiptera insect species [19–22]. Garlic aqueous extracts were found to control
Hemiptera pests, Lepidoptera pests, and mites to varying degrees in field application
trials [23–26]. Other research suggests that homemade pesticides based on garlic
could control fruit flies on watermelons and mites on tomatoes [27, 28].

3
Global Decline of Insects

3.2 Neem (Azadirachta indica)

Insects are affected by azadirachtin in two ways. At the physiological stage,

azadirachtin prevents the prothoracic gland from producing and releasing molting
hormones (ecdysteroids), resulting in immature insects, which causes incomplete
ecdysis. A related mechanism of action is responsible for adult female insect steril-
ity. Furthermore, azadirachtin is a powerful antifeedant for a variety of insects. It is
thought that Schmutterer [29] was the first to discover the problem of swarming locusts
in the desert. Still, neem trees had covered the area before then, so it was only found
later that they destroyed all the local vegetation except for imported neem. Because of
its exceptionally antifeedant activity in the desert locust, azadirachtin was first isolated
and remained the most potent antifouling agent discovered to date. In the United States,
neem has quickly become the new model for producing botanical pesticides [1].
The limonoids in neem are thought to be responsible for their insecticidal
properties. Although azadirachtin is thought to be the most active compound, other
limonoids may enhance its activity and activeness and inhibit resistance buildup
[30]. Commercial neem extracts are commonly used to monitor a wide variety of
insects and mites. Commercial neem-based products’ insecticidal and acaricidal
properties have been extensively demonstrated [18, 30].
Blatt dean, Hemiptera, Lepidoptera, and Thysanoptera pests have been success-
fully controlled with aqueous extracts produced at home using neem plant content
(unformulated oil, seed cake, leaves, and seeds) [23, 31–36]. In various trials
against Lepidoptera pests, aqueous neem extracts were found to be effective. Patil
and Nandihalli [37] were the only researchers to demonstrate the effectiveness of
aqueous neem extracts in field applications; extracts or an oil emulsion is used to
combat mite pests. Both preparations decreased mite population but did not affect
yield. It has been confirmed that neem oil is effective against fruit flies targeting
watermelon, but no statistics have been given.
Coleopteran pests were controlled successfully and constantly in storage trials
through ground neem plant material [27, 37–40]. The effectiveness of the ground
neem is supported by participatory farm studies carried out by Paul et al. [41] and
other earlier studies [5, 7, 9].

3.3 Mode of action

Biologically active components are difficult to pin down in neem products,

as they are found in complex mixtures. Studies show that neem has insecticidal,
repulsive, anti-ovipositional, growth-regulating, and toxic properties in various
forms of insects. Neem serves as a natural insect repellent, preventing insects from
starting to eat. It acts as a feeding deterrent, making insects avoid eating if there
is a presence of deterrent factors, as part of the first “taste” ingesting food at some
points (might be due to secondary hormonal or physiological effects of the deter-
rent substance). Neem has been proven to be strong in halting the growth of most
insects through the means of disrupting chitin synthesis. Due to species’ suscepti-
bility, the effects of neem can vary widely [41].

4. Essential oils

Secondary metabolites produced by plants are superior to synthetic or syn-

thetic pesticides as viable alternatives to a primary pest control strategy [42].
Furthermore, insecticide resistance to synthetic pesticides resulted in significant
food losses due to chemical failure in pests. As a result, annual economic losses in

4
Botanical Insecticides and Their Potential as Anti-Insect/Pests: Are They Successful…
DOI: http://dx.doi.org/10.5772/intechopen.100418

the billions of dollars occur worldwide [1, 5]. Furthermore, essential oils are also
considered safer than synthetic pesticides by the FDA due to non-target neuro-
toxic, carcinogenic, teratogenic, and mutagenic effects, as well as insect multi- and
cross-resistance [43]. Their popularity in organic farmers and the environmentally
aware consumer has considerably increased as insecticides in essential oils derived
from aromatic plants. They have repellent, antifeedant, inhibitors to oviposition
and growth, ovicides, and growth-reducing effects in several insects [42–44].
Essential oils possess an exciting impact of larvicide on larvae, insecticide activity,
abusive ants, cockroaches, bedbugs, moths, fluid headlice, and toxic to termites
(Lepidoptera: Lymantriidae, gipsy moth). Mentha piperita oil repels anti-
Callosobruchus maculatus, flies, lice, moth, and Tribolium castrum. Trachysperm
sp. oil contains larvicidal effect against mosquito species Aedes aegypti and Culex
quinquefasciatus [45–47].

