CHAPTER II

REVIEW OF RELATED LITERATURE

This study aims to evaluate the effectiveness of rat killer derived from tubli roots as a

natural pest control method. Tubli has been recognized for its bioactive compounds, which
may help in managing rodent populations. By reviewing existing literature, this research
seeks to identify the mechanisms behind its efficacy and its potential advantages over
conventional rodenticides. Ultimately, this study highlights the promise of tubli root extracts
as a sustainable alternative in pest management.
According to (World Health Organization (WHO), 2019), For centuries rodents have
been a threat to public health, synonymous as they are with poverty, underdevelopment, and
epidemics. Rats are also notorious carriers of various diseases, such as leptospirosis,
hantavirus, and salmonella, posing significant public health threats. Their ability to
reproduce quickly means that rat infestations can escalate rapidly, making early detection
and intervention crucial. Based on our own reference, infestations of rats present significant
challenges in agriculture and urban environments, impacting food security and public health.
These curiosities for a better mobility that guides us to development, may open the door to
endless risk-free and rat-free environmental glee.
Evaluation of the rodenticidal effects of some plant extracts under laboratory and field
conditions
The rodenticidal effects of seven crude plant extracts—calendula, sumac, Damsissa,
lemongrass, wormwood, Duranta, and camphor—were investigated using ethanol, hexane,
and petroleum ether under both laboratory and field conditions in Menoufia Governorate
(Abou-Hashem, 2012). The results indicated that only three extracts, specifically those
extracted with ethanol, showed potential as rodenticides against the albino rat, Rattus

norvegicus. These effective extracts were calendula, sumac, and camphor, with calendula
exhibiting the highest toxicity compared to the other two (Abou-Hashem, 2012).

Significant adverse effects on internal organs were observed in rats treated with calendula,

camphor, and sumac extracts; these included notable weight loss, increased organ weights
(liver, kidney, heart, brain, spleen, and lungs), as well as symptoms like cloudy liver

appearance, congestion, and bleeding in the liver, kidneys, and heart, along with darkening
and bleeding in the spleen and brain (Abou-Hashem, 2012).
 In field studies, the ethanolic extract of calendula resulted in the highest population

reduction of Norway rats, R. norvegicus, at 67.7%. Phytochemical analysis of the three

effective extracts revealed the presence of glycosides, flavonoids, saponins, tannins,
triterpenes, and sterols, which may contribute to the observed rodenticidal effects (Abou-
Hashem, 2012). Thus, both calendula and sumac ethanolic extracts show promise as

rodenticides in both laboratory and field settings.

Conventional insecticides are inherently toxic, posing health risks to farm workers,
consumers, and the environment (Khater, 2012). This has led to a renewed interest in
botanical insecticides, which are both cost-effective and environmentally friendly. Botanical
products specifically target pests and their close relatives, are effective in small doses,
decompose rapidly, and leave no harmful residues, ensuring safer food and living conditions.

When used in integrated pest management, they can significantly reduce reliance on
conventional pesticides, potentially decreasing overall usage and delaying resistance in pest
populations. While the popularity of rotenone and nicotine is declining, pyrethrum and neem
are well-established in the market, and new plant essential oil-based pesticides are emerging.
These plant-derived insecticides not only eliminate pests but also repel them, helping to
prevent significant economic losses during crop production and reducing disease
transmission. This review discusses the effectiveness, applications, safety, commercialization,
and future trends of both traditional and newer botanical insecticides. They are valuable
alternatives to synthetic chemicals, especially in organic farming in developed countries, and
have great potential in developing nations as eco-friendly pest control options.

Safe alternatives to synthetic pesticides are urgently needed to protect human and
environmental health (Acheuk et al., 2022). Many synthetic pesticides currently in use are not
permitted in organic farming, and the development of resistance among various pests to
traditional pesticides highlights the pressing need for effective and safe products with
innovative modes of action. Botanical pesticides are believed to be effective against a range of
crop pests, are easily biodegradable, and are available in large quantities at reasonable prices.
Many may function through various, yet still unexplored, mechanisms. It is therefore
surprising that only a limited number of plant species have been developed for commercial
biopesticide use.
This article reviews the current status of botanical pesticides, particularly in Europe and

Mediterranean regions, exploring their active ingredients and mechanisms of action. It also
addresses some of the challenges and constraints in developing new biopesticides.
Conventional insecticides are inherently toxic, posing risks to the health of farm
operators, consumers, and the environment (Joseph & Sujatha, 2012). Concerns about
human health have renewed interest in botanical insecticides, which are cost-effective and
have fewer ecological impacts. Botanicals offer advantages over broad-spectrum
conventional pesticides by targeting only specific pests and their close relatives, being

effective in small doses, decomposing rapidly, and providing residue-free food and safer
living conditions. When integrated into pest management strategies, botanical pesticides can
significantly reduce reliance on conventional pesticides or be used in rotation or combination
with other insecticides, potentially decreasing overall usage and delaying resistance
development in pest populations.

Effectiveness and Economic Benefits of Tubli (Derris Elliptica) Plant Extract

According to (Yoon, A. S., 2019), farmers who are unable to afford costly commercial
pesticides often turn to botanical alternatives, such as crude extracts from the Tubli plant.
Botanical pesticides offer an eco-friendly solution that supports sustainable agriculture by
avoiding environmental harm. One of the most promising botanical pesticides is the Tubli
plant (Derris species), known for its active ingredient, rotenone, which effectively controls a
variety of pests. Rotenone has long been recognized for its potent pesticidal properties,

particularly its ability to paralyze cold-blooded animals by disrupting respiratory enzyme

function in insects. Several studies have evaluated the effectiveness of Tubli plant extracts as

organic insecticides. Its use in agriculture has shown positive impacts on productivity and
profitability, with some research suggesting that farmers who adopt Tubli plant-based bio-

pesticides experience an increase in crop yield and income. Furthermore, Tubli plant extracts
break down quickly in the environment, adding to their appeal as a sustainable pest control

solution (Zuibairi et al., 2016). As stated by (Biñas Jr. E. E., 2021), In the ongoing search for
natural alternatives to synthetic pesticides, bio-pesticides derived from microorganisms or

plants are becoming increasingly important. They provide an essential tool for addressing the
adverse effects of synthetic pesticide overuse and the rising resistance of insect populations to
chemical insecticides.
Among these bio-pesticides, the Tubli plant has emerged as a leading option due to its potent

bioactive.

Environmental Friendly Bio-Pesticide Rotenone extracted from Derris: A review on the

Extraction Method, Toxicity and Field Effectiveness

According to (Zubairi, S. I., Othman, Z. S., Sarmidi, M. R., & Aziz, R. A., 2016)Bio-
pesticides are natural occurring substances that control pest and derived either from plants or

microorganism. It play a vital role in coping with adverse effect arise due to massive used of
synthetic pesticides and development of insecticide resistance of some insect groups in crop
productions. Thus, Derris species from Leguminosae (Fabacea) family is a climbing plant of
Southeast Asia that was well known for its environmental friendly bioactive compound is
used as one of the effective insecticides. Rotenone was one of the bioactive constituents
extracted from Derris plant that was used as agricultural pest control due to its strong
paralysis action (knock-down effect) on cold blooded animals. Moreover, it has a lethal
mechanism in inhibiting respiratory enzyme of insects and easily degrades which makes it
environmental friendly. Extraction of rotenone commonly uses organic solvents as extractant
either in non-conventional extraction methods or conventional method. Application of green
solvents, ionic liquids as extractant is new approach for rotenone extraction. Indeed
environmental friendly bio-pesticides have not been studied thoroughly and several approach
and further study are required to produce high quality and environmental friendly bio-

pesticides. In addition, biological assay such as “Brine Shrimp (Artemia salina)

Lethality†study is also vital in order to determine a preliminary safe exposure limit of

extracted rotenone prior to be used as pesticides. For that reason, a review of the
environmental friendly bio-pesticide rotenone extracted from Derris sp. is presented

herewith. This article reviews the up scaling extraction methods, toxicity and its effectiveness
against several moth species such as Spodoptera litura and Plutella xylostella.