4.1 Chemistry of essential oils

The chemistry of volatile elements in essential oils can be categorized into four
major groups: benzene derivatives, hydrocarbons, terpene, and other miscellaneous
compounds. Monoterpenoids constitute 90% of the essential oil, and they are the
most representative molecules that allow for a wide variety of different structures.
There are 10 hydrocarbons, or their related compounds, that is, cyclic alcohols (e.g.,
isopulegol, menthol, terpineol), acyclic alcohols (e.g., geraniol, linalool, citronel-
lol), bicyclic alcohols (e.g., verbenol, borneol), ketones (menthone, carvone, thu-
jone), phenols (e.g., carvacrol, thymol), acids (e.g., chrysanthemum acid), oxides
(cineole), and aldehydes (citronellal, citral). Terpenes are the major group, while
aromatic and aliphatic constituents are the other minor groups. Terpenes are mostly
monoterpenes (C10) as well as sesquiterpenes (C15), but hemiterpenes (C5),
diterpenes (C20), triterpenes (C30), and tetraterpenes are also available (C40).
Phenylpropane-derived aromatic compounds are less prevalent than terpenes, for
example, aldehyde: cinnamaldehyde; methylenedioxy compounds: apiole, myristi-
cin, safrole; phenols: chavicol, eugenol; alcohol: cinnamic alcohol; methoxy deriva-
tives: anethole, elemicin, estragole, methyl eugenols [48].

4.2 Extraction of essential oil

The oil composition varies widely, mainly depending on the way that was used
to isolate it. Essential oils have a different chemical composition, depending on the
type of molecules extracted and the number of molecules found within the mix.
Usually, steam distillation under high pressure is used to separate essential oils using
the clevenger device. Furthermore, the oil may be chemically altered during distilla-
tion due to saponification, isomerization, and other reactions due to distillation.
Essential oils are extracted via different methods: solvent extraction, first through
percolation, and then through a combination of double or single distillation or
supercritical carbon dioxide. The quality, quantity, and composition of the extract
obtained from the various plant materials vary with each climate and the design of
the soil, organ of plants, age, and vegetative cycle stage [44].

4.3 Essential oil mode of action

Most monoterpene has a cytotoxic effect on plant and animal cells, dis-
rupting respiration and permeability, depleting Golgi and mitochondria, and
decreasing respiration and production. Similarly, many serve as chemicals to
animals and insects as well, and they are volatile. Also, most monoterpenoids

5
Global Decline of Insects

act as some short-signal molecules, thus making them suitable as synonyms and
alarm pheromones. Care must be taken with the number of essential oils used
to destroy insects and their modes of action because of possible health hazards
to humans and other vertebrates. There is still a lack of understanding about
the monophenoid target sites and mode of action, and only a few studies have
investigated this [1, 18, 44, 48].

4.3.1 As insecticide

Although insects are not known well for the physiological effects of essential oils,
treating them with essential oils or their constituents causes symptoms that provide
us information about the mode of action as a neurotoxin. Linalool, a monoterpenoid,
has influenced ion transport and acetylcholine esterase release in insects [18].
Octopamine is a neurotransmitter, neurohormone, and circulating neurohor-
mone—neuromodulator with many biological functions in insects [1]. Based on
pharmacological parameters, octopamine works by interacting with at least two
receptor groups, dubbed octopamine-1 and octopamine-2. As the octopamine
system is disrupted, the nervous system of insects is wholly destroyed. As a result,
the insect octopaminergic mechanism is a bio-rational priority for pest control
(Figure 1).
Since vertebrates do not have octopamine receptors, essential oils have a solid
mammalian selectivity as insecticides. The octopaminergic mechanism of insects is
influenced by various important oil compounds [48].
In the cloned cells of Drosophila melanogaster and Periplaneta americana, Enan
[46] found that eugenol, as octopamine, has increased intracellular levels of
calcium and is mediated by octopamine receptors. In addition, eugenol toxicity
is found to be increased in mutant D. melanogaster with no octopamine synthesis,
indicating that the octopaminergic system mediates the toxicity. The insecticidal
effects of eugenol are thought to be due to these cellular changes caused by the
compound [48]. In Helicoverpa armigera, abdominal epidermal tissue [49] came
to the same conclusion, suggesting that essential oil constituents can compete for
octopaminergic receptor activation.

Figure 1.
Essential oils’ toxic activity can be mediated by neurotransmitters at target sites in insects.