Pharmacognostic Specification and Rotenone Content in Derris elliptica Stems

Derris elliptica (Wall.) Benth. (Leguminosae) is the tropical plant which has been used as
natural poison as well as veterinary medicine due to its best-known phytochemical
compound, rotenone to kill invertebrates and fish. However, there is no report on
pharmacognostic specification and quantification of rotenone content from D. elliptica
stems.
 However, there is no report on According to (Phairoh, K., Hongsing, P., Palanuvej, C.,

& Ruangrungsi, N., 2021) This present study aimed to conduct the pharmacognostic
parameters as well as to conduct the validated methods to quantify rotenone content in D.
elliptica stems following WHO guideline. Methods: Dried D. elliptica stems from 15 different
areas in Thailand were examined for pharmacognostic specification. Their rotenone contents

were quantitatively analyzed by TLC densitometry using winCATS software as well as TLC-
image analysis using ImageJ free software. Results: Macroscopic and microscopic
characteristics, TLC fingerprint and physicochemical parameters were reported in this study.
The water content, loss on drying, total ash content and acid in soluble ash content were
determined to be 8.81±1.30, 5.77 ±0.92, 7.35±0.63, 1.221±0.20%, respectively. The ethanol,
and water-soluble extractive values were found to be 4.07±1.23 and 11.31±1.68%,
respectively. Additionally, the validation method for quantification of rotenone content was
developed. The contents of rotenone in D. elliptica stem ethanolic extract evaluated by TLC-
densitometry and TLC-image analysis were found to be 0.2870±0.1242 and 0.2844±0.1209%
by dried weight, respectively. The result between these two analytical methods were shown no

significant difference. Conclusion: The validated methods were able to effectively quantify
rotenone content in D. elliptica stems from various locations in Thailand which could be
used for the specification of this raw material with reference to its chemical marker. Thus,
this study provides the necessary and adequate information for authentication and
standardization of D. elliptica stems.

Development and evaluation of granule and emulsifiable concentrate formulations containing

Derris elliptica extract for crop pest control

Wiwattanapatapee et al. (2009) conducted research on the development of stable

formulations of Derris elliptica Benth. extracts, known for their rotenone content, which has
been traditionally used as a natural insecticide. Due to the lengthy preparation and limited
shelf life of the extract, the study aimed to create more stable water-dispersible granules and
emulsifiable concentrate liquids with 5% w/w rotenone. The researchers found that the
degradation of rotenone in the extract and the formulations followed first-order kinetics. At
30°C, the predicted half-life and shelf life of rotenone in Derris extract were 520 and 79 days,
respectively.
The granule formulation extended rotenone stability by 8 times (t90% = 633 days), while the

emulsifiable concentrate prolonged it by 1.4 times (t90% = 110 days). After application to
plants, both formulations remained effective for up to 3 days. Initial testing showed that the
emulsifiable concentrate was more successful in controlling Spodoptera litura (Fabricius)
compared to the water-dispersible granules.

Scope of "Pest" and Use of Plants in Pest Control

In this paper, the term "pest" covers a wide range of organisms, including household
insects, external parasites of humans, irritating arthropods affecting domestic animals,
wound flies, maggots, crop and orchard pests, and those that damage stored food and
materials. It also includes other dangerous creatures such as wolves, scorpions, snakes, and
crocodilians, which pose threats to herders and fishermen. Scabies and mange, caused by
parasitic arthropods, are excluded, as plant use has been aimed at alleviating symptoms
rather than repelling or killing mites. Some plants like Derris, Tephrosia, Chrysanthemum,
and Nicotiana contain effective insecticidal compounds (e.g., rotenone, pyrethrum, nicotine)
that serve as the foundation for modern pesticides. Although the research on these plants is
extensive, only their historical uses in their native regions are covered here. The appendix lists
plant species used in pest control by various societies, detailing their family, geographic
region, plant part used, method of application, targeted pests, isolated toxic compounds, and
the reference noting their use. In some cases, vague descriptions simply state the plant was
used as an "insecticide," and for some, the toxic compound has yet to be identified, noted as

"toxic principles." The plant names follow those in Willis (85), while the plant families are
listed according to Hutchinson (35). (Secoy, D. M. & Smith, A. E., 1983)

Integrating Sustainable Agriculture and Ornithology: Enhancing Food Production through

Ecosystem Services
According to (Malik, V. et al., 2023), Rodent infestations are among the most challenging
pest problems, posing health risks and damaging homes, farms, and transportation-related
businesses. While rodenticides are commonly used to control rodent populations, many are
harmful to humans. As a safer alternative, natural extracts may be more effective in repelling
rats. This study tested various natural extracts, such as wintergreen oil, chilli, peppermint oil,
bergamot oil, and geranium oil, either alone or in combination, to assess their ability to deter
rats in a behavioral model.
 Observing the rats' reactions in experimental setups showed that these natural extracts

effectively repelled them. Field tests also yielded positive results, confirming their efficiency in
real-world settings. In addition to being effective rodent repellents, natural extracts offer
benefits like pollution control, environmental protection, and addressing ethical concerns.
Rodent infestations are a significant pest issue, not only impacting health but also causing

extensive damage to agricultural fields, homes, and businesses, including the transportation
sector. Various methods, including environmental, cultural, mechanical, and chemical
approaches, as well as their combinations, are used to manage rodent infestations. Biological
control methods, such as using reproduction inhibitors, predators, or diseases, may also be
explored for rodent control. However, many chemicals used to control rodents are harmful
to mammals, particularly humans, and increase the overall cost of pest management. Due to
the potential toxicity of these chemical compounds, natural alternatives such as plant extracts
should be considered. Using natural plant extracts as rodent repellents may offer a safer and
more cost-effective solution. Studies have tested various natural extracts on different rat
species in behavioral experiments. These natural products are readily available,

environmentally friendly, and pose no risk to mammals. The rodenticidal effects of plant
extracts, produced through various chemical compounds, have shown promising results
under different conditions, and these findings could be applied in areas affected by rodents.
Thus, natural extracts could effectively deter rodents, although further research is needed to
confirm their practical application. (Singh, J. & Mirza, A., 2020)

Derris Elliptica Root Extract: A Natural Alternative for Mosquito Repellent

According to (Guerra, M. L. D. et al.,2014),The root extract was compared to a

commercial mosquito repellent as a positive control. Conducted in Echavez extension, Cebu
City, the research involved using Derris elliptica, white mice, and adult female mosquitoes.
The white mice served as test subjects, with random assignment to groups, each containing
four mice. Adult mosquitoes were collected from rainwater and housed in sixteen breeding
jars, each containing 160 mosquitoes.
The root extracts of Derris elliptica were evaluated for their mosquito-repellent properties at
three concentrations: 100% (pure extract), 75%, and 50%, all diluted with distilled water.
Repellency was tested by measuring the duration of protection
(in minutes) offered by each concentration and the commercial repellent, applied to the

shaved abdomen of the mice against a population of starved adult female mosquitoes. The
results indicated that the 100% concentration provided a mean repellent time of 75.23
minutes, followed by 75% with 45.14 minutes, and 50% with 9.52 minutes. The commercial
repellent exhibited the longest mean repellent time at 108.45 minutes. Statistical analysis

revealed significant differences in repellent times among the concentrations, particularly

between the 50% concentration compared to the 75% and 100% concentrations.
The findings suggest that the 100% concentration of Derris elliptica root extract is the
most effective in repelling mosquitoes, closely approaching the efficacy of the positive
control. This research highlights the potential of using environmentally friendly natural
ingredients as an alternative personal protection measure against the rising prevalence of
mosquito-borne diseases.

According to (Permatasari, A., & Sumanto, D., 2019), Derris elliptica (Wall.) Benth, a
wild plant often found as a weed in agricultural fields, has traditionally been used for
poisoning fish and controlling plant pests. Various studies have demonstrated the
effectiveness of Derris elliptica root extract in controlling laboratory strains of Aedes aegypti
larvae. This study aimed to assess the efficacy of Derris elliptica root extract against
temephos-resistant Aedes aegypti larvae from dengue-endemic regions. The experimental
design was a post-test-only control group with five concentrations of methanolic Derris
elliptica root extract: 0.09%, 0.13%, 0.17%, 0.21%, and 0.25%. Each concentration group was

exposed to 25 F1 larvae of temephos-resistant wild-caught Aedes aegypti, along with two

control groups treated with distilled water. Resistance to temephos in Aedes aegypti larvae