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Botanical Insecticides and Their Potential as Anti-Insect/Pests: Are They Successful…
DOI: http://dx.doi.org/10.5772/intechopen.100418

4.3.2 As repellent

It is not clear if repellents function the same way in various arthropods likewise
other published material disscussed. Ticks, for example, can detect repellents pres-
ent on their tarsi of prolegs (Haller’s Organ), whereas insects can detect repellents
through their antennae. Furthermore, sensitivity to the same repellent varies only in
degree among different classes, orders, and families; no fundamental differences in
response type are observed [18, 48]. However, in mosquitoes, the degree of differen-
tial sensitivity remained constant over several generations, suggesting that resistance
is based on heritable traits. Temperature and moisture are sensitive to mosquito
antennae hairs. The repellent molecules attach to the olfactory receptors of female
mosquitos, preventing them from smelling. Cockroach repellent receptors are poorly
understood. Death and aversion to death (repellence) have been linked to oleic acid
and linoleic acid in cockroaches. A proposal has been made for the term necromone
to characterize the compound responsible for this form of behavior [18, 48].

4.3.3 As fumigant

The essential oils with bioactivity as insecticides or repellents are well known for
example, rosemary, thyme, clove, lemongrass, mint, oregano oils, and cinnamon.
The bioactivity of certain plants, including thyme, oregano, basil, rosemary, and
mint, varies widely because the composition differences in chemical compositions
are reliable [48].
Understanding essential oils’ mode of action is critical for insect control because
it can lead to better formulations, distribution methods, and resistance management.
Many essential oils and their isolated chemicals from plants have fumigant properties.
Artemisia annua essential oil, Curcuma longa, Anethum Sowa, Lippia alba essential
oil, and separates such as d-limonene, carvones, and 1,8-cineole have all been used as
fumigants [45–47, 50]. These results suggest that the oils acted primarily in the vapor
process through the respiratory system, but the exact mode of action is unknown.
There are no natural fumigants that have been proven to work against pests that
attack crops, dry foods, and other agricultural products. Phosphine, methyl bromide,
and DDVP are the most used fumigants (2,2-dichlorovinyl dimethyl phosphate).
Phosphine is responsible for an enormous percentage of Indian suicides, as a precur-
sor for ozone depletion is a concern. In contrast, Dichlorvos is an organophosphate
widely used as an insecticide to control household pests, in public health, and
protecting stored products from insects (used as the precursor for ozone-depleting
treatments) poses a theoretical risk of cancer [48]. All attempts should be made to
develop an alternative that can take toxic fumigation while being user-friendly and
cost-effective. Many aromatic plants produce highly toxic or unpleasant chemicals
but serve as some valuable deterrents for various insects. These three attributes (high
molecular weight, high boiling point, and low vapor pressure of essential oils) allow
large-forgery fumigation to be performed by the high fumigation standards of safety
and efficiency, making them better suited for large-scale fumigation than most other
substances [18]. Despite essential oils having the potential for low-scale applications
and single or multiple component contaminants in food, there is a lack of scientific
data on food-grade applications and fusible essential oils [48].

4.3.4 Synergistic action of essential oils

The synergistic rationale for combining products assumes that the combined
product’s phase carries much weightage than the count of its known and unknown
chemical components that result in a complex effect of multiple modes of action.

7
Global Decline of Insects

Among the essential oils and their components and other ingredients used in
formulating a product, both positive and negative types of synergism may occur.
This is important to keep in mind because essential oils will work together to create
a synergy that may negatively affect the base product. The salinity and pH of the
base product can affect the actions of the essential oils.
Low pH and a saline environment (5% NaCl) have been shown in several studies
to increase the activity of the entire product. Synergistic activity has been demon-
strated for essential oil combinations such as thyme, anise, and saffron [1, 18, 48, 51].
Mixed monoterpene mixtures had a synergistic impact on mortality [5, 52]. For use
against foliar-feeding pests, a monoterpene blend was produced containing 0.9%
active ingredient.
Monoterpenoids bind to the octopaminergic receptor, which is only found
in insects. A proprietary blend of essential oils called Hexa Hydrox (EcoPCO
EcoSMART Technologies, Franklin, Tennessee) with different plant essential oils
was developed to significantly increase the potency of these oils in pest control. This
proprietary technology, which combines oils with a normal molecular structure to
target octopaminergic sites, demonstrates rapid insecticidal action (a six-membered
carbon ring with an oxygenated functional group attached). The US Food and Drug
Administration has listed them as GRAS (Generally Recognized as Safe) and has
licensed them for use in food and beverages [18, 48].