was confirmed through bioassay using a 0.02 ppm temephos compound. Larval mortality
rates and lethal concentrations (LC50 and LC90) were determined after 24 hours of

exposure. The average mortality rates for the different concentrations were 32.8%, 49.6%,
72.0%, 95.2%, and 100%, with LC50 and LC90 calculated at 1,600 and 2,040 ppm,

respectively. These results suggest that methanolic Derris elliptica root extract has significant
larvicidal potential against temephos-resistant Aedes aegypti larvae. Further research is
needed to identify the secondary metabolites responsible for this activity.
Evaluating the Antifeedant Efficacy of Tuba Root Extract (Derris elliptica L.) on Crocidolomia
binotalis Caterpillars in Mustard Plants

According to (Komansilan, A. et al., 2019), the study investigated the use of bioactive

extract from tuba root (Derris elliptica L.) as a natural insecticide against Crocidolomia
binotalis caterpillars on mustard plants (Brassica juncea L.). Results indicated significant
variations in antifeedant activity at different concentrations. The research comprised several
stages: extraction of the tuba root, phytochemical analysis, preparation for caterpillar testing,

and evaluation of antifeedant efficacy. The concentrations tested were 50 ppm, 100 ppm, 500
ppm, and 1000 ppm, with Feeding Reduction (FR) as the primary observed parameter. The
findings demonstrated that the most effective antifeedant activity against Crocidolomia
binotalis occurred at 500 ppm and 1000 ppm, achieving Feeding Reductions of 15.35% and
32.33%, respectively, thereby effectively inhibiting the caterpillars' feeding behavior.

Eco-Friendly Pest Management: Pseudomonas Potential

As stated by Kupferschmied, P., Maurhofer, M., & Keel, C., 2013), Agricultural insect
pests, especially those feeding on plant roots, pose significant challenges. Synthetic pesticides
harm the environment, public health, and foster resistance. Entomopathogenic bacteria like
Bacillus thuringiensis offer a promising alternative, efficiently killing insects without harming
mammals. However, their limited persistence and reliance on nematode vectors are
limitations. Interestingly, certain Pseudomonas bacteria in plant roots exhibit insecticidal
properties, making them potential bioinsecticides against root-feeding insects. These
beneficial bacteria also promote plant growth, suppress pathogens, and induce plant
defenses. This review explores the molecular basis of Pseudomonas' insecticidal activity and
its potential for novel, root-based insect control strategies in integrated pest management.
Chronic infections by mucoid Pseudomonas aeruginosa are a major cause of illness and
death in cystic fibrosis (CF). Studies suggest opsonizing antibodies against the bacteria's
mucoid exopolysaccharide (MEP) can provide protection, while non-opsonizing antibodies
do not. In animal models, immunization with MEP that triggered opsonizing antibodies
reduced infection, whereas non-opsonizing antibodies had no effect. These findings indicate

that MEP-specific opsonizing antibodies help protect against chronic P. aeruginosa

infection in CF (Pier, G. B., Small, G. J., & Warren, H. B., 1990).
Effectiveness of Tuba Root and Gadung Tuber Extracts on Bagworms

A Review According to (Santi, I. S. et al., 2023), This study aims to evaluate the
effectiveness of tuba root and gadung tuber extracts in controlling bagworms in oil palm
plantations. A two-factor completely randomized design was used, with the first factor being
the type of insecticide (tuba root and gadung tuber) and the second factor being the

concentration levels (0%, 2.5%, 5%, 10%, and 15%). Treatment differences were analyzed
using Duncan's multiple range test at a 5% significance level. The results demonstrated that
both tuba root and gadung tuber extracts were effective in controlling bagworm pests, with
10% concentration proving to be particularly effective. The study concludes that these
extracts can be utilized to manage bagworms in oil palm plantations and may contribute to
the development of botanical insecticides for other crop pests.

The goal of this study is to explore effective methods for extracting stable and efficient
derris extract from Tubli roots. Specifically, the study evaluates traditional maceration
techniques alongside pressurized liquid extraction (PLE) to determine the most effective
process for obtaining high-quality rotenone extract. By comparing these methods, the study
aims to support the development of more accessible and sustainable pest control options for
farmers, further enhancing agricultural sustainability.
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