5. Safety

The toxicity of pesticides and the exposure of applicators or users influence the
risks associated with their use. Pesticides are tested during the registration process
in some cases. The assessments should include the acute toxicity for formulating
products to determine the effective preventive measures by the recommendations
issued by the FAO, UN, and the WHO. To assess the risk of health-associated to
short-term exposure, the acute toxicity and metabolites or degradations of the
active substances are assessed. Reproductive and developmental toxicity, carci-
nogenicity, and mutagenicity should be evaluated in determining risks related to
long-term exposure, sub-chronic, and chronic effects.
Furthermore, farmworker and pesticide applicator exposure and residue in crop
production should be assessed to determine whether the risks associated with pesticides
used are tolerable [5]. There have been no or only partial safety tests of homemade
botanical insecticides except for neem products. Homemade botanical insecticides
vary from industrial pesticides. The former contains an active ingredient cocktail with
unknown concentrations and a long list of variable concentrations of compounds
with novel properties. Furthermore, although plant material concentrations may be
poor, processing exposure has not been assessed and may be very high. As a result,
even though safety tests are available, it is difficult to extrapolate the risks found in
laboratory trials to real-world scenarios. Many countries’ plant protection laws prohibit
homemade preparations, even though this is often the case in agriculture. As a result,
some countries, at least for non-commercial farming, use such preparations [48].

6. Safety to the environment

In similarity with risks associated with human health, adverse pesticide uses
depend on their toxicity and exposure to non-target organisms—such as pests,
pollinators, birds, fish, and mammals. These risks should be evaluated to determine
if they are accepted as a part of the registration process [5, 53]. For the registration

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DOI: http://dx.doi.org/10.5772/intechopen.100418

of pesticides, environmental fatality data usually are also required. The risk of
bioaccumulation with homemade botanical insecticides is generally less because
they contain natural materials known to degrade faster than many synthetic
compounds [48].
Despite the possibility that certain homemade botanical insecticides have lower
toxicity to non-target organisms than broad-spectrum insecticides, these find-
ings illustrate the importance of the further study. The application of botanical
products should consider their possible negative effects on non-target organisms
if it is appropriate and handled with care. Similarly, botanical products, including
pesticides, should not be used alone to combat pests. Botanical products can be
used in an integrated pest management system (IPM). It may be used with other
non-pesticidal tools such as plant diversification, habitat protection, and other
non-pesticidal tools.

7. Conclusions

The use of botanical insecticides should not be ignored in low-income countries.

In addition to synthetic pesticides, botanical insecticides may be less active. They
are still an option, especially in combination with the IPM approach, in areas where
farmers either have no access to commercial pesticides or have limited affordability
of these synthetic pesticides. As a result, food waste in some of the most depleted
areas of the world has been reduced. It is important to remember and convey the
risks associated with using natural insecticides (i.e., alterable effectiveness and
possible health and environmental consequences).
Botanicals: natural insecticides derived from plant sources are used as the best
alternate for conventional pesticides to protect our crops, avoiding adverse effects
of synthetic insecticides. Botanical insecticides have a wide range of chemicals and
their modes of action; they have a variety of the impact on insects. Thus, botanical
insecticides are preferred over synthetic insecticides, and organic crop producers in
developed countries accept these botanical insecticides. As a result, we advocated
for the use of botanical insecticides, which has been encouraged, and research is
underway to identify new botanical insecticide sources.

Acknowledgements

The author is grateful to Research Scientist Dr. Chamila Darshanee (Sri Lanka)
for reviewing this chapter early. The authors would like to thank the Science and
Technology Development (STDF), Egypt entitled: “Eco-friendly Pesticides against
Pests of Medical, Veterinary, and Agricultural Importance” ID: 41608.

Conflict of interest

The authors declare no conflict of interest.

Notes/thanks/other declarations

Authors take sole responsibility of no submission to any other source, journal, or

publisher of the chapter submitted to IntechOpen.

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Global Decline of Insects

Author details

Toheed Iqbal1*, Nazeer Ahmed2, Kiran Shahjeer3, Saeed Ahmed4,

Khalid Awadh Al-Mutairi5, Hanem Fathy Khater6 and Reham Fathey Ali7

1 Department of Entomology, The University of Agriculture, Peshawar,

Khyber Pakhtunkhwa, Pakistan

2 Department of Agriculture, University of Swabi, Swabi, Khyber Pakhtunkhwa,

Pakistan

3 Department of Zoology, Abdulwali Khan University, Mardan,

Khyber Pakhtunkhwa, Pakistan

4 Agricultural Research Center, Londrina State University, Londrina, Brazil

5 Faculty of Science, Department of Biology, University of Tabuk, Tabuk,

Saudi Arabia

6 Faculty of Veterinary Medicine, Department of Parasitology, Benha University,

Moshtohor, Toukh, Egypt

7 Faculty of Agriculture, Department of Agricultural Zoology and Nematology,

Cairo University, Giza, Egypt

*Address all correspondence to: toheed.iqbal@aup.edu.pk

© 2021 The Author(s). Licensee IntechOpen. This chapter is distributed under the terms
of the Creative Commons Attribution License (http://creativecommons.org/licenses/
by/3.0), which permits unrestricted use, distribution, and reproduction in any medium,
provided the original work is properly cited.

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DOI: http://dx.doi.org/10.5772/intechopen.100418

